Drum Making Basongiye Merriam PDF

The Ethnographic Experience: Drum-Making among the Bala (Basongye)
Author(s): Alan P. Merriam

Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Jan., 1969), pp. 74-100
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/849833
Accessed: 18-09-2017 17:24 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
University of Illinois Press, Society for Ethnomusicology are collaborating with JSTOR
to digitize, preserve and extend access to Ethnomusicology
This content downloaded from 164.41.83.253 on Mon, 18 Sep 2017 17:24:02 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
THE ETHNOGRAPHIC EXPERIENCE:
DRUM-MAKING AMONG THE BALA (BASONGYE)
Alan P. Merriam
It is a truism in anthropology that no event or object in human society or

culture exists as an isolate; rather, all phenomena are interrelated into a
complex whole whose parts are delicately and inextricably interwoven with one
another. As a part of human society and culture, music, musicians and their
activities, and the implements they use in producing music, are no exception to
this general axiom, and thus we can expect that the investigation of one aspect
of music will lead us inevitably into investigation of other aspects of music as
well as other parts of the culture and society at large. In the course of his
investigations, then, the ethnographer is constantly presented with new
information and new leads into areas of the culture he is studying. A discussion
of social structure may veer suddenly into oral literature because an informant
uses a proverb to illustrate his point; an explication of religious philosophy turns
to economics as insight is suddenly gained into funeral rites as a means of
economic redistribution.
Thus almost anything may lead to almost anything else in ethnographic

investigation, though the skilled field worker, of course, controls the situation
insofar as possible, pursuing the particular problem at hand and setting aside for
future discussion those points which arise more or less unexpectedly. The point
-and the procedure-are equally true in informant questioning and in observa-
tion, but the following discussion is pointed especially toward the latter tech-
nique of investigation. The axiom being followed is that simple observation leads
the ethnographer into many avenues of exploration, some of which are central
to the event he is observing, some of which are at best peripheral, and some of
which bear no visible relationship whatsoever. The event to be explored is one
that readers of this journal would consider strictly ethnomusicological; in fact,
while the ethnomusicological purpose was carried out satisfactorily, the event
led to the recovery of a wide range of information, much of which was not
ethnomusicological at all.
The event of which I speak is the process, occurring over a period of ten
days, of making a drum in the Bala (Basongye) village of Lupupa Ngye in which
my wife and I carried out ethnographic and ethnomusicological research in
74
MERRIAM: DRUM-MAKING AMONG THE BALA 75
1959-60. The Basongye people inhabit an area of the Eastern Kasai Pr

the Democratic Republic of the Congo where they have apparently be
the fifteenth century. Dispersed temporarily by the Arab slave w
1880s, they regrouped themselves early in the twentieth century int
major divisions-the so-called "pure" Basongye in the east, the Bekaleb
south, and the Bala in the northwest. The Basongye population is abo
while that of the Bala subgrouping with which this study is concern
by government figures for 1958.
The Bala village of Lupupa Ngye is located on the eastern side of
area and has a population of about 260 people. Its economic basis i
ture, and almost all males are engaged in crop production. While no in
entirely supported through economic specialization, nearly every man
skills which he contributes to the labor pool of the village; among the
nut cutter, fisherman, bicycle repairman, hunter, political and religio
carpenter, musician, and others.
Music instruments are usually made by musicians or ex-musicians
work is considered to require special ability; in fact, a considerable pro
the men of Lupupa Ngye can construct, or at least have some knowle
the process of constructing instruments. This is truer in respect to so
ments than to others, but almost everyone can take at least some part
a drum.
The common drum, etumba (pl. matumba), made from a hollo

trunk or limb, is about 16" to 24" high in a chalice shape, and is head
goatskin. It is interesting to note in passing that the people of Lupup
assert almost unanimously that this type of drum originated in the Ba
indeed in their own village, and thence spread to the rest of the wor
some other membranophones are known (for example mididi, des
long drum), and the slit gong (lunkufi) is a central music instrument
culture, the etumba is the only membranophone played today. Al
matumba are identical in construction, three types are differentiated o
of size and musical function. It is not my purpose in this paper, how
discuss drums and drumming as such, but rather to indicate the
making a drum, viewed as an ethnographic experience for the investiga
I first reached the small town of Kabinda on August 12, 195
became a temporary base of operations for scouting through Basongye
Lupupa Ngye was first visited on August 18; on August 26 I decided t
the center of my research, and on August 29 moved into it permane
September 5 my wife and children joined me and our work began. I m
these dates in order to indicate how new we were to Lupupa Ngye at
76 MERRIAM: DRUM-MAKING AMONG THE BALA
drum construction began on September 12-we were still cautionsly feeling

