Final technical report – Linear Actuators – by Cristiano Jasper Silva - 2014

INTRODUCTION

This report presents both theoretical studies and experimental results, all about linear actuators. The
motivation for this studies comes from the fact that it was found in Brazilian market many options of
linear actuators regarding brands and models but, in contrast, nothing about technical specifications.
This report is really important because its conclusions if correctly applied, allow savings of € 40,000
for a company that uses 2,400 units of linear actuators per year. That is a realistic annual quantity for
a specific application and its market projections that cannot be revealed here due to confidentiality
reasons.

Some research and some experimental activities with two distinct brands named here simply as
“brand” and “imitation” were conducted during May 2014. Both linear actuators are used for control
of air mixture with petrol in cars carburettors. Conclusions and recommendations are as follows.

THEORETICAL CONCLUSIONS (TC)

TC1) The first important conclusion is that many linear actuators for control of air mixture with petrol
in automobiles carburettors widely used in Brazilian market are sliding type. This variety of linear
actuator is very common in the market. It is a stepper motor that the internal part of its rotor has a
plastic thread where a special screw is coupled. The motor’s case has two keys that fits the pair of
elongated axial cut at this screw. That mechanical system guarantees the exclusively linear movement
of the screw as required. In other words, the electrical energy in the stator is firstly converted into
magnetic energy, secondly converted into rotational mechanical energy and finally converted into
linear mechanical energy. The efficiency of such a device is quite low as expected, but sometimes cost
is more important than efficiency what justifies the remarkable market success of this relatively simple
linear actuator. It is widely used in automobiles nowadays;

This elongated axial cut

together with the key
on the case are
responsible to prevent
rotational movement of
the screw There are
two
bearings to
ensure that
This rotor’s internal the rotor
thread transfers force to rotates
move the screw freely
outwards or inwards

Source: Author of this report

TC2) The second important conclusion is that sliding linear actuator technology as a whole is well
known by the players in this area, and there are a lot of information about this subject on the web,
mainly in the English language from world class manufacturers. The figure as follows from PORTESCAP
website shows a great similarity when compared to a model that was completely dismounted by the
author of this report;

Source:www.portescap.com/products/linear-stepper-actuator/understanding-linear-stepper-
actuator

TC3) Third conclusion: according to TOLOMATIC and HAYDONKERK the key point of the useful life is
in the control of the sliding friction consequences generated in the contact area between the screw
and the rotor. It should be noticed that the main factor determining the useful life of this
electromechanical device is the destruction of the plastic threads inside the rotor at the end of its
useful life. Useful life, in this case, can be called as “number of cycles” (this last concept will be
explained in experimental results part of this report). All the other parts of a sliding linear actuator
have a much bigger useful life when compared to the rotor’s useful life.

TC4) The main use factors determining the useful life of the thread’s rotor are (1) speed and frequency
of the movements, (2) magnitude and variability of the mechanical force required in the screw, (3)
direction of the mechanical force applied on the screw, (4) presence of humidity and dust, (5) ambient
temperature and (6) mechanical vibrations. All these factors can be controlled by the user and are
directly related to the friction between the screw and the plastic threads of the rotor, as previously
outlined. Certainly, the brand/model of the linear actuator and variations between many samples of
the same brand/model (due to bad quality control of manufacturing process) are manufacturing
factors determining the useful life. Due to the influence of many aleatory factors affecting the useful
life it is expected that the curve of frequency of the number of cycles versus the number of samples is
a normal or Gaussian curve, as showed as follows, centred on the mean value.
 Probability of occurrence

Number of useful cycles (in hundreds)

TC5) Fifth theoretical conclusion is one of the most important: there is an exponential relationship
between the total number of cycles (useful life) and the force upon the screw of the linear actuator.
It is convenient to highlight that one of the main factors affecting the useful life is the mechanical force
over the screw. As showed in the graph as follows (credits for HAYDONKERK), there is an exponential
relationship between the mechanical force that the screw must deal with and the useful life of a sliding
linear actuator. The immediate logic conclusion is that: it’s highly recommendable reducing the
mechanical force as much as possible if a long useful life is desirable;

Source: http://www.haydonkerk.com/Portals/0/pdf/Stepper_Motor_Linear_Actuators_101.pdf

TC6) The conclusion sixth is about the difficult to make predictions. Due to the technology applied on
sliding linear actuators and those many factors cited on TC4, it is impossible to predict theoretically
the useful lifetime, even approximated, both in laboratory experiments and in practical applications.
It is recommendable too many empirical tests to evaluate the most probable useful life for every
application (information not defined by the author of this report but cited both by TOLOMATIC and
HAYDONKERK);

