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SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Learning Outcomes
determine the ultimate and allowable bearing capacity of shallow foundations.
Key Content
design considerations and principles
definition, types and behaviour of shallow foundations
ultimate bearing capacity, net and allowable bearing capacity
Sections
1. Introduction
2. Terzaghi’s theory of bearing capacity
3. General bearing capacity equation
4. Skempton’s Values of Nc for Saturated Clays under Undrained Conditions
5. Factor of safety and Net ultimate bearing capacity
6. Effects load eccentricity
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1. Introduction
Definition : Shallow foundations are those foundations that transmit structural loads to the
near-surface soils or rocks.
A spread footing is an enlargement at the bottom of a column or bearing wall that spreads
the applied structural loads over a sufficiently large soil area (Figure 1).
Square footings
Rectangular footings
Circular footings
Continuous footings
Combined footings
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Figure 1
http://osp.mans.edu.eg/deepfoundation/ch1.htm
Mat/Raft Foundations
A mat foundation can be considered as a very large spread footing that supports all of the
structure (Figure 2)
Advantages :
Spread the structural load over a large area, thus reducing the bearing pressure.
Provide much more structural rigidity and thus reduces the potential for excessive
differential settlement.
Is easier to waterproof
Has a greater weight and thus is able to resist greater uplift loads.
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Distributes lateral loads into the soil more evenly and efficiently.
http://osp.mans.edu.eg/deepfoundation/ch1.htm
Figure 2
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Empirical techniques
– based primarily on experimental data and thus are especially helpful when we
have a limited understanding of the physical mechanisms.
Need to understand this mix of rationalism and empiricism, the strengths and
limitations of each, and how to apply them to practical design problems.
Factors of Safety
The design factor of safety defines the engineer's estimate of the best compromise
between cost and reliability and is based on:
• Required reliability (ie. the acceptable probability of failure).
• Consequences of a failure.
• Uncertainties in soil properties and applied loads.
• Construction tolerances (i.e., the potential differences between design and as-built
dimensions).
• Ignorance of the true behaviour of foundations.
• Cost-benefit ratio of additional conservatism in the design.
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Factors of safety for foundations are typically greater than those for superstructure because:
Codes of Practice
Think of codes as guides, not dictators, and certainly not as a substitute for engineering
judgement or common sense.
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Foundation behaviours
Ultimate Bearing Capacity
General Concept
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A small bulge may occur, but considerable settlement is necessary before a clear shear
surface forms near the ground.
The footing just continues to sink ever deeper into the ground.
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Discussion
Define shallow foundation and state two main characteristics of a shallow foundation in
relation to its underlying soil.
Describe the various mode of bearing failure of shallow foundations
Discuss why the factor of safety for designing foundation is generally high.
Explain the general guidelines on its modes of failure in different types of soil.
Explain the design concept of Floating Foundation for a building structure.
State the advantages of mat foundation over individual spread footing.
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Using equilibrium analysis, Terzaghi expressed the ultimate bearing capacity for a strip
foundation as :
q u= cN c + qNq+ 0.5 BN
(2)
(3)
(4)
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Table 1
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors
Nc Nq N Nc Nq N
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For estimation of the ultimate bearing capacity of square or circular foundations, Eq. 1 may
be modified to
In Eq. 5, “B” equals the dimension of each side of the square foundation while in Eq. 6, “B”
equals the diameter of the foundation.
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The equations of the previous subsections have been developed for determining the ultimate
bearing capacity based on the assumption that the water table is located well below the
foundation. However, if the water table is close to the foundation, some modifications of the
bearing capacity equations will be necessary, depending on the location of the water table
(Figure 5).
Figure 5
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q= D f
The value of in the last term of the bearing capacity equations has to be replaced by
’’ = ’ + ( - ’)d/B
For Cases I and II, the modifications are based on the assumption that there is no seepage
force in the soil.
Case I I I : d=> B
In this case, the water table will have no effect on the ultimate bearing capacity.
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= 0 + 1661.9 + 721.6
= 2383.5 kN/m2
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For foundations that exhibit local shear failure in soils, Terzaghi suggested modifications to
Eqs. 1, 5, and 6 as follows:
N’c, N’q, and N’, are the modified bearing capacity factors. They can be calculated by using
the bearing capacity factor equations for N’c, N’q and N’ (Eqs. 2, 3 and 4) by replacing with
tan-1 (2/3 tan ).
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1
qu = cNcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + BNFsFdFI (10)
2
where c = cohesion
q = effective stress at the level of the bottom of foundation
= unit weight of soil
B width of foundation
(11)
(12)
(13)
It is now considered that the values of Nq, Nc and N given by the above equations should be
used in conjunction with Eq. 10 instead of Terzaghi’s values.
