7

Time-Varying Fields and Maxwell's

Equations

7-1. Stationary rectangular loop. The voltage induced across the terminals of the single-turn rectan­
gular loop of area A with its plane perpendicular to a uniform time-varying magnetic flux density
B(t) can be found using Faraday’s law as

dW d f„ ,, , dB(t) f , AdB(t)
r m ~ ~ ~ d i~ ~ J tJ s m ' ds~ d T Js d s ~ ~dT

(a) For B(t) = Boteat, the induced voltage is

Ti„d = - A B 0[e~at - ate~at] = B 0Ae~at[at - 1]

(b) Similarly, for B(t) = Boe~at sin(wi), we have

Tjnd = —BoA[—ae~at sin(atf) + e~atu>cos(wt)]

=BoAe~at[a sin(u;£) —u>cos(wt)]

7-2. Stationary circular loop. The induced voltage across the terminals of the AT-tum circular loop
of radius a with its plane perpendicular to a uniform time-varying magnetic field is given by
Faraday’s law as

Tind = - N j t Js B(t) • ds = j s ds = - AT(7ra2) ^

Substituting N = 20 turns, a = 7.5 cm, and B (t) = 10-3 cos(1207t£) T yields

T ind ~0.133sin(1207ri) V

The induced current through the R = 10£2 resistor can be found as

V;
I(t) = ——- ~ 13.3 sin(1207rt) mA
R

163
 164 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

(a) At t = 0, the induced current is I = 0.

(b) At t = 10 ms, the induced current is I ~ —7.83 mA. (Note that at t = 10 ms, since

dBz(t)
>0
dt
Based on Lenz’s law, the induced current I through the 10Q resistor must flow in the clockwise
direction.
(c) At t= 100 ms, the induced current is I = 0.
(d) At t = 1 s, the induced current is I = 0.
7-3. Two circular coils, (a) Using the result of Example 6-6, the magnetic flux density produced on
the axis of coil 1 with radius ai = 5 cm, current I\ = 100 cos(20007r£) A, and number of turns
N\ = 10, at a distance of z = 1 m away from its center can be calculated as

HoNiIiai2
£>\z =
2(aj2 + z2)3/2
(4tt x 10-7)(10)[100cos(20007rt)](0.05)2
~ 1.56 cos(20007r£) jxT
2[(0.05)2 + 12]3/2

The voltage induced across the terminals of coil 2 (a2 = 5 cm and N 2 = 100) due to the time-
varying flux ¥12 produced by coil 1 linking coil 2 can be evaluated as

Vind2 = “ I T =
~ —(100)[tt(0.05)2][—(1.56 x 10_6)(20007r)sin(20007rt)]
-7 .7 2 x 10~3 sin(20007ri) V

Therefore, the amplitude of the induced voltage is ~7.72 mV.

(b) Repeating the same calculations for the same current I\ oscillating at 10 kHz [i.e., I\(i) =
100 cos(200007r£) A] results in an induced voltage Tmd2 of amplitude ~77.2 mV.
7-4. Two concentric coils, (a) From Example 7-4, we have

Bctr = = 22.5 x 10"5/ T

2a
Substituting N\ = 30, we find the radius of the larger coil as a ~ 0.754 m.
(b) From Example 7-4, since a ~ 75.4 cm > 1 cm=6, the total flux linking the smaller coil can
be approximated as

¥12 = N2fX° ^ 11 (nb2) = (75)(2.5 x 10_5/)[7r(10-2)2] ~ 5.89 x 10~7I

2a

(c) For I(t) = 10cos(1207ri) A, the induced voltage across the terminals of the smaller loop can
be found as

T ind = - ^ 1 2 . = -(5.89 x 10-7)[-(10)(1207r)sin(1207Ti)] V ~ 2.22sin(1207ri) mV

at
 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 165

Therefore, the current induced through the R = 10f2 is

7-5. Triangular loop and long wire. Let I = Io cos(27r/ot)> where /o = 60 Hz. Based on the result
of Example 6-3, the B-field due to the current in the long wire is B = noI/(2irr), where r is the
radial distance from the wire. By symmetry, we expect the magnetic fluxes linked by the two
halves of the triangular loop to be the same. Thus,

d+as/ 3/2 r a /2 +d / V 3 - y / V 3 Mo/ Qcos(2vr/0t)

'F a = 2 ¥ S2 = 2 / dxdy
Jd JO 2ny
HoI qcos(27r/ot) f d+a^ / 2 1^ / a + _d_
j dy
* Jd V \2 + V3
jj,0I0 cos(27r/ot) a d 2d + a\ / 3 a
7r 2 + 2d ‘2

Fig. 7.1. Figure for Problem 7-5.

The induced emf is then given by

Tind = = 2/o/io/o sin(27r/oO

so that the peak value of induced emf (which is also equal to the product of the measured 1 mA
loop current and 0.01Q loop resistance) is

a d \ , / 2d + aV ^ \ a
P^indlpeak —2/o/io/()
2 + ^/3 / \ 2d ” 2 J
= (1 mA)(0.0l£2) = 10|iV

from which we can find I q ~ 6.96 A.