way and attempting to establish ourselves as friendly and enthusiastic guest
the village.
The following description of what happened over the next ten days in
connection with the construction of a drum can be read in a number of ways: it
describes the construction process in minute detail, it can be viewed as an
informal document of small group activity; it serves as an ethnographic slice of
life, and it delimits a small part of an economic system. Above all, it illustrates
the ethnographic experience, the details of the never-humdrum gathering of
data, the ramifications of that gathering process, and the tentative groupings
which characterize the work of all ethnographers. The description is presented as
it was written in my field notes, with explanatory information in brackets.
Saturday, September 12, 1959: Morning

The beginning cast of characters includes M, N, A, and the author, APM:
M is an older man of some standing in the village. He is an alcoholic by

Western standards, and the people of Lupupa Ngye recognize his illness
and make allowances for it. M can become extremely aggressive when
drinking, but is of a sunny disposition when sober, much liked by the
villagers, and sought out by the children of whom he is obviously fond. He
is a minor political dignitary and ostensibly a drum maker.
N is a young man of about eighteen years; the Bala would classify him as a
"youth." He is considered to be a fine young drummer.
A is my interpreter, a young man of twenty-one, charming, thoughtful,

intelligent, and a speaker of six languages.
8:00 a.m.: Arrive at M's house ... he shows enormous astonishment that
APM wants to come to bush with him to get log ... complains about how wet it
is ... shows discomfort at my insistence . . . finally gives in, changes
clothes. 8:10 Looks for tools, finds them in goat house. 8:15 We start, he
disappears, comes back with small bundle wrapped in blue rag which later turns
out to be the keys to his house. 8:18 We leave. 8:22 Stop to investigate tree
off path ... are looking for kichipichipi (pl. pichipichipi) tree ... this one too
big... very important that we have right kind of tree. 8:25 Leave. 8:26 Go
off path again... find tree ... M begins hacking at tree with machete ... N
says, "come here; this other tree is straighter." . . . M starts chopping on big
branch with machete at 8:30... rings branch... N begins cutting with axe
(kabengele, pl. tubengele) ... M explains he chooses this wood for two reasons:
1) when the drum is finished one can hear the sound far away. Why? Because it
is light wood; 2) because it is easy wood to work 8:41 Axe gets stuck in
chopped cleft and takes a minute to get it out... then starts new cut to
left. 8:43 Rests 30 seconds. 8:45 Rests again . . uses axe from right shoul-
der, but has left hand above right (he is the only one who does
this). 8:48 Stop to listen to someone signaling from the village of Lumba, 15
km. away ... I can barely hear it ... they say he is calling a friend to come sing
with him 8:50 Rests. M2 wanders by and is pressed into chopping serv-
ice .. . he starts another cut with the axe on the right side. 8:53 M says he
wants to go down to check his palm wine calabash to see whether it is full ...
doesn't go. 8:55 M2 climbs to crotch of tree, chops away dead branch with
machete, and cut branch falls ... M immediately begins cutting off a 16" section
with machete . . M2 takes over with axe. 9:00 M leaves for palm
tree. 9:03 Work stops while they discuss boa constrictors. 9:06 A does
some chopping with axe... N goes off "to look for mushrooms." 9:08 M2
takes over. 9:09 A takes over. 9:10 N comes back ... no mushrooms (went
to relieve himself). 9:11 Try to break off section by lifting ... no go ... A
continues to chop. 9:12 Break off by lifting... N trims off some burned bark
with machete ... M2 and N lift section to M2's shoulder and he leaves. 9:20
We arrive back at M's. 9:22 N starts to trim burned bark with machete, log
lying on ground... M2 tells him to stand it on its end to trim... he does...
stops frequently to chat with bystanders . . keeps turning log and does not
change his position ... mostly stands and bends over to work, sometimes
squats. 9:36 M returns. 9:37 N gives M2 some pieces of bark ... he leaves
... it is medicine for stomach ache ... put in water, cook, and drink the
brew. 9:38 N finished trimming bark... bystander brings old drum and N
puts beside log ... M arrives with stool and three different tools. 9:40 M goes
to stone and sharpens adze (s. and pl. sesu). 9:41 Returns and goes into
house. 9:44 Returns with goatskin on which squats briefly ... chooses hollow
end of log and begins squaring it off with machete ... says he is going to use old
drum to measure, as a model... cuts groove around log... asks whether I am
going to let him stop at noon or make him go until finished ... uses adze to trim
off undesirable portion between groove and end of log... discusses measuring
old drum and how to put skin on with N and bystanders... N says he could
make a drum if there were no one else to do it, but not as well as M. (The
Basongye often express this kind of self-confidence, particularly musicians in
connection with making music instruments. N's statement that he could not do
so as well as M is an indication of deference and respect to an older man who is
also a political dignitary; N probably does not believe this in his heart) ... N
clearly interested and watching to learn ... discuss tools and their price i
terey ... blade falls out of adze ... shapes another wedge of wood and w
blade in by knocking back of adze head on log... discuss piece of woo
took and piece we left ... explains about it to N and N2 who has just arriv
N2 is a young man and a musician especially skilled on the xylophon

