IN chemistry 8PM chapter § chomica Bonds HEED covalent Bonds 1 2 5. 6 atomic L 14 uM 27 @ T 35 39 (Predict the chemical formulae of the ‘compounds formed from + element L and element 7 + element Mand element Q + element Qand element 7 + element L and element M (i) White the formulae of the particles in ‘each of the compounds in (b) (ii) Name the type of bond in each of the ‘compounds in (b(!). (ew a ab topo sew TP om 1) Covalent bonds are formed when atoms of non-metals combine with each other to form a molecule, Non-metal + Non-mietal + Covalent compound “The non-metals involved can be (@) the elements from Groups 15, 16, and 17 of the Periodic Table. (b) carbon and silicon from Group 14 of the Periodic Table. (©) hydrogen, the smallest-sized atom. Hydrogen forms covalent bonds when it combines with a more electronegative non-metal such as fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine or carbon, During the formation of covalent bonds, atoms of non-metals share electrons to achieve stable noble gas electron arrangements, Each atom contributes the same number of electrons to each other for sharing, ‘The shared pairs of electrons which bind the atoms together are called covalent bonds, Asa result, covalent molecules are formed. ‘Shared pair of electrons ~ pasangan elektron berkongs! soapy ce ‘Types of covalent bonds 1 4, During the formation of a covalent bond between two atoms, each atom contributes 1, 2 or 3 electrons to each other for sharing, By doing so, the two atoms share 1, 2 or 3 pairs of electrons so as to achieve stable noble gas electron arrangements, ‘When two atoms share one pair of electrons, a single covalent bond is formed. X + Y¥=XY « XY mcd Ay Sere ‘When two atoms share two pairs of electrons, a double covalent bond is formed, XD + Yo KEY o Xe t t ‘Two shared A double pairs of electrons covalont bond Asingle ‘covalent bond When two atoms share three pairs of electrons, a triple covalent bond is formed. P+ Ym XEY or X=Y 1 t Throe shared Atrpie pairs of elecitons covalent bond Hence, there are three types of covalent bonds (a) Single covalent bond (b) Double covalent bond (6) Triple covalent bond ‘The number of electrons contributed by an atom of an element for sharing during the formation of covalent bonds is shown below. + Anatom of a Group 17 element contributes ‘one electron for sharing because it has 7 valence electrons. + Anatom of a Group 16 element contributes two electrons for sharing because it has 6 valence electrons. + Anatom of a Group 15 element contributes three electrons for sharing because it has 5 valence electrons. + A silicon of carbon atom from Group 14 contributes four electrons for sharing because both these elements have four valence electrons, + A hydrogen atom contributes one electson for sharing because ithas one valence electron.BEE Right X Liquid tetrachloromethane cannot conduct: dlectricity. Why? Ss A student gave the answer as below: “Tetrachloromethane fs a covalent. compound. It does not contain Free mobile electrons to. carry electrical. charges! VW ‘Tetrachloromethane is'a covalent compound consisting of neutral molecules only; Hence, it cannot conduct electricity: tt, does not contain free mobile ions. - 7. Explaining the solubility of ionic compounds (a) The solubility of ionic compounds in water can be explained as below: (i) Tonic compounds are composed of ions, (ii) ‘The ions are easily hydrated by water molecules to form hydrated ions. (iii) The hydration of ions by water molecules liberates heat energy. (iv) Asa result, ionic compounds are usually soluble in water. (b) The solubility of ionic compounds in ‘organic solvents can be explained as below: (Organic solvents such as ether, alcohol, benzene and __tetrachloromethane consist of covalent motecules which cannot hydrate ions, (ii) As a result, ionic compounds are insoluble in organic solvents. 8, Explaining the solubility of compounds (a) ‘The solubility of covalent compounds in water can be explained as below: (@) Covalent compounds consist of ‘covalent covalent molecules, Aim: | Materials: { cyclohexane, disiled water and naphthalene. Apparatus: Hydration fnydrated by — penghdratan/anit oleh Magnesium chloride crystals, sodium sulphate erystas, solid lead) bromide, diethyl ether, hexane, Watch glasses, dropper, test tubes, crucible, battery, bulb, switch, Bunsen bumer, tripod stand, carbon electrodes, pipe-clay triangles, connecting wires with crocodile clips and beaker. Chemistry SPM Chapters Chemicaronas BS (ii) Water cannot covalent molecules. Hence, covalent compounds are usually insoluble in water. (b) ‘The solubility of covalent compounds in organic solvents can be explained as below: (@ Covalent molecules in covalent compounds and organic molecules in organic solvents are both held together by weak intermolecular forces of attraction, (i) As a result, the