 166 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

7-6. Toroidal coil around a long, straight wire. The total magnetic flux linking the N = 200-tum
rectangular toroid with radii a = 6 cm and 6 = 8 cm, and thickness t = 3 cm, and core material
with jjLr = 1000 due to the long, straight wire with I = 100cos(377£) A can be calculated as

^12 it) =N f B • ds = N f ° '5t f b . fa rd z

Js J-o.5t Ja 2ixr
HrHoN I(t)t b
=----- -------- In -
27T a
1000 x 4tt x 10- 7 x 200 x 100cos(377i)(0.03), 8
=--------------------------- ------------------------------ In -
27r 6
~3.45 x 10~2 cos(377t) Wb

Using Faraday’s law, the induced voltage across the terminals of the toroidal coil is found as

Vind = ——37^ — 13 sin(377£) V

at

7-7. Current transformer. The voltage induced in the toroidal coil due to the current flowing in
the long wire is determined by the mutual inductance between the wire and the circular toroidal
coil. To find the mutual inductance, we assume current I to flow in the wire and determine the
magnetic flux produced by this current and linked by the toroid. The magnetic field which is
produced by the long wire is given by

B = $>7T—
2-nr
/V
where we have taken the z axis to be along the wire, so that the <}>direction encircles the wire
along the toroid. Using B given above along with the definitions shown in Figure 7.2, the mutual
inductance between the circular toroid and the wire can be written as

r -A - N f n j - N f V1 Z
12 " I Js ~ I Js 2irr '^
r 2ir r RdRdO
2tt J o J o r m —R cos 0

where rm is the mean radius of the toroid. From integral tables^, we have
/»71
du 7T
Jo 1 ± k cos u
Jo V l - k2

Using this integral in the inductance expression obtained above, we find

Ll2 = ^ RdR = ^ oN - V 5 T S l =^ o N rm - ^ r 2m - a

^ H.B. Dwight, Tables of Integrals and Other Mathematical Data, 4th ed., p.218, Macmillan, 1961
 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 167

rm
rm-Rcos0

Fig. 7.2. Figure for problem 7-7. (a) Top view of the toroid. (b)Cross-sectional view.

where fxr is the relative permeability of the core material used.

The magnetic flux linkage through the circular toroidal coil with N = 300, r m = 3 cm, cross-
sectional radius a = 0.5 cm, and core material with /j,r = 200 due to the 1000-A, 60-Hz current
flowing through the high-voltage line is thus given by

Substituting values, we have

¥12 =(200)(4tt x 10_7)(300) (0.03) - ^/(0.03)2 - (0.005)2 I(t)

~3.16 x 10~5[1000cos(1207r£)] ~ 3.16 x 10-2cos(120tt0 Wb

From Faraday’s law, the rms value of the induced voltage across the terminals of the toroid can
be calculated as

____ _ — J£ ~ sin(1207rt) ~ 8.43 sin(1207ri) V

U " V2 dt ~ y/2

7-8. Sliding bar in a constant magnetic field, (a) Initially, the source drives a clockwise current
I = V / R through the loop. Due to the presence of the magnetic field, this current produces a
magnetic force acting on the bar given by

At time t = 0+, this force acts on the bar to accelerate it from rest. The acceleration can be found
from Newton’s law:
F,
m
As the bar starts to move in the y direction with an increasing velocity v, current is induced
in the loop via the motional emf v x Bo, which flows in the counterclockwise direction, thus
 168 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

opposing the current driven by the source, consistent with Lenz’s law. This process continues
until the velocity of the bar reaches a value Ufinai such that the induced emf is equal to the source
voltage making the net current in the loop zero. Beyond that point, there is no current, hence no
force, hence no acceleration, and the bar simply continues to move at velocity Vfinai. The terminal
velocity vq can be found by simply equating the motional emf to vq. We have

f Vo
°^emf = I (^finaiy X Bq) *dl = ^final^O^ = ^0 y ^final ~ D 7 — 13.3 m-S
Jbar

(b) If the source voltage is turned off while the bar is moving in the y direction with velocity
vo < ^finab the magnetic force due to the induced current (pointing in the —y direction) is then
the only remaining force acting on the bar and slows it down, with the available kinetic energy of
the bar (i.e., ^m vg) eventually being dissipated as I 2R loss in the resistor R , in the same manner
as the case described in Example 7-5.
(c) If the magnetic field Bo is turned off while the bar is moving at a velocity vo, all magnetic
forces cease to exist and, assuming there is no friction, the bar continues to move at a constant
velocity vo.
7-9. Oscillating bar in a time-varying magnetic field. We have

B(t) = zB qsin(cjot) and v(t) = %vo cos(u;ot)

The position of the bar is given by

frt vo
x(t) = xo+ vo cos(u>ot)dt = xo
vo xq + — sin(u;oi)
Jo CJo

The magnetic flux linked by the loop formed by the bar, the rails and the resistor is
Vo
x¥(t) = B z(t)A(t) = Bo sin(ut)l[xo + — sin(cJoO]
UJo

The induced current is given by

, _ r ind i ( cw \ i
-Mnd ~ - B oxq Iu o co s(u ;o t ) ---------------ujq 2 sin(a;o^) c o s(c jo t )
R R V dt J R UJo v ' -. s/ .. ^
sin(2a;ot)
Bol
cos(u>ot) [ xqujq - 2vq sin(wo*)]
ft

7-10. Moving square loop. For —1 < x < 0 and 5 < x < 10, the flux through the loop is constant
and the induced emf is zero. For other values of x , the emf is given by

cP¥ d
Tind = - - 7 7 = -^-XxlBo) = -\vb\lBo = -(1 0 cm-s_1)(5 cm)(l T) = - 5 mV
at at

The particular sign of the emf depends on how we assigned polarity to the terminals, which are
not shown. The important point to note is that the emf induced when the loop enters the region
 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 169

Fig. 7.3. Figure for Problem 7-10.

has the opposite sign to that induced when it leaves the region. A sketch of Tjnd is shown as a
function of x.
7-11. Rectangular loop and wire. Since the B-field produced by the wire is into the paper, its is
convenient to choose the area element (for the loop) to also be into the paper, in which case the
associated (via the right hand rule) dl element is outward at the terminal of the loop farther away
from the wire. Based on the discussion on pages 568 to 570 of the text in connection with Figure
7.4 of the text the general rule here is that, in order for [7.1] to be valid, Yind must be defined to
be positive on the terminal at which the dl element, the polarity of which is associated with that
of ds via the right hand rule, points outward.
With the loop moving to the right with a velocity vq , the distance between the left edge of the
loop and the long wire varies as r(t) = vqt + r\, where r\ is the initial distance between the loop
and the wire. The flux linked by the loop is given by