drum.
... discuss a song type called kikadi (pl. bikadi), which they all say is
important. 10:03 Finishes squaring base ... discuss amakola (s. and pl.
other drum type in another village ... gives N2 a stick and he measures o
drum from base to top ... M measures distance on log and marks with pi
charcoal, turning log as he marks in a series
PointB GrooveD of dashes with spaces between... scrapes
log so that has clean surface on which to
Poi.tD \ mark. 10:07 Begins squaring other end of
log... tells N and N2 that after he squar
Poin.tA \this end, the bottom of drum, will take
. Poin G,,veB measure of waist (My term. Point A, Fig. 1)
GrooA and then cut from alternate sides.
Figure 1. Cross-section of cor- 10:13 Friend arrives, stops to talk for 30
pleted drum, with points and grooves
referred to in text. seconds ... cuts groove around bottom,
referred to in text.
then shallower groove some 5" toward mid-

dle of log (Grooves A & B, Fig. 1). 10:16 N2 leaves... M follows same proc-
ess of squaring off end ... begins to make waist. 10:20 C arrives and is greet-
ed:
C is a middle-aged man and also a musician, the official player of the

village lunkufi, or slit gong.
... M uses adze to make waist, working way around drum both squaring and
roughing out the waist. 10:22 Two men arrive, M stops to talk ... C sits down
on drum. 10:23 M gets up and goes into house .. .two men leave ... M
comes back immediately with folding chair for C ... C asks what kind of tree it
is ... M tells him . . goes to house and returns with bench ... starts work again
at 10:26. Remarks that first day they sang, APM gave them 50 fr., and singers
gave him 10 fr. as owner of drums they had used... M3 arrives:
M3 is a middle-aged man, a part-time musician of secondary skill, and a

well-skilled mason.
... I greet by name ... M astonished ... M3 remarks that M had better make a
good drum... M says he knows what he is doing ... L arrives:
L is a man in late middle age, physically very active, a reputed sorcerer

and certainly extremely knowledgeable about magic, and an excellen
maker of fish traps.
... M astonished when I greet L by name . . M continues working righ

along... M3 and N working all the time on raffia basketry... everyone ta
about snakes... much laughing... L says he saw a huge one yesterday...
asks whether one can buy a permit in America to kill elephants in the Congo
10:41 L takes over, M leaving toward the bush... C says L knows how t
make drum better than M (certainly works faster anyway) . . M r
turns. 10:44 L says he will make a better and bigger drum for
me. 10:45 Ends squared... L and M discuss where to cut now... L begins
working on waist... big joke about drinking... L works from bottom only,
toward second groove, standing and bending over work using adze ... two men
come with peg shoes and 2 combs... L looks from log to drum carefully, sizing
distance and shape... man with shoes leaves... L now chips straight down at
edge of groove (Groove A, Fig. 1) ... much discussion of how much and where
to do it... man with combs leaves ... P arrives, looking for eggs (P was my
cook)... leaves with M .. .L a much smoother workman than M .. .M comes
back, says somebody stole palm wine he had hidden behind house ... little boy
carrying baby arrives, leaves .. .P returns, leaves with lemons, no eggs ... L
finishes this section. . . turns drum around critically, trims off big
hump. 10:59 M returns, sits down on goatskin ... A offers M some money for
palm wine and M says he found his liquor after all (he was clearly trying to hide
its existence from the other men, but could not in good conscience take money
from A, who was probably trying to trap him in any case... he succeed-
ed) ... M and L argue over where to cut next .. use old drum as model... ar-
gue whether to finish waist or start to hollow... M says finish waist because
otherwise may break through when hollowing... L says it is easy to hol-
low ... begins to hollow with big axe ... L continues with small adze. 11:03
Man arrives ... M leaves... L calls for M to bring him a cup of palm wine
because L is a better drum maker than M ... man leaves.. . L hollowing from
top in a circle. 11:11 L takes small scoop chisel (mutonkolo, pl. miton-
kolo) ... N has cut old axe handle in half to use as mallet ... L tries, puts aside,
and continues with adze ... N leaves... .M returns and sharpens chisel ... L
switches to axe, head falls off, and begins with chisel again ... holds chisel with
left hand and pounds with right .. M sits down on stool close to work and
watches L (did not bring him any palm wine)... N returns and takes stool...
M sits on old drum ... four men arrive, sit on bench.. . L making hollow
wider and deeper . . man #1 leaves . . M goes to goathouse and returns to old
drum seat... L squatting at this work... man #2 leaves... M says hole