EXPERIMENTAL CONCLUSIONS (EC)

Before we present all the ECs it is convenient to describe briefly all the experimental apparatus that is
showed as follows. Experimental tests were conducted during May 2014. The mechanical parts consist
of a low friction wooden system that can be filled up with as much weight as desired from 0.5 kg to
10.0 kg and is free to move vertically. The secret to assure vertical movement with minimum friction
is to construct the walls as much vertical as possible and use a material with low friction coefficient.
Also, there are special holders to fix firmly a linear actuator. The electronic parts consist of a specific
stepper motor driver board controlled by an Arduino UNO board.
 Container with
This platform has two
weight inside.
vertical walls and a
container inside that
holds the weight to be
moved by the linear
actuator and can slides
vertically with
minimum friction.

Linear actuator
under test.
Arduino board.

Stepper motor
driver.

Source: Cristiano Jasper (Author of this report)

Some compiled results are showed as follows. The graphs clarify the relation between many relevant
variables and efficiency. The voltage applied in the stators (decaVolts), total current in both stators
(Amperes), shortest moving time and global efficiency. All these results are applicable to the brand
actuator. Time was measured with a simple chronometer. Voltage and current were measured with a
very good digital multimeter. Efficiency was calculated using the electrical variables and a simple
equation: mechanical work = mass x height x gravity acceleration. Each graph is related to a fixed
weight moved vertically by the linear actuator sample under test.

LOAD: LOAD:

Minimum voltage (x10) Minimum voltage (x10)

Global efficiency (%) Global efficiency (%)

Minimum time (s) Minimum time (s)

Total electrical current (A) Total electrical current (A)

Source: Cristiano Jasper (Author of this report)

 LOAD:
LOAD:

Minimum voltage (x10) Minimum voltage (x10)

Global efficiency (%) Global efficiency (%)

Minimum time (s) Minimum time (s)

Total electrical current (A) Total electrical current (A)

Source: Cristiano Jasper (Author of this report)

EC1) There is a huge increasing of moving time and a noticeable reduction in the global efficiency
when the linear actuator moves vertically a weight of 4 kg. The main conclusion here is that the
maximum possible weight for this linear actuator is below 4 kg and that the global efficiency’s
behaviour fits perfectly with the theory credited to the world class manufacturers. When used in its
mechanical limits the linear actuator generates a lot of heating at the rotor’s threads through the
higher friction force with the screw. The consequence is a fast destruction of it. When the rotor’s
threads are destroyed due to overweight the precision of the linear motion is degenerated completely,
and its useful life ends quickly. Greater weight means greater friction force provoking faster material
destruction in the rotor’s contact area with the screw. For comparison with the results found
experimentally, the reference manufacturer HAYDONKERK says that the global efficiency of its sliding
linear actuators is around 15% when the force is at 50% of the maximum possible force. It was not
found the method used by HAYDONKERK to evaluate their efficiency;

EC2) The experimental conclusion here is about the useful life of some samples of the brand and the
imitation linear actuators under certain conditions. The same experimental apparatus was also used
to estimate the number of normal complete cycles which is directly related to the useful life. A
complete normal cycle is a smooth movement outwards and inwards of the screw without any
noticeable fail, considering all the maximum elongation possible with a fixed axial force always applied
upon the linear actuator (defined by the author of this report). Specifically for all linear actuators
tested, this maximum elongation possible was empirically defined as an outwards motion in 10
millimetres as well as a subsequently inwards motion in 10 millimetres. A fixed mechanical force was
applied to the screw at all times. It was tested both brand and imitation varieties of linear actuators,
with the help of an experimental apparatus explained earlier;

Test conditions for both varieties of linear actuators (all units are in International System of Units)

Voltage: 18,5V Inactive/Active time: 5 s / 25 s Cycle time: 30 s

Total current: 0,6 A Mass moved vertically: 3,0 kg Linear motion: 0,01 m
Force direction: exclusively axial
Environmental conditions: humidity < 90%, indoors, absence of dust
Final results of the tests

Test Sample Dates of the tests Number of cycles* Outdoors air temperature
1 Brand 05/05 to 07/05 2170 ±500 17ᴼC to 28ᴼC
2 Imitation 1 13/05 to 23/05 4230 ±800 15ᴼC to 28ᴼC
3 Imitation 2 23/05 to 28/05 7300 ±1000 11ᴼC to 22ᴼC
* It
was used the concept of useful life determined by the reference manufacturers that is 90% of the
cycles before the first fatigue detection, that was easily noticed by the loose of some millimetres in the
maximum elongation and the production of a specific fail sound.