, = HOlb r ot+r'+a dr = HOlb A [ i

¥ :
27r Jvot+n r \ v0t-

The induced voltage is then given by

_ d?¥ _ Holb / vot + ri -v0a HoIabvo

°^ind t>0
dt 2ir \uoi + n + a (v0t + r\)2 2n(vo t + r\)(vot + r\ + a)

7-12. Rotating wire in a constant magnetic field. Total flux through the loop can be expressed as

'F = -®0 ^4-total = -Bo^semi-circ + const

where ^4Semi-circ is the projection of the area of the semi-circular ring onto the plane of the paper
and .Aconst is the rest of the area other than the rotating part; it is clear that the flux linked by
-Aconst does not contribute to the induced voltage since it does not change with time. When the
semicircular wire rotates at an angular frequency u>, and assuming that it is at the position shown
at t = 0, the projection of its area varies as
 170 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

Thus we have

sinwt

and the induced current is

Vind BqTX02U} .

-13. Rotating rectangular loop in a constant magnetic field. We can simply use the expression for
induced voltage which is derived in Example 7-6, namely

T in d = baujoBo sin(u>oi)

where uq = (27r)(1500 rpm)/(60 s), Bq = 50 mT, a = 5 cm, and b = 10 cm, yielding

Tind —39.3 sin(507rt) mV

-14. Rotating rectangular loop in a nonuniform magnetic field. Since B is nonuniform, it is

convenient to first express it in rectangular coordinates. With reference Section A.3.1 and Example
A-l of Appendix A, we can express the vector B = r3 cos <f>in rectangular coordinates by
determining its x and y components. We have

B x = B • £ = 3cos<p(t • x) = 3 cos2 (j>

By = B • f = 3 cos 4>(t ■f) = 3 cos 4>sin <j>

We now note that

so that we have
_ A 3x 2 ^ 3xy
B = x ---- 2 + y -y---- 2
x~ + yz x/ + yl
As the loop rotates around the 2 axis, the orientation of its area varies in the following manner

ds = dz[Hdy sin(wt) + ydx cos(wi)]

Note that at t = 0, ds = dxdzf, meaning that the loop is in the x z plane as shown in Figure 7.31
of the text.

Fig. 7.4. Figure for Problem 7-14.

 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 171

The magnetic flux linked by the loop is then given as

3x 2 3xij
¥(*) = f B • ds = [ # —=---- + f —=-------r I • [dxx sin(ujt) + d y f cos(cot)]dz
Js Js x l + yl x l + yL
f f 3x2 sin(uit) f f 3xy cos(wi)
= / / — ~----x—dxdz+ / / ---- r---- -— dydz
J - O A J - 0.05 x2 + y2 J - O . i J - 0.05 X2 + y 2

_ /-0 05 0.6:r2 sin(wi) , Z*0 05 0 .6xy cos(wi)

dy
7-0.05 x 2 + y 2 X + J_ o.o5 + y,2

We now note that for all points on the plane loop, the coordinates x and y are related by y =
x tan(o>£), as is apparent from the right hand panel of Figure 7.4. Thus, we can write the above
integrals as

f 0.6x sin(u)t) r U5 (0.6)[ycot(wt)]ycosM ) ,

w ~ J - 0.05 X2 + ix tan(u>t)]2 aX + J_0,05 [y cot(u,i)]2 + y 2 ay
_ T 0.6 sin(wi) ' f 005 [”0.6 cot(wt) cos(u>t)~ f 005
~ [ l +tan2M )J 7_o.o5 X+ [ 1 + cot2(u>t) J 7-0.05 V
- - 0.05 - - 0.05
= 0.6 sin(u;£) cos 2/(cdt) X + y
. . -0.05 . _ -0.05
= [(0.6)(0.1 +0.1)] sinM )cos2M )
= 0.12 sin(wi) cos2(uit) = 0.12[sin(u;Q —sin3(u^)] Wb

The voltage induced across the terminals of the loop is given by

d*¥
Tind = — r~ = ~ 10.12cos(u;i) + (3)(0.12)sin2(a;t)cos(wi) V
dt

7-15. Extracting power from a power line. The constraint due to the length of the wire in hand can
be expressed as
2 a + 2 b = 200 m -*• a = 100 - b
Let the current flowing in the power line be I = I qsin(2n ft), where lo = 4000 A. The magnetic
flux linked by the pick-up loop is

W = b f 2°+a — dr = Afo^o_sin(27r/t)&ln / 20 + a \ _ /j,qI qsin(27r/t) / 120 - b\

J 20 2 tt r T 2 ttn\ 20) 2 n ° \ 20/

The induced voltage is then

^ind = —- 7T = /Mo-fo cos(27r/i)6 In

dt \ 20

Power extracted is maximized if T^d is maximized. Hence we need to find the value of b that
maximizes Mn[(120 —6)/20]. This can be done by differentiating with respect to b and setting
 172 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

equal to zero or by simple plotting or by trial and error. The result is b ~ 62 m, which means in
turn that a ~ 38 m.
The choice of the optimum loop dimensions maximizes the induced voltage. Since the wire has
nonzero resistance i?Wire» we can view the induced voltage and the wire as a voltage source with
voltage Vs = Tind and source resistance R s = i?Wjre. To extract maximum amount of power from
such a source, we must use a load ‘matched’ to the source, i.e., i?L = Rs- The wire resistance can
be calculated simply as