wide enough... M and L argue a bit about it... man #3 leaves. 11:25 B
(Barbara W. Merriam) and children arrive ... everybody gets up and w
stops... BWM sits down and L resumes work ... M leaves, returns ... L gets
and sharpens chisel ... discusses where to cut with M .. .begins widening ho
low. 11:32 L goes to sharpen chisel... M suggests we quit, but L comes
and wants to continue ... M begins chopping with adze ... L says no ... discu
how to make hole... is now \ / ... and decide had better widen bottom
hole with adze so it will be simpler to make entire hole bigger... L lays dru
down on side and does this ... M4 comes to watch:
M4 is the last remaining person in the village with slave status.
... all stop and discuss yesterday's bush fire ... M leaves... a woman of
Kampata started the fire ... M returns. 11:41 L begins again with chisel ... L
says "I watched my father do this; that's how I know how. When APM comes to
my place, I'll make a big one for him, and better."... child cries because ears
hurt from pounding... tell him to leave. 11:46 L works with adze
again. 11:51 APM calls halt... N takes drum and turns upside down under a
tree ... M puts tools back in goathouse.
Saturday, September 12, 1959: Afternoon

3:06 p.m.: Present are M, N, A, and APM ... M's friend arrives... M
leaves... N says that when drum is finished must leave it in the river for one
day ... this makes it swell and makes the sound correct. 3:09 M returns, sits
on chair, holds drum upright with feet, begins using chisel and mallet to hol-
low... friend arrives... N leaves to get chair... M says that the inside is the
hard part ... works with chisel curve toward him ... first works at making sides
of inside hole vertical, then begins enlarging hole slightly .. man arrives... N
goes to get bench ... man sits on stool... first man remarks how much easier it
would be with a machine (lathe) which he has seen somewhere... everyone
agrees ... conversation very general ... A shows the leg he hurt in Kabinda and
it is discussed... talk about fruit falling from trees... another man ar-
rives. 3:35 Man #2 leaves... M brings up question of key this morning,
laughs about it ... N shoos away two children. 3:42 Man #3 leaves... con-
versation drops off... M remarks he doesn't work on Sundays ... meanwhile he
is hollowing straight down but says that hole is not yet wide enough. 3:46
Man #3 returns ... M remarks that he wonders what APM will pay
him. 3:50 N2 arrives ... chicken house man arrives (this refers to a man who
constructed a chicken house for me) ... M5 arrives:
M5 is a middle-aged man who is considered to be the best carpe

Lupupa Ngye.
... says our door is finished... looks in drum ... M5 and N2 say that
to leave the hole its present width and then widen it below. 3:56 M
returns . .,. N2 says that the hole should be shaped as he suggests b
makes the sound better ... also points out that sharp outside rim ought
beveled off to prevent the drumhead from splitting and to allow the dru
play without hurting his hands (N had previously said he got blisters w
he played the drum and showed me his hands to prove it)... M mov
sun, puts drum on side, sits on goatskin and begins to take off sharp
adze ... chicken house man leaves... M sets drum on its base, turns it ar
regards it, and smooths corners more ... rolls drum on ground and reg
then smooths some more ... man #3 leaves... M sets drum upright, reg
lays it down and smooths some more ... goes back to working the insid
with chisel... man #2 leaves... M remarks that after he has finished inside
hole he will make a design on the outside ... M6 arrives:
M6 is a man of about 35 years, an excellent musician, player of the