covalent molecules in the covalent compounds ate easily miscible with the organic molecules in the organic solvents because they have the same type of weak intermolecular forces of attraction, Gi) Hence, covalent compounds are usually soluble in organic solvents, hydrate ‘Sodium and nitrogen are placed in Group 41 and Group 15 of the Periodic Table respectively. Which of the following is the property of sodium nitride, NaN? A. Ithas a high density. B thas a high meiting point. © It cannot conduct electricity in the molten state, D_ tis soluble in organic solvents. Examiner's Tips / Feaminers Tins, Sodium is a metal and nitrogen is @ non-metal. So, sodium nitride is an ionic compound. As an ionic compound, it has a high melting point, its able to conduct electricity in the molten state and it ingoluble in organic solvents. Answer: B ‘To compare the properties of ionic and covalent compounds.Chemistry SPM Chapter 5 Chemical Bonds Procedure: SK) Melting and boiling points 1, Half spatula of magnesium chloride crystals and sodium sulphate crystals are placed separately in two different watch glasses. The physical siate of each substance is recorded. of each substance is recorded. 3. All the watch glasses are left aside for 5 to 10 minutes. All the changes are recorded. | 4, inferences regarding their volatility, melting and boiling points are made based on the observation. Solubility in water and organic solvents 1. A quarter spatula of magnesium chloride crystals are placed in a test tube. 2. 5.crn’ of distilled water is added to the test tube. 3. The mixture in the test tube is shaken well. | 4. Allthe changes are recorded. | 5. Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using liquid cyclohexane to replace distilled water. 6, Steps 1 to 5 are repeated using 5 cm’ of diethyl ether to replace the magnesium chloride crystals. | EC) Electrical conductivity 1, Acrucible is filled with solid lead) bromide until itis half full 2. The apparatus as shown in Figure 5.22 is set up. : Batiarios i i i ‘Switch Bulb i Carbon elecrodes Gnicble Solid teal) bromide Heat ‘Figure 5.22 Conduct of ea) bromide The switch is tumed on. The observation on whether the bulb glows and the changes at the electrodes (if any) are made. | 4. The switch is then turned off. The solid lead(t) bromide in the crucible is heated until it melts completely. | 5. The switch is tumed on again. The observation on whether the bulb glows and the changes at the electrodes (if any) are made. 6. Steps 1 to 5 are repeated using solid naphthalene to replace solid lead) bromide. 7. Another test on the electrical conductivity of aqueous magnesium chloride solution is carried out by setting | up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5.23. Observation on whether the bulb glows and the changes at the | electrodes (if any) are recorded. | {pe | Carbon ‘sloctrodes Beaker Magnesium chiorise solution Figure 5.28 Conductivity of magnesium chloride solution 2, Three drops of diethyl ether and hexane are placed separately in two different watch glasses. The physical state _| Chemistry SPM Chaser 5 Chemica Bonds Results: GAS Melting and boiling points a 8 BP Table 5.18 Substance | ‘Observation : “inferences | ‘Magnesium chloride] The substance remains as a white solid even | Magnesium chloride has high melting crystals after 10 minutes. and boiling points. It is non-volatile. Sodium sulphate | The substance remains as a white solid even | Sodium sulphate has high melting and crystals after 10 minutes. boiling points. itis non-volatile. Diethyl ether The colourless liquid disappears\vaporises and] Diethyl ether has low melting and boiling the watch glass becomes cry after 10 minutes. | points. It is volatile. Hexane The colourless liquid disappearsivaporises and|Hexane has low melting and boiling the watch glass becomes dry after 10 minutes. | points. Itis volatile. i &B5 Solubility in water and organic solvents Table 5.19 S Observation F Inferences “Solubility in water ‘Magnesium chloride The white solid dissolves in water to form a colourless solution The white solid does not dissolve in cyclohexane. ‘Magnesium chloride is soluble in water but insoluble in cyclohexane. Diethyl ether Two layers of colourless liquids are formed. ‘The colourless liquid dissolves in cyclohexane to. form a colourless solution. Diethyl ether is insoluble in water but soluble in cyclohexane 8G) Electrical conductivity Table 5.20 Substance -| State substance ‘Observation of Pee ‘Changes at the ee carbon electrodes Inferences Leaditt) bromide Solid The bulb does not glow. No change Lead) bromide cannot conduct electricity in the solid state but can conduct electricity in the liquid state. Liquid’ ‘molten The bulb glows brightly ‘A reddish-brown vapour is liberated at one of the electrodes. Naphthalene | Solid ‘|The bulb does not glow. No change