_ I _ I _ 200 m
wire ~ ^ A ~ acomM d / 2 )2 “ (5.8 x lO ^ - m ^ M ^ l / l O - 3^ ) 2 ~

Thus we choose —0.261Q. We then have

L ,, / 1 2 0 - 62V
^ind = fH oh cos(2 irf t) ~ 19.9cos(27r/i)
621n ( — 62— J ,

The power extracted by the load under conditions of maximum power transfer (i.e., i?L = Rs) is

PL = Q ) - 3 7 9 .3 [c o s 2(2 t rft)] W - (PL)avg = 190 W

(b) Try N = 2. Now our constraint is a + b = 50, or a = 50 —6. The flux linked is

4 -. m r £ + - ( ^ )
J 20 27Tr 27r \ 20 J

Thus, the induced voltage Yi„d is maximized if 26 ln[(20 —b)/b\ is maximized, which occurs for
b ~ 29.16. Using this value of 6 to calculate T^d as before, we find a smaller value for i \ . Same
holds true for other values of N > 2. Therefore, we conclude that using more turns does not
allow us to extract higher power.
7-16. Induction. The flux linked by the loop is the some of the fluxes produced by the two wires. Based
on the discussion on pages 568 to 570 of the text in connection with Figure 7.4 and the definition
of the polarity of Vmd, we choose the ds element pointing inward (i.e., in the —z direction, so that
ds = —ids). The general rule here is that, in order for [7.1] to be valid, Vjnd must be defined to
be positive on the terminal at which the dl element, the polarity of which is associated with that
of ds via the right hand rule, points outward.
(a) The fluxes produced by each of the two wires and linked by the loop are then

W i= J ( - Z B x) ■(- id s ) = b j fJ'°2mt)dr = 2^ ( ^ ! r ) cos(w<)

*F2 = J b 2 cIs = J (zBi) ■(- id s ) = - a J d+b InsinM )

Thus the total flux linked is

¥ = ¥1 + ¥ 2 = bin ^ c o s (tut) — a In sin(uit)

TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 173

v - - HI bco In f d + a \ sin(wi)
. .d +b .
+ aw In ( — - ) cos(ojt)
ind dt 2?r {— )*
(b) Noting that the loop is located in the second quadrant, where x is positive and y is negative,
we can write the total magnetic field in this quadrant as

B = B i + B2 = —MoI . M°I ± _ MO1

■+ i )
2ixx 2ixy 2 tx x yj

The motional emf can be calculated from

°^ind — ~ ^ \% V yB z $VXB Z] (fl

Assuming that the loop is moving at some velocity v = xvx + yvy, moving at some angle 0 from
the horizontal, so that vx = v cos 0 and vy = v sin 0, where v = |v|. We now separately integrate
over each side of the loop:

Top : cfl = xdx (v x B) • dl = vyBzdx

ra+a
rd+a
HqI d+a
V.Top
ind = I vyB z(x, —d)dx = —vy In
Jd 2 tx

= —v s m d ——
•

2tx

Right: d\ = —fd y (v x B) • d\ = vxB zdy

-d-b
r £p'~'" Mo-f - b , d +b
?“ = J vxB z(d + a, y)dy = vx ^ jd------ *
■ 1
+a \ d3—
—
-b , fd + b
= v cos 9 Mo-f ---- + In ——
27T d +a \ d

Bottom : d\ = xdx (v x B) • d\ = vyB zdx

d
T Bottom
ind vyB z(x, —d — b)dx - —Vi MOI In
= Jfd+a ' 2tt d +a ) d +b
• 9—
aMo-f d +a
= v sm — In
27T d +b

L eft: d\ = —ydy (v x B) • d\ - vxB zdy

-d b ( d
Left
y ind = [ vxB z{ d ,y ) d y - v x ^ -
J -d -b 27r d + n \d +b
mo £
= v cos 9
2tt - ( t )]
The total induced emf is then given by

°tr _ ci/Top , oj^Right 01,-Bottom , =i/-Left _ ^’MO-^ ab ab

Vind - * ind + 17 ind + Vind + T ind ~ o ' sin
" 0— ---- - + cos 9-
2 tt d(b + d) d(a + d)
 174 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

To determine the angle 0 for which Tj„d is a maximum we differentiate Tjnd with respect to 9 and
set equal to zero:

dTjnd _ VfM)I ab ab a+d

cos 6 —sin# = 0 tan Omax —
dt 2n d(b + d) d(a + d) T+ d

Note that for a 3> b,d this reduces to tan 0max —> oo or 0max —»• it/ 2, which is equivalent to the
sliding bar problem; i.e., the bar has to move in a direction perpendicular to itself in order to
induce voltage.
The value of the induced voltage when the loop moves in this optimum direction is

v figlab sin 0max COS $rnax

2 nd (b + d) (a + d)

7-17. Induction. We adopt a coordinate system in which the 2 axis points out of the page. With the
polarity of Tjnd as defined in Figure 7.35 of the text, and based on the discussion on pages 568 to
570 of the text in connection with Figure 7.4 of the text, we must have the ds element pointing
out of the page, i.e., in the 2 direction, or ds = z.ds. The general rule here is that, in order for
[7.1] to be valid, Tj„d must be defined to be positive on the terminal from which the dl element,
the polarity of which is associated with that of ds via the right hand rule, points out of. (a) Since
I 2 is constant, it does not contribute to the induced emf, which is thus due entirely to I \ . Noting
that by the right hand rule, the B-field produced by current I\ on the loop is in the —2 direction,
we have
^ f d f ib+a)/ 2 H0h (t) ,
= / B \ ( - z ) ■(zds) = — / — ----- adr
dt dt Js dt J(b—a)/2 2 ttt