Note 1: All the data showed may have unknown uncertainties due to measurement instruments were
uncalibrated at the time of the tests. Besides this, all instruments were of good quality and were at
least verified against calibrated equipment. Additionally, all care was taken during the experiments to
reduce errors as much as possible. From previous experience of the author in metrology, it can be
estimated that the uncertainties are below ±10% for each measurement.

Note 2: Tests were conducted in a non-automated tester system. Unprecise detection of the last
normal cycle might happen. Also, it is not guaranteed that interruptions in the electric power didn't
happen during the tests. To include all these unknown factors, it was defined big error margins showed
on the table above (±500, ±800 and ±1000).

EC3) It can be concluded that the main factors that explains the variations of the useful number of
cycles of those samples are variations in samples, brands and temperature. It can be observed in the
graph below the temperature in Florianopolis, Santa Catarina State, Brazil, where the tests occurred.
The test number 3 was the only one that happened during the night, where temperatures are
relatively lower than during the day. This high temperature can help to explain why the third sample
lasts much more than the other two.

Maximum and minimum temperature during May 2014 in Florianopolis – Santa Catarina State

Source: EPAGRI – SC – Agricultural Research Institution of Santa Catarina State

EC4) It is probable that the distribution of the number of normal complete cycles is a Gaussian curve
due to many aleatory variables of influence under the variable of interest. This implies that the perfect
scenario could be obtained if the manufacturer and the customer match each other around a
minimum level of quality in order to assure that the left tail of the Gaussian curve could be safely
avoided;

EC5) The Gaussian with temperature variations is wider than the Gaussian without temperature
variations. This fact possibly is valid for other factors of influence under the number of cycles. This has
to be considered during the definition of the lower number of cycles acceptable by the customer
through a safety factor;

EC6) It surprises the fact that the two imitation samples had showed the much better number of
complete cycles (!) when compared to the brand sample. Considering that the imitation costs half the
price of the brand one, this means that a big saving of money is possible. Certainly, all of this conclusion
only will be useful if the practical use of the linear actuators presents the same behaviour of the
laboratory use, what is probable but not 100% certain;

EC7) Due to large differences in efficiencies between HAYDONKERK/TOLOMATIC and samples tested
it is difficult to affirm with 100% of certainty that both technologies are the same. This similarity could
be confirmed only if a sample of HAYDONKERK/TOLOMATIC would be dismounted completely and
compared piece by piece regarding geometry and material what would be expensive and time
demanding.

Note: Any experimented reader can notice that we only studied the surface of the behaviour of the
sliding linear actuators due to many reasons clearly presented here. The experiment and the research
are just a preliminary one. There are resources restrictions on this project. But, considering the good
theoretical basis of this study, this report was useful to put light into a technology that was much more
obscure before that, indeed.

RECOMMENDATIONS

R1) If the maximum number of complete cycles is expected, it is necessary to:

a) Reduce the force under the screw as much as possible;

b) Maintain the force under the screw as more exclusively axial as possible, according to the
figure below;

WRONG WRONG CORRECT

Source: Author of this report (based on reference manufacturers)

c) Maintain the temperature of the rotor as low as possible, limiting the speed and the frequency
of the movements, and also applying the most reduced voltage on the stators that would be
possible;
d) Prevent that humidity and dust achieve the thread’s rotor;
 e) Prevent mechanical vibrations and abrupt variations of the force under the screw;
f) Maintain good criteria of selection of manufacturers of linear actuators and conduct aleatory
selected sample tests frequently, according to rigorous metrological concepts.

Note: The recommendations above may not represent the totality of needs to assure that the
linear actuators will have the desired useful life.

R2) If it is desired to identify if the temperature is fully responsible for the great differentiation
metrologically rigorous tests are needed at different temperatures, but assuring that all the others
factors of influence are kept under conditions of reproducibility;

Note: Such a test can be expensive.

R3) In response to the results found in the possible new tests described in R2, it is suggested that the
customer and the manufacturer make an agreement about some modification in the rotor to assure
greater useful life;

R4) Test samples under conditions as more similar to the real application as possible. This is highly
recommendable by the world class manufacturers already cited in this report;

R5) If the useful life of the linear actuators is critical it is recommendable looking for some consultancy
from a laboratory accredited by INMETRO (National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology of
Brazil) with EXPERIENCE in such a metrological test, to conduct the tests suggested on R2 and R4.

Cristiano Jasper Silva

2014

Physicist graduated on Federal University of Santa Catarina State