lunkufi, xylophone, and other instruments.
... man #4 arrives ... M6 leaves... general discussion of interior design ...
say that if drum designed like B above, the sound will not be clear and, especial-
ly, loud, because the sound just goes straight down, but when drum is designed
like A the sound goes down and hits the bottom and comes up again ... M starts
to work the hollow as in A ... remarks this part easy because already has a hole
to work from... M6 returns. 4:15 N leaves... M remarks that one puts
drum in river so that it won't crack later ... one can also put it in a hole in the
ground and cover it with the same result... in either case, leave it for one
day . .. M5 says he could make a drum after watching M ... M5 has never seen a
drum being made; neither has A ... the mouth of the hole in the drum is called
"mouth" (s. and pl. mukanwa), and the wider part the "stomach" (efu, pl.
mafu) ... N2 leaves... man #4 leaves. 4:23 M leaves and M5 takes over ...
turns drum over to shake out chips ... M and L have scooped out chips with
hand. 4:29 N returns . .man #5 arrives... M5 says, "It's easy. I can make
one myself.".. . man #5 says, "Don't make it deeper; make the efu" ... .man
#6 arrives on bicycle. 4:32 M returns and tells M5 to judge the distance care-
fully so that he does not break through the side .,. . N2 returns ... N leaves . ..
man #6 leaves... M leaves ... N returns ... M6 and N2 go short distance

and N2 begins to give M6 a haircut....M6 leaves... N leaves... M3 ar-
rives... N returns with chisel.. . M5 goes to rock and sharpens it... M3
leaves... new chisel requires reshaping haft which M5 does with adze ... new
chisel larger ... M5 sends boy for his own mallet. 4:42 M arrives with length
of rope .. .N2, M, man #5 measure rope ... conversation turns to years of
birth. 4:48 Boy brings mallet... children who have gathered are told to go sit
on bench .. .M5 sweating hard and working fast... man #5 leaves. 4:55 M5
and M measure depth of hole with carpenter's rule... still 5 cm. to
go. 4:58 Man #2 returns and leaves immediately. 5:00 M leaves after ascer-
taining 2 cm. to go. 5:02 M returns... now down 28 cm. (want to go to
30) ... M tells M5 to work on the efu ... he does... M helps hold drum...
hole has been slightly lopsided and M5 rounds it out... no comment from
M. 5:10 Man #7 arrives... fall to discussing possible price APM will pay ...
M6 returns and N2 continues haircut. 5:19 M says he is tired says he doesn't
work on Sundays but will if I want him to ... I say I don't work on Sundays
either unless there is something special... we quit.
Monday, September 14, 1959: Afternoon

2:05 p.m.: Present are M, N, A, man #1, man #2, and L2, the last from
the village of Makola ... L2 taught M how to make drums and M called him to
come over and work on this one. 2:09 M starts... L2 immediately takes
over... calls for stool ...man #3 arrives... L2 calls for machete... begins to
chop groove 1/" wide and very shallow almost at top (Groove C, Fig. 1)... rolls
drum on ground as he works... adze blade falls out ... L2 says he is the mas-
ter: "Now you'll see how to make a drum" ... woman arrives and seats self...
N brings old drum as model ... M says, "Don't make that groove so deep"...
L2 says, "Shut up, I'm the one who taught you. You've got some more to learn,
I see." ... L2 asks whether I have given the commencement gift (the custom is
to give a small gift at the start) ... M says, "You're going to cut through the
side."... L2 says, "Shut up, I'm the one who taught you. I know what I'm
doing." 2:17 L2 begins to cut a parallel groove 3" lower ... M keeps riding
him. 2:20 Takes adze and cuts down from Groove C (Fig. 1) ... APM gives 15
fr. for bottle of beer and A sends boy off to purchase ... woman says, "Give me
some of the beer when it comes." ... M says, "Your work is in the kitchen. Shut
up or get out." .. . she stays, and keeps talking. . . adze blade falls
out. 2:27 Finishes this cut, sets drum upright, turns, regards... M leaves...
L2 begins cutting in sharply at Groove D (Fig. 1), leaving distinct lip about an
inch deep ... says will nail hide at Point B ... M returns with bananas, gives to
children... woman gets up, takes, leaves... L2 holds drum at angle with ba
on ground ... M very aggressive today ... M says, "Don't do that; you'll make a
hole in the side.".. . L2 replies, "I know what I'm doing; this is my work. I'm
not a child." . . . continues, "After this, I'll hollow out the inside." (he d
not) .,. . boy returns with bottle of beer ... talk of L's saying he will make me
better drum... woman returns... I say I am going to make M famous and
ought to be buying me a beer... big joke. 2:43 Finishes this cut... takes
machete and begins cutting straight notch at Groove D (Fig. 1) ... M brin
saw ... L2 uses it briefly and then goes back to machete .. .purpose was t
make a straight line all the way around. . . man #4 arrives .. .man #5 a
rives .. woman leaves... men #4 and 5 leave... A and N leave to greet
stranger whose friend has just died ... L2 remarks, "Now it's beginning to loo
like a drum."... M takes saw and cuts around a bit at Groove D (Fig. 1)... L
resumes work with adze ... N leaves . .man #6 comes to return bicycle pump
to A .. .leaves.. .M5 arrives. 3:03 L2 begins to make hole for carryin
cord . . . makes 2 V-shaped notches 1" apart . . says that hardest part of the
work is the design... says will work in my
name if I like ... I decline... L2 remarks
b E
-D- D- that he c
figures) than t
Figure 2. Detail of dru
points referred to i
starts choppin
machete ... argument a
gins cutting in at E (Fig.
drum ... N returns ... M
bush, get another log,
finish tomorrow... wom
out by L2 . . . she laug
the drum they are using
it takes to make a dru
whether L2 is going t
ishes this cut... from the
bottom... is cutting hip
. . . L2 says he will ma
adze ... discuss whether b
comes up again ... I ask M
says he will have to th
hands on being bakuku (
institutionalized friends. M and I never completed the formal procedure