27r\b —a J dt 2 ir \b — a J
The induced voltage starts at a large negative value and exponentially decays to zero as the current
11 decreases.
(b) All of our formulation in part (a) is applicable here until we take the time derivative of I\ (/;).
We have

apo , f b + a \ dl\(t) afiQ , ( b + a \ <9(sin ut) auj/j,0 . f b + a \

r '"a = ln { — a ) ~ a r ‘ ) s i --------- i t J

Thus the induced voltage exhibits a simple cosine variation. As the sinusoidal current I\ increases
starting at t = 0, and until uit = 7r/2, the magnetic flux into the page (—2 direction) increases,
so that by Lenz’s law the induced current must be counterclockwise, corresponding to positive
Tind, as given by the cos(uit) variation. After u t = 7r/2, current I\ starts to decrease, and T,nd is
appropriately negative.
7-18. Wave propagation, (a) Note that the front of the pulse reaches the observer at t = (d — I) jv v
and the tail of it leaves the observer at t = d/vp. With these in mind, %z versus x is sketched as
shown at t \ = ( d — l)/vp, t2 = (d —1/2)/vp, £3 = (d + l/2)/vp, and £4 = (d + 3l)/vp respectively.
(b) The %z measured by the observer located at x = d at t\ = (d —l/3)/vp, t 2 = (d —2l/3)/vp,
and tj = (d + l)/vp are Eq/3, Eq and 0 respectively.
7-19. Wave propagation, (a) Sketch of ytz versus y at t = 2t\ is as shown.
 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 175

Fig. 7.5. Figure for Problem 7-18. cSz(.x) versus x at four different times.

Fig. 7.6. Figure for Problem 7-19. (a) 'X, versus y at t —2t\ and t = 4t\.

(b) Sketch of %£z versus y at t = 4t\ is as shown. Note that the the observer can not measure the
pulse at this time.
7-20. Interference of two waves. Based on the electric field measured by the observer over the time
interval t\ = d/( 2vp) to i2 = (d/2 + l)/vp, the electric field waveform is as shown.
7-21. Wave propagation, (a) An observer located at z = z\ detects the signal as long as \%y \ > 10-7
V-m- 1. In addition, an observer located at z = z\ observes the signal for At seconds regardless of
its location z \. the same time So, if we consider an observer at z\ and represent the time interval
 176 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

Fig. 7.7. Figure for Problem 7-20. Pulses and %b versus z at t = 0.

Fig. 7.8. Figure for Problem 7-21. %y versus z at t = 5 juls. Note that the field decreases
to a very low value within few meters of z= 1.5 km, so that it is negligibly small at location
of the observer (i.e., z\ = 1 km).

during which the observer detects the signal as At, we can find At through the following steps:

%y = 75e- ^ z i- V ) 2 _ 10~7 v-m-1 (Zl - Vptf ~ 6.50

z\ qF 2.55
z\ — vpt ~ ±2.55 <1,^2

AJ. ^ ^ 2(2.55) 2(2.55)

At = t 2 — t i ~ ---------= --------- j s ~ 17 ns
vp 3 x 10*

(b) The observer located at z = z\ measures the maximum electric field amplitude of %max = 75
V-m-1 when z\ — vptmax = 0. So, the observer located at z\ = 1 km measures the maximum
electric field amplitude at
1000
~ 3.33 (xs
vp 3 x 10'

(c) The following figure show %y(z, t) as a function of z at t\ = 5 |xs. At t\ = 5 |xs, an observer
located at z\ = 1 km does not measure any electric field at t = t\ since %y(z\ , ii) <C 10-7 V-m_1.
7-22. Phasors. (a) E(z) = ye-JZ V-m_1.
(b) H(x) = 0.1 [y e ^ 03* + zOSe^03^ ^ ] mA-m*1.
(c) B(y, z) = x4Oe-j(0-8y_0'6z_7r/4) )xT.
 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 177

(d) E ( x , y) = zEq sin (ax)e^by

7-23. Phasors. (a) Using %{y, t) = SftejE(y )e ^1}, the real-time expression is given by

f(y , t) = 9te{z5e-jW*yeju;t} = z5cosM - 407ry) V-m-1

(b) Noting that j = eJ7r/2, the real-time expression for B(z) can be found as

®(z, t) =me{x0.le-j 2*zeju,t} - 9te{y0.3ejn/ 2e~j 27rzejult}

=$0.1 cos(ut —2ttz) —y0.3 cos(oit —2irz + 7r/2) |xT

(c) The real-time expression %(x,t) can be written as

%(x,t) =9te{20.1e^18x - 0.5ej n x )ejoJt}

=z0.1[cos(a;i —18a:) —0.5 cos(uit + 18a;)] V-m-1

(d) The real-time expression %€(x, z, t) corresponding to the phasor expression H(x, z) is given
by
'Mix, z, t ) = 9te{ye- -j48irxe?64,rze^a’t } = ycos(w£ —48-7ra; + 647xz) mA-m"1

(e) The real-time expression $(y, t) can be found as

$(y, t) = D^e{£40e_01i'e_-^0'lj/_7r//3^e?a;t} = x40e_oly cos (ut —0.1 y + 7r/3) |xA-m-2

7-24. Displacement current in a capacitor, (a) Following an approach similar to Example 7-11, the
displacement current through the capacitor can be found as