Naphthalene cannot conduct electricity in the solid and liquid Liquid molten The bulb does not glow. No change states. Magnesium chloride ‘Aqueous solution ‘The bulb glows brightly. Bubbles of gas are liberated at both the carbon electrodes. [Magnesium chloride can conduct electricity in the aqueous solution. Discussion: 1. Magnesium chloride crystals and sodium sulphate crystals are ionic compounds. They are made up of positive and negative ions which are attracted together by strong ionic bonds. A lot of heat energy is needed to, ‘overcome these bonds during melting or boiling. Hence, they have high melting and boiling points and are non-volatile, Diethyl ether and hexane are covalent compounds. They consist of molecules that are attracted to each other | by weak intermolecular forces. Little heat energy is needed to overcome these weak forces during melting or, boiling, Hence, they have low melting and boiling points and are volatile, i (a3SM chemistry SPM chapter 5 Chomical Bonds 3. Magnesium chloride, as an ionic compound, is * soluble in water, but + insoluble in cyclohexane (organic solvent). 4. Diethyl ether, as a covalent compound, is + insoluble in water, but + soluble in cyclohexane (organic solvent). 5. In solid lead(t) bromide (an ionic compound), the lead!) ions and bromide ions are closely packed at fixed positions in an orderly manner. Hence, the ions do not move freely. As a result, solid lead{t!) bromide cannot conduct electricity. 6. In molten leadill) bromide, the leadill) ions and bromide ions are mobile or can move freely. Hence, molten lead) bromide can conduct electricity. 7. Magnesium chloride (an ionic compound) ionises completely in an aqueous solution to become free. mobile magnesium ions and chloride ions. Hence, an aqueous solution of magnesium chloride can conduct electricity, MgCla(s) AIS Mgtaq) + 2CHaq) 8 Naphthalene, as a covalent compound, is made up of covalent molecules only. Hence, it cannot conduct electricity inthe solid and liquid states. Conclusion: 1. onic compounds are non-volatile and have high melting and boiling points, They are usually soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents. They can conduct eleciticity in the molten and aqueous states. 2. Covalent compounds are volatile and have low melting and boiling points. They are usually insoluble in water bbut soluble in organic solvents. They cannot conduct electricity in the solid and liquid states, Types of covalent molecules ‘Giant lattice structure ~ strut keksl raksasa 1, There are two types of covalent molecules. (a) Simple molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, ammonia and tetrachloromethane. (b) Macromolecules or giant molecules such as silicon dioxide and diamond. 2. Figure 5.24 shows the structures of diamond and silicon dioxide. Carbon atom Onygen ‘atom ‘Silzon aiom bonds Diamond Silicon dioxide Figure 5.24 Structures of diamond and silicon dioxide 3. Inamacromolecule, all the atoms are bonded to each other by covalent bonds in a giant lattice structure. 4, These macromolecules (a) have high melting and boiling points because a lot of heat energy is needed to break the strong covalent bonds in the giant lattice structure. (b) cannot conduct electricity because they do not have free mobile ions, (©) are insoluble in water. Uses of covalent compounds as solvents 1, Many covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. Hence, they exist as liquids at room temperature and are volatile. 2, Covalent compounds in the form of liquids are mostly used as solvents in our daily life. Most of these liquids are organic compounds. ‘They are Known as organic soivents. 3, Examples of some common organic solvents are alcohols such as ethanol, ethers such as dimethyl ether, propanone, chloroform (trichloromethane), turpentine and petrol. 4. Organic solvents are used (a) as solvents to prepare solutions. (b) to remove and clean dirt on surfaces which cannot be removed by water. 5, Table 5.21 lists out the uses of some organic solvents, |Chemistry SPM Chapters Chemical Bonds cence a SPM Highlights Bs — The following table shows the number of neutrons and the nucleon numbers of atoms of elements Q and R. Qand Rare not the actual symbols of the elements. Element @ reacts with element R to form @ compound. What is the molar mass of the compound formed? A 46g mot © St gmol* B 76g mot* D 150. amor! Examiner's Tips 7 [Atom E : @ R Number‘of electrons / 14218 32-16 = 16 | Electron arrangement See 283 286 Number of valence electrons 3 6 [To achieve a stable octet electron arrangement Donates 3 electrons —_ | Accepts 2 electrons ‘Simplest whole number ratio of atoms x e393 | Number of atoms that combine fe form a compound | Two @ atoms combine with inves R atoms is Hence, the chemical formula of the compound is Q:Rs. Il «Molar mass of QR, = 2(27)+ 3(32) = 150.9 