ly, but he, I, and the villagers considered from that point forward that
indeed, formal friends.) ... M and N leave, return ... M tells me to mov
the sun ... I say it is hotter in Chicago ... he says, "I never saw anybody
this in my life." .. L2 finishes roughing out the waist. 4:00 L2 begi
near base with machete ... M helps, holding drum on side on ground. 4
works more on waist with adze ... M says, "Get going; you've already r
gift." ... man #2 leaves... N leaves... man #2 returns, talks with
an... man #1 moves chair out of sun. 4:08 L2 getting tired, stops,
stops to discuss how much it cost me to come from America ... men #
arrive ... man #4 greets me by clapping hands... I respond in sam
ner ... big laugh ... L2 remarks that L hasn't returned... A says M k
ting him off on the drink ... L had said that since M wouldn't give him
and since payment for the drum would go to M anyway, to hell with it
to earn my living. If APM wants a drum from me, fine." 4:18 L2
working on base with adze ... chipping from the bottom up toward the
previously made (Groove A, Fig. 1) ... drum on the ground or held by t
at a slight angle .. . M squats close to drum, first time in a long time.
finishes base ... N arrives ... we decide it is a good place to stop for
and to resume tomorrow morning since L2 wants to go home tomorrow
Tuesday, September 15, 1959: Morning

8:43 a.m.: Present are M, A, and APM . . M searches for tools i
house, sharpens them. 8:45 L2 arrives... man #1 arrives and examin
... M and L2 go to other goathouse, presumably to search for tools ... A
off children .. . L2 reappears with a piece of bark to use as wedge in ad
comes out with another drum he had started for self, using piece from lo
for this drum . . man #1 leaves. 8:51 L2 starts trimming gently on low
of neck, using adze ... man #1 returns... M sharpens chisel on rock
boys arrive ... M starts hollowing his drum ... N comes with raffia and
on basket .. .M gets up, gets chair, goes to work on his drum in e
hawk (kabemba, pl. tubemba) dives down out of sky and steals chi
brief, considerable excitement. 9:08 L2 finishes trimming lower po
neck... begins trimming area just below, cutting rather deeply... m
comes and goes... 2 boys leave ... N leaves. 9:26 L2 finishes this po
and begins hollowing with chisel and mallet .. M sharpens tools ... N re
... L2 asks N where his fishing lake is ... N won't tell ... M coming and
as usual. . . M says he is going to give his friend (APM) a goat at New Ye
then APM will have to give him at least two pairs of trousers in retur
says, "Come here and I'll show you how to make a drum," to N ... N says, "
I'm going to stay here with L2." 9:47 Stops hollowing and uses adze on
portion ... 2 boys leave ... man #3 arrives ... L arrives ... offers L2 a drink
palm wine because L2 is a stranger in the village . . . L2 remarks that the tre
only just big enough ... L gives various pieces of advice, mostly "gently, g
ly." ... L remarks that he could make a kifwebe (mask of a secret society of
same name) for me... has not seen mine and doesn't know I own one
arrives, says he knows kifwebe ... A says they don't have kifwebe any mo
because young people don't respect it . . . N2 arrives ... L leaves and ret
... adze blade falls out... L makes new chip... N leaves. 10:09 Finis
waist portion and starts on bottom skirt (Point C, Figure 1). 10:15 Fin
this... stands drum up on end, looks at it... goes to work on upper par
neck ... talk over question of whether there will be enough manioc ... man
leaves . . . M leaves .. .man #4 arrives ... L still regarding drum c
ly. 10:26 L2 finishes this portion and begins to trim uppermost portion w
adze ... whole process this morning has been to trim, resulting in making dr
slightly smaller and smoother .. M returns. 10:33 L2 finishes this por
... stands drum up, looks at it, stretches, leaves... very old man arrive
they discuss the building that the Sisters in Tshofa want them to build
remarks that rim ought to be leveled more ... N returns. 10:37 L2 retu
has been to relieve himself. . . L takes over at 10:39 with nkolo (s. and pl.),
blade about 34" wide with a hook at the end: 1. M goes to sharpen on rock
uses implement to go around inside. 10:42 M returns and begins to scoo
with sides of blade . . . L2 remarks is hard to work with tool at start but
easier . . .this is another smoothing process ... M leaves to sharpen tool . ..
begins squaring top with adze ... holds drum away and scrutinizes it often
M returns with nkolo ... L begins on inside again, holding drum between k
... M leaves, warning L to measure so he doesn't go through side ... L ignor
... M says hole not yet deep enough ... L holds handle with both hands
draws up and to the side ... M leaves ... L definitely making hollow deeper.
N leaves. 11:03 M returns and goes to work on his drum again .. N2 arr
with man #4... M leaves... man #5 arrives... L2 remarks that drum h
must be of tough skin... M chases someone away for reasons I do not under
stand ... N returns ... M says he is going to burn down the house of the man
chased away ... big laugh ... N leaves ... L2 stops to talk of the color he
use on the drum, and where to get it... man arrives with pineapple, discuss
price... A buys for 4 fr. 11:22 L passes drum to L2. .. N returns .. M6
rives... L2 begins lessening thickness of lip with adze from inside ... M
M6 bundle of raffia ribre ... M6 leaves... L2 rotates drum and regards w
closely and carefully. 11:30 Begins making mouth wider with adze
rives:
K is a man in early middle age, a woodcarver and political dignitar