Id = J 4 A = A ~ =f A ~ = = _ 1W W )
at at a dt a

Substituting A = I cm2, er = 6, a = 1 mm, and / = 10 kHz yields la ~ —3.34sin(27r x 104t)

|xA. Note that the displacement current is 90° out of phase with the applied voltage across (or the
electric field inside) the capacitor.
(b) Repeating the calculations in part (a) for / = 1 MHz results in J<j ~ —0.334 sin(27r x 1060
mA. Note that the displacement current increases in amplitude with increase in frequency, i.e.,
displacement current becomes more and more important at higher frequencies.
7-25. Propagation through lake water, (a) Noting that the conduction- and the displacement-current
densities are given by
— — — &&
= and

their peak (maximum) values can be written as

 178 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

■^dpeak ~ W€^peak
where'Speak = 10e-008z mV-m-1, a = 4 x 10-3 S-m-1, e = ereo = 81eo, and a; = 2.1-k x 106 rad-
s-1 . Therefore, at z = 0, the peak values of the conduction- and displacement-current densities
are
& peak = 4 x 10-3 x 10“ 2 A-m~2 = 40 fxA-m“2

& W = 2-77r x 106 x 81(8.85 x 10-12) x 10-2 A-rn"2 ~ 60.8 fxA-m-2

(b) Repeating the same calculations in part (a) at z - 10 m yields $ Cpe3k — 18 |xA-m-2 and
^dpeak — 27.3 (xA-m-2 respectively. Note that the peak amplitude of the electric field at z = 10
m is 'Speak = 10e-008(10) ~ 4.49 mV-m-1.
(c) At z = 100 m, we find $ Cpcak — 1.34 x 10-2 |xA-m-2 and j ~ 2.04 x 10-2 |xA-m-2
respectively.
7-26. Sea water, (a) Similar to Example 7-12, the ratio of the magnitudes of the conduction-current
density to the displacement-current density is given by

|«^c|max & ®
\ u max we (27r/)(ere0)

For sea water with a = 4 S-m-1 , er = 81 and /zr = 1, we find

l^clmax _ 8.88 X 108

|Jd|max ~ /(HZ)

So, using this expression, the ratio of the magnitudes |J c |m ax/|^d|m ax at 10 kHz, 1 MHz, 100
MHz, and 10 GHz are ~ 8.88 x 104, ~888, ~8.88, and 8.88 x 10-2 respectively.
(b) The frequency at which the magnitude of the conduction-current density is equal to the
magnitude of the displacement current density can be found as

|^c|max 8.88 X 108 \/iu

f —^ ~ — ——— = 1 —► / ~ 888 MHz
|«^d|max /(Hz)

7-27. Dry soil. Using a similar approach as done in Example 7-12, the frequency at which the magnitude
of the conduction-current density is equal to the magnitude of the displacement-current density
in dry soil (a ~ 10-4 S-m-1 , er = 3, and \iT = 1) can be found as

IJ.U _ .r_ 10- . . 5.99xltf f^sookHz

|J „ U (2<r/)(3eo>“ /(H z) 7

7-28. Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell’s equations in a source-free = 0, p = 0) nonconducting

(a = 0) medium represented with simple constants e and ji can be written as
 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 179

V • 2s = eV • % = 0

„ d@
ss df
V x X = m = e et

v • a = fj,v ■W=o
Substituting the electric field expression given as

%(z, t ) = %&X(Z, t) = £[pi(z - Vpt) +P2(z + Vpt)]

into the first equation and performing the partial differentiation and integration yields

V xf ®
dz at
1 d^t
[Pl (z - vpt) + P2(z + Vpt)] = ~fa

—> 'M, = J [ p [ ( z - vpt) + p'2(z + vpt)]dt

= [ -P lO - Vpt) + p2(z + Vpt)]

fXVp

Next, we substitute the W, expression into Maxwell’s third equation as

dz at
1 d%
-> £ ------ [-P iO - Vpt) + P2 O + V > ] = ~oT
fievp at

—> % = x —— [ [—p A z — vpt)+p'2(z + vpt)]dt

fxevp J

= - Vpt) + P2(z + Vpt)]

ixevj

This % expression must be identical to th e^ expression we started with and as a result of that,
(/lev2) = 1 or vp = 1/ 1JJii. Note that the % expression also satisfies Maxwell’s second equation
since
v . f = * # = 0
OX
Similarly, the expression satisfies Maxwell’s fourth equation as

oy

Therefore, the % and the M pair satisfy all of Maxwell’s equations.

7-29. AM radio waves. Substituting

% = $%>x(z, t) = xjEq cos(7.5 x 106t —f3z)

 180 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

and
W = p ty (z, t) = f(E 0/r)) cos(7.5 x 10H - 0z)
into [7.18a] yields

V x^ = — -
dt dz dt

->• (-/? )£ o [- sin(7.5 x 106i - 0z)] = —a*o— (7.5 x 106) [ - sin(7.5 x 106i - 0z)]
V
resulting in
^ _ ^o(7.5 x 106)
V
Similarly, substituting 'g and into [7.18c], we have

V x W - — - e Q- - -x — -x e o ^ -

-» - ( - / ? ) — [ - sin(7.5 x 106t - /?*)] = e0E 0(7.5 x 106) [ - sin(7.5 x 106* - 0z)]

n
resulting in

- = e0(7.5 x 106)
V
Solving these two equations simultaneously, the values for f3 and ri can be calculated as

? 7 5 x 106
/32 = (7.5 x 106) /x0eo
HV u /3= ---------
3 x iq8a - = 0.025 rad-m"1

2 MO /MO
17 = — —»‘H = \ — — 37742
eo V e0
Note that the % and 'K expressions also satisfy [7.18b] and [7.18d] as

V - a = e0V - f = e 0^ f ^ = 0
OX

V • 98 = /i0V • = 0
oy
7-30. Maxwell’s equations, (a) We follow an approach similar to Example 7-13. Substituting the H(y)
phasor into the phasor form of [7.18c], we first find the corresponding electric field phasor E(y)
as