mol Answer: D To prepare ionic compounds. Materials: Magnesium ribbon, chlorine gas, sodium, iron filings, soda lime, sandpaper, asbestos paper and filter paper. Apparatus: Crucible, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, pipe-clay triangle, spatula, gas jar, gas jar spoon, combustion tube, knife, forceps and stopper with delivery tube. Procedure: Sodium is'a very reactive metal. Handle sodium with care. Wear gloves and goggles when haindling sodium, * Chlorine is 2 poisonous gas. Do not inhale the gas. ~ = . sChemistry SPM Chapter § Chemica! Bonds Preparation of magnesium oxide | 1. A5.cm length of magnesium ribbon is cleaned with sandpaper to remove the oxide layer on its surface. | 2. The magnesium ribbon is placed in a crucible as shown in Figure 5.10. Magnesium oll Pipe-clay ‘wiangio 3. The magnesium ribbon is heated strongly over a Bunsen burner. 4. Any changes that occur are recorded, | &B) Preparation of sodium chloride Sas er spoon | 1. Asmall piece of sodium metal is cut out using a knife and forceps, The Gas jar cover i i f fil r oil on its surface is wiped off by rolling it over a piece of filter paper, Lownie 2. The sodium metal is placed on a gas jar spoon. gas 3., The sodium is heated carefully in air until it starts to burn, hen mot Sodium metal 4. The burning sodium is quickly placed into a gas jar filled with chlorine gas, a shown in Figure 5.11, [-— Gas er 5. Any changes that occur are recorded. ©) Preparation of iran(ttt) chloride 1. One spatulaful of iron filings is placed on a piece of asbestos paper. 2. The asbestos paper containing the iron fillings is placed in the combustion tube as shown in Figure 5.12. Combustion ube ron flings. Heat Paper Figire 8:12 Heating of rn lings in chlosne gas 3. the iron filings are heated strongly 4. Dry chlorine gas is then passed aver the hot iron filings until no further change occurs. 5. Any changes that occur are recorded, Results: i Table 5.4 Method “Observation et Inference | | Heating of magnesium | Magnesium ribbon burns rapidly with a very bright | The white solid formed is | [in air white flame. A white solid is obtained, magnesium oxide. | [Burning of sodium in| Sodium bums very rapidly with a yellow flame. . | The white solid formed is sodium chlorine gas The greenish-yellow chlorine gis is decolourised. | chloride. [White fumes are liberated. On cooling to room temperature, a white solid is formed, | [Heating of iron in iron bums rapidly with a bright flame. A brawn | The brown solid formed is ironilll) chlorine gas solid is formed. chloride. Figure 5.11 Burning of sodiuen in chlorine gasChemistry SPM Chapier § Chemica! Bonds Discussion: &) Preparation of magnesium oxide i 1. When heated, the hot magnesium ribbon reacts with oxygen in the air to produce a white solid, magnesium oxide. | | 2Mg(s) + Oxlg) —* 2MgO%s) i 2. Themetal, magnesium, combines with the non-metal, oxygen, to form an ionic compound magnesium oxide. 3. Magnesium oxide consists of magnesium ions, Mg”, and oxide ions, O°. Preparation of sodium chloride | 1. Sodium is a metal and chlorine is a non-metal. 2. When heated, sodium reacts very rapidly with chlorine to produce a white solid, sodium chloride. I 2Nals) + Ch{g) —> 2NaCIs) | 8. The sodium chloride formed is an ionic compound made up of sodium ions, Na’, and chloride ions, Ch. > | &€) Preparation of iron(ti) chloride i |1. Iron isa metal and chlorine is 2 non-metal. at 2. When heated, hot iron reacts with chlorine gas to produce a brown solid, iran(ilt) chloride. ' 2Fe(s) + 3Chig) —> 2FeCh(s) | 3. The ironiti}) chloride formed is an ionic compound made up of iron(Itl) ions, Fe", and chloride ions, Cr. | Conclusion: | 1. Whena metal combines with a non-metal, an ionic compound is formed, 2. tonic compounds such as magnesium oxide, sodium chloride and ironitil) chloride ‘can be prepared by direct | combination of their elements. i Method to deduce the formulae of ionic compounds 1. Metals from Groups 1, 2 and 13 combine with non-metals from Groups 15, 16 and 17 to form ionic | compounds, 2, ‘Table 5.5 shows how the metal atoms of Groups 1, 2 and 13 form positive ions with different charges, Table 5.5 ‘Number of valence | Number of electrons donated to achieve a | . Charge of Group | electrons stable noble gas electron arrangement. | positive ion |. Example of ions 1 1 1 1 Lr Na 2 2 2 42 Mg, Ca®, Ba 13 3 3 33 AP ‘Table 5.6 shows how the non-metal atoms of Groups 15, 16 and 17 form negative ions with different charges. Table 5.6 ., | Number of valence. | Number of electrons accepted to achieve a| Charge of Group | “electrons _| _ stable noble gas electron arrangement | negative ion.| .Fxample of ons 15, 5 3 3 Ne | 16 6 2 2 oF se 7 7 1 1 Ch Br 4. ‘The information in Table 5.5 and Table 5.6 can be used to determine the formulae of ionic compounds as shown in the following examples. bee