considerable charisma.
... gives advice. 11:34 Takes chisel and mallet to cut underlip which has been
much diminished by widening mouth... pretty well obliterates under-
lip. 11:39 Takes nkolo and begins smoothing inside ... M says L2's arms are
tired ... we quit.
Tuesday, September 15, 1959: Afteroon

2:15 p.m.: A and APM arrive ... everyone down at river for bath... re-
turn 2:50... L2 working on M's drum... looks at it closely and begins to
square off bottom with adze ... M and L3 arrive:
L3 is a youth with no particular skills.
... M sends L3 for knife to cut design, then sends him to get nkolo ... L2 stops
to light cigarette... M actually working on his drum... L2, who is 65, props
base of drum on piece of wood ... stops to talk about age ... M leaves... man
#2 arrives.. . says our night watchman owes him 25 fr. and now that he is
employed, will I pay his debt ... I say it is for him to arrange ... he leaves ...
M returns with his old tax book going back to 1923 ... M5 passes by on his way
to install door in my house ... adze blade falls out ... M leaves. 3:09 Finishes
with bottom and begins to trim very gently around base with adze, making it
slightly smaller... man #1 leaves .,.. man with debt comes back, shows his
papers and medal... says night watchman said he would have to wait ... leaves
... M returns, says he hasn't eaten and neither has L2. 3:14 They go to
eat. 3:27 M and L2 return ... N arrives ... L2 continues same task ... A says
he considers theft the worst possible crime ... A says it is not impolite to ask a
person what he has had to eat ... L3 says that murder is worse than theft ... M
leaves. 3:29 L2 finishes and spends more time squaring base . . . M returns
with drum for me to put papers on since folder has been blowing in wind...
debt man returns, leaves ... L2 asks for cigarette ... I give, he puts in pock-
et. 3:30 L2 finishes and begins on bottom skirt again . . . woman stops and
chats on way to get water .. M returns and works on his drum... N says L2
must make a hole so that they can put in a cord to carry the drum ... debt man
returns, speaks to M who replies in least aggressive way I have heard him speak
... debt man leaves ... N suggests putting rubber all around the rim to prevent
drummers from hurting hands... L2 says this is a good idea... N tells how
snakes suck eggs and then you come and there is nothing but an eggshell ...
says he is tired and tells N to work on his drum. 3:40 L2 trims edges of base
again ... N refuses, M starts again ... L3 leaves. 3:42 L2 finishes and deepe
the places where the holes for cord will be. 3:44 Picks up knife (lupete,
mpete) and begins to cut design in neck... presses back of blade with lef
thumb ... N says, "If I watch you, I can do it." ... L2 grabs him by the ear an
says, "If you're going to watch and learn, then bring me a beer." ... talk abo
coloring... is carving diamond shapes in neck, V-shaped grooves ("design
kola, s. and pl.) ... no special names for designs (In following up the question
design later in the research period, it was discovered that the matter was no
simple one. In broad terms, however, kola is used most frequently to refer
any shape which is not a circle or a square and which is not filled in.) ... desi
is made on drum 1) to show maker's competence; 2) to "complete" the drum;
to give it an extra touch... N belches loudly... N showing off in front
APM, teases girls who pass, throws stick at goat which is licking mortar ... ch
of Makola arrives ... N leaves. 4:27 L2 finishes design outline, regards careful
ly, deepens in some places, stretches . . . begins parallel lines inside triangles
between diamonds .. . chief leaves ... is cutting opposite triangles... man
rives, leaves ... M asks L2 whether the hollow inside his drum is all right... M
leaves. 4:44 L2 says he is tired, and we quit.
Wednesday, September 16, 1959: Morning