E=J _ V x H = - i - ( V ^ >
ju>eo jweo V dy

= x ^ ^ l . 8 3 x I0~ 4e - j4y = -H 4 X 1-83 X 10 4 e~jAy V-m"1

juep u>eo
 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 181

Next, we substitute E in the phasor form of [7.18a] to find H as

H - J - V x E —
jujfio joJHo \
L/V*®
dy
=i-r——(—j4)2T-—1-83 x 10~4e~y4y
jujHo ju e 0
=z } 6 1.83 x 10-4e~j4y A-m_1
OJZ/J.0€0

Note that for this expression to be the same as the H(y) expression given as

H(y) = 21.83 x 10-4e-J'4y A-m_1

the following condition must hold:

=1 —> u>= ^ ~ 4 x 3 x 108 = 1.2 x 109 rad-s_1

w2/ioeo x/Moeo

With this value of w, H(y) and its counterpart E(y) satisfy both [7.18a] and [7.18c]. In addition,
E(y) satisfies [7.18b] (since E(y) = itEx(y) and therefore V • = eoV • E = 0) and H(y) satisfies
D

[7.18d] (since H(?/) = zH z(y) and so V • B = /j,qV • H = 0).

(b) Substituting w = 1 . 2 x 109 rad-s_1 into the E(y) expression found in part (a) yields

E(y) ~ -x0.069e~j4y V-m-1

(c) The electric flux density D and the displacement-current density J d in phasor form can be
found as
D = e0E ~ —$0.61 \e~j4y pC-nT2

J d =juje0E ~ -$(1.2 x 109)(8.85 x 10~12)(0.611 x \0~x2e - jAy)(ejv/1)

~ - $733e-J'(4y_ir/2) fxA-m-2

7-31. Superposition of two waves, (a) Using the trigonometric identity

sin 4>sin 0 = ^[cos(0 —6 ) —cos(<f>+ 6)1

we can write the %(z,t) expression as

%(z, t) = x47.5[cos(2l7r x 109i —(3z) —cos(2l7r x 109i + (3z)] mV-m"1

This expression consists of two waves, one traveling in the positive z direction (the first term) and
the other traveling in the negative z direction (the second term). Following an approach similar
to Example 7-13, we substitute the phasor E(z) given by

E(z) = x47.5[e~jpz - eP0z] mV-m-1

 182 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

into [7.18a] to obtain the corresponding H(z) phasor

H(z) ~ y ^ y [e~J/3z + e ^ z] mA-m-1

We then substitute H(z) into [7.18c] to find E(z) which has to be the same expression above
resulting in
___ 21tr x 109 nn
B = ujJ lloeo —--------- a- = 707r rad-m, - 1
VP 3 x 10

(b) The Hl(z, t) can be found from H(z) as

W(z,t) =^e{H(z)ejuJt} ~ me{$OA26e-jl0*zej “t + fOA26ejl0wzejojt}

=y0.126[cos(wt —707rz) + cos (cot + 70nz)\ mA-m_1

where u>= 2 l 7r x 109 rad-s-1 .

7-32. Electromagnetic wave in free space. We start with

%(x, z, t) = ^4.9cos(1.8 x 1097t£ —ax — 2.5az) V-m -1

Using Maxwell’s equation [7.18a] and noting that %x and %y are both zero, we have

V X 'g = X ( --- —i- + Z-pr^-

\ oz ox
= —&4.9(—2.5a)] —sin(1.8 x 1097rf — ax — 2.5az)]
+ z4.9(—a)[—sin(1.8 x 1097ri — ax — 2.5az)]

= (-2 .5 a i + a*)(4.9) sin(1.8 x lOVi - ax - 2.5az) =

ot
from which 28(x, z, t) can be found by integration over time. We find

25(x, z, t) = —(2.5ax + a2)(4.9)(1.8 x 1097r)_1 cos(1.8 x lO V i — ax — 2.5az)

We can now use Maxwell’s equation 7.18c] to find %(x, z, t) from 28(x, z, t). We have

de0%(x,z,t) = ± V x ^
dt Ho
= y— [(—2.5a)2 + a2] f —— ——-7—„— ) [—sin(1.8 x 1097ri — ax —2.5az)]
Ho \ 1 . 8 x 10 7r /

—► %(x, z , t) = y cos(1.8 x 1097Tt — ax —2.5az) V-m-1

eoHo(l-° x 10y7t)z

Equating the above to the original expression for %(x,z, i)_given in the problem statement we
find a ~ 6.97 m-1, and substituting into the expression for %C(x, z, t) we find

W(x,z,t) =(-4.56*+ 1.81?)cos(l.8 x 1097ri - 6.97x - \ l A \ z ) A-m -1

V W)
 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 183

7-33. Coaxial lines. We are given the electric field

E = t — e •7/3z a < r <b

r

(a) To find the associated magnetic field we use [7.18a], namely

V x E = —juifiR.
I

(b) We have
— E0
%(r, z,t) = t — cos(u>t —f3z)
r
9t(r, z, t ) = <j> cos(uit —/3z)

(c),(d) The radial variation of the fields is in the form of simple decrease as r _1, while the variation
of the fields along the z axis is sinusoidal at any instant of time.
7-34. Specific absorption rate (SAR). (a) Using

■ a a
tan oc = — = -----
c uie ereo

the loss tangent of muscle, fat, bone (skull), cartilage, skin and brain at 835 MHz are ~ 0.462,
~ 0.366, ~ 0.309, ~ 0.434, ~ 0.383 and ~ 0.438 and at 1900 MHz are ~ 0.314, ~ 0.262, ~ 0.260,
~ 0.318, ~ 0.318 and ~ 0.282 respectively. These results indicate that tissues such as muscle,
cartilage, and brain have a higher absorption rate of microwave energy compared to tissues such
as fat, bone and skin. The absorption rate of skin tissue is higher at 1900 MHz than at 835 MHz.
(b) Assuming an internal electric field value of |E| =1 V-m-1 in each tissue and using

Pm 2pm

the SAR in muscle, fat, bone (skull), cartilage, skin and brain at 835 MHz are ~ 5.33 x 10-4,
~9.24 x 10"5, ~6.91 x 10“5, ~3.73 x 10-4, ~3.12 x 10“4, ~4.42 x 10~4 W-kg^1 and at
1900 MHz are ~ 7.88 x 10~4, ~ 1.41 x 10-4, ~1.24 x 10-4, ~5.82 x 10-4, ~6.19 x 10-4 and
~6.20 x 10-4 W-kg_1 respectively. As observed from these results, for example, tissues such
as fat and bone have lower SAR values compared to tissues such as skin and brain.
7-35. Dipole antenna next to lossy sphere. (a)Using|E| = 115 V-m-1, a = 0.9 S-m-1, and pm = 1000
kg-m-3, the peak SAR at the point in the tissue nearest to the dipole antenna is
 184 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

(b) The SAR expression inside the brain tissue is given by

SAR(a;) = SARpeake"ax

where SARpeak — 5.95 W-kg-1, a = 0.5 np-cm-1 and x is in cm. Using this expression, the
average SAR in 1 gr (i.e., 1 cm3) of human brain tissue can be calculated by

SARav = 77— J--- t f SAR(x)dv = cm2) f e ~0 5xdx

V = 1 cm3 J v=j cm3 1 cm3 J0
_ SARpeak ["___ 1_ - 0.5x 1 5 95
——[1 - e-05] ~ 4.68 W-kg" 1
1 cm 0.5 0.5 6

This value is clearly in violation with the ANSI-IEEE C95.1-1992 1-gr average SAR standard
which is 1.6 W-kg-1 since 4.68 W-kg-1 > 1.6 W-kg-1.
7-36. Microwave heating of beef products, (a) >From loss tangent tan<5c = e"/ dr = 0.33 with
e'r = 52.4, we find e" ~ 17.3.
(b) The dissipated power density in beef with jEpeak = 25 kV-m-1 can be calculated as

^ "e o E je a k - U 2* x 2-45 x 109)(17.3)(8.85 x 10- 12)(2.5 x 104)2

-7.37 x 108 W-m -3 = 0.737 W-mm-3

7-37. Lossy capacitor, (a) The conduction-current density and the displacement-current density due
to the 5 V peak, 3 GHz voltage (i.e., V(t) = 5 cos(67r x 109£) V) applied across the capacitor with
1-cm2 area and 2-mm plate separation filled with polyethylene (e'r = 2.26 and t" = 0.0007 at 3
GHz) can be calculated as

$ c =aE = oje"eQ-^ cos(o>t)

d
=(6 tr x109)(7 x 10_4)(8.85 x 10-12)----- — 7 cos(uit)
2 x 10-3
~ 0 .292 cos(67r x 109i) A-m-2

* =er€o-jjr
/ dE = - u e > y o sin
r€0— ■ ,M ^)

=- 6
( tt x 109)(2.26)(8.85 x lO-12) ^ - ^ ^ sinM )

~ —943 sin(67r x 109i) A-m-2

It is clear from these results that $ dpeak S> ^ Cpeak (i.e., 943 0.292) and so the total-current
density can be approximated as

$ total = $C + - <^d - -943 sin(67T x 109t) A-m-2

The total current through the capacitor can be found as

I = |^totail^ —94 .3 sin(67r x 109t) mA

 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 185

(b) The power density dissipated in the capacitor is given by

£ p2eak —t (67t x 109)(7 x 10-4)(8.85 x IO"12)

2 'v ' \ 2 x 10-3
~365 W-m-3

Therefore, the total power dissipated in the capacitor can be found as

Pav Ad(365) = (10-4)(2 x 10~3)(365) W ~ 73 *jlW

7-38. Radio frequency insect control, (a) Using

e"
tan<5c = ^
4
the loss tangent of adult rice weevils and hard red winter wheat at 1 MHz are

1.36
tan 5C. . = ■;, - ■^ 0.118
,nsec‘ 11.56

0.26
tan cwheat = £ 3 3 ~ 0 0600
Similarly, the loss tangent of adult rice weevils at 100 MHz and 2.4 GHz are ~ 0.320 and ~ 0.0785
and of hard red winter wheat at 100 MHz and 2.4 GHz are ~ 0.107 and ~ 0.114 respectively.
Comparing these values, it is clear that the rice weevils have a higher absorption rate at 100 MHz
than at 1 MHz or 2.4 GHz. It also has a higher absorption rate than the hard red winter wheat at
100 MHz.
(b) Assuming -EWheat = 120 kV-m-1, the ratio of the power dissipated per unit volume in adult
rice weevils versus that in hard red winter wheat can be written as
-L±)fn
2
P2
insect insect ^ ^ qaa i n - 11 fcinsect p 2
I, pl - X AU fn insect
2wheat wheat wheat

To maximize this ratio, we seek for a frequency at which the ratio e^sect/<^heat is the largest.
Using the data provided in Table 7.2, the ratio effect/6wheat *s maximum at 100 MHz given by

e-'
^insect 1.96
~ 5.44
e"wheat 100 MHz ®^6

Using the relationship between Insect and heat provided as

■Einsect 3
■fi'wheat 2 + f jnsect w h e a t

with i?wheat = 120 kV-m \ we can calculate the electric field inside the rice weevils at 100 MHz
as
3 — ............ - i
insect - -------7-------- ;----- r(120) ~ 94.4 kV-m
2+ (6.13/3.38)