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Table 2
Bearing Capacity Factors for the General Bearing Capacity Equation
Nc Nq N Nc Nq N
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Table 3
Shape, Depth and Inclination Factors for the General Bearing Capacity Equation
Factor Relationship
Shape B Nq
Fcs 1
L Nc
B
Fqs 1 tan
L
B
Fs 1 0.4
L
Where L = length of the foundation ( L B )
Depth Df
Condition (a): 1
B
Df
Fcd 1 0.4
B
Df
Fqd 1 2 tan 1 sin
2
;
B
Fd 1
Df
Condition (b): 1
B
Df
Fcd 1 (0.4) tan 1
B
Df
Fqd 1 2 tan 1 sin tan 1 ;
2
B
Fd 1
D
where tan 1 f is in radians
B
2 2
Inclination o
Fci Fqi 1 o ; Fi 1
90
where = inclination of the foundation load with respect to the
vertical
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Shape
Fcs = 1 + B/L (Nq/Nc) = 1 + 2.25/2.25 (48.93/61.3) = 1.798
Fqs = 1 + B/L tan = 1 + 2.25/2.25 tan 38 = 1.781
Fs = 1 – 0.4 B/L = 1 – 0.4 (2.25/2.25) = 0.6
Depth
Df =1.5 m ; B = 2.25 m
Df/B = 1.5/2.25 <= 1
Fcd = 1 + 0.4 Df/B = 1 + 0.4 (1.5/2.25) = 1.267
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan (1- sin)**2 (Df/B)= 1 + 2 tan 38(1-sin38)**2 (1.5/2.25)
= 1.154
Inclination
Fci = Fqi = Fi = 1
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The net ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the ultimate pressure of the foundation that
can be supported by the soil in excess of the pressure caused by the surrounding soil at the
foundation level If the difference between the unit weight of concrete and soil is assumed to
be negligible, then the net ultimate bearing capacity, qnet(u) , is given by:
qnet(u) = qu - q (14)
where q = effective surcharge
qnet (u ) (qu q)
F (15)
qnet p q
where qnet is the net foundation pressure which is the total foundation pressure (p) less the
effective surcharge (q).
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Nq = 64
N = 95
b = 17 kN/m3
sat=20 kN/m3
FOS = (qu - q)/(p -q) = (761.6 + 484.5B – 17 x 0.7 )/(800/B –17 x 0.7)
=3
Note : q = overburden = D
p is sometimes expressed as qa (allowable bearing capacity)
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In a review of bearing capacity theory, Skempton concluded that in the case of saturated clays
under undrained conditions (u= 0 ) the ultimate bearing capacity of a footing could be expressed
by the equation:
qu = cu Nc + Df (16)
Values of the factor Nc , being a function of the shape and the depth/width ratio of the
foundation, are given in Figure 6.
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Learning Activity 5
a)
q = cN + γD
u c
Note N depends on D/B
c
D/B = 4/2 = 2 from Figure 6, N = 8.4
c
q = cN + γD(Skempton)
u c
2
= 120 x 8.4 + 21 x 4 = 1092 kN/m
q = D
FOS = (qu - q)/(p -q)
= (1092 – 21 x 4) / (p – 21 x 4)
= 1008/ (p – 84 ) = 3
solving
p = 420 kN/m
Total load P = p x Area
= 420 x (2 x 2)
= 1680 kN
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Footings may be subjected to eccentric loading which leads to a reduction in bearing capacity.
If e is the eccentricity of the resultant load on the base of a footing of width B (Figure 7), it
was suggested by Meyerhof that an effective foundation width B’ be used in Eqs. 1 and 10,
where
B’ = B-2e (17)
The resultant load is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the effective width B’,
The revised ultimate allowable bearing capacity q’u can then be calculated from the
Terzaghi’s or General Bearing Capacity equations by substituting B by B’.
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References
Disclaimer- the author has tried his best to indicate all references but there is no guarantee
that all materials cited can be included.
Further References
1. Das, B. M. (2007). Principles of Foundation Engineering. 6th Edition. Cengage Learning.
2. Craig, R. F. (2004). Soil Mechanics. 7th Ed, E & FN Spon.
3. Capper, P.L., Cassie, W.F. and Geddes, J.D. (1980). Problems in Engineering Soil, E &
FN Spon.
4. Whitlow,R.(2000) Basic Soil Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall.
6. Barnes, G.E. (2000) Soil Mechanics Principles and Practices, MacMilan.
7. Berry, P.L. & Reid, D.(1987) An Introduction to Soil Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book
Company
8. Budhu, M. (2000), Soil mechanics & Foundations, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons
9. Sutton, B.H.C (1993). Solving Problems in Soil Mechanics, 2nd Ed, Longman.
10. ELE International. Catalogue in Laboratory Testing.
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