8:09 a.m.: Present are M, L2, A, 2 boys, APM. 8:11 L2 starts with
knife on decoration ... M leaves ... man #1 arrives, leaves... M brings dru
for me to use as table, and chair for himself, and begins work on his drum ...
finishes first triangle and looks carefully at his work... 2 boys leave ... L be-
gins on opposite triangle. Design of pairs:
M leaves... K2 and two children arrive, leave (K2 was a vigorous middle-ag
man, highly respected in the village. Less than two weeks later, on Septembe
28, he fell dead, probably of a heart attack, thereby setting off a long string
witchcraft accusations and actions in the village) ... A's mother's sister arrive
from Makola with a child... greets A with open arms.. . A seems rather shy,
has not seen her since he returned ... L arrives ... A's mother's sister leaves ...
boy leaves to hunt... N arrives... M arrives... C arrives . .. child leaves...
and C leave to see whether there is a fish in trap L has built in river.. .
remarks in leaving that one must always think of Efile Mukulu (God) if one is
have luck ... M leaves, returns... remarks that someone is here with elephant
tusks, but no one in the village knows how to work ivory... M sharpens adze
... man comes with ivory, two small tusks for sale at 10 frs./kilogram...
works on his drum... two young men arrive ... two girls come by with palm
nuts, much badinage ... N goes to join them at mortar, comes back eating pal
nut ... P arrives, leaves ... 2 young men leave ... P arrives and leaves again ...
L2 has continued with the design... skips a triangle and makes a mistake.
will now have two adjacent triangles with same pattern... L2 is annoyed with
mistake and says so... finishes triangles that are wrong and then looks ve
carefully at the next one to do ... reverses pattern correctly ... man ar
rives. 9:13 L2 goes to relieve self... hear someone singing... A and N say
is one person singing to a crying child... I say more than one ... turns out to
be several boys... man leaves. 9:15 L2 returns and continues design... to
play with child I touch tip of nose with tongue... everyone astonished.
comes out that this indicates that one tells the truth ... if there is an argumen
one person says to the other, "Touch your nose with your tongue." If he can
then he is lying... A says no one in village can do it, and no one in prese
group can... I wiggle ears... terrible astonishment... L2 remarks that only
angry lions can do this ... M leaves in astonishment and some fear ... N leaves
... A's mother's sister comes by again ... L2 explains about ears... woma
leaves... M returns, sharpens tools ... M leaves, returns, eats mango, disa
pears... N returns... M really has some fear about the tongue and ear bit
... L2 sharpens knife ... still working on design ... I cross eyes .. astonish
ment... no one can do... N2 arrives... I do string game... everyone tries
... child shows me very similar trick with legs instead of fingers ... M says it
hot in sun and I ought to move ... I do .. L2 working on hole places becau
he has arrived there in working the design ... I do ball in elbow trick... they
clearly separate tongue and ear bits as different from tricks ... N2 still doub
tongue bit... I do . . . N2 says it is "a miracle" . . . kids can turn little fingers
straight up at first joint... put matchstick on back of thumb and can ho
there... I can't... chicken house man arrives and leaves. 10:34 L2 takes
scraper and begins smoothing section just below neck... man arrives and leaves
with N2 ... L2 sharpens scraper ... child arrives with small bag on string around
neck... put there to protect him if parents have been childless for a long
time... L2 holds one hand close to blade and one hand at end of handle and
draws ... N is hollowing M's drum. 10:44 L2 finishes scraping and is now
cleaning shelf below (Groove V, Fig. 1) ... kids wrap green string around finger,
cut, bury in hole in ground, and it comes out whole ... kids do this for M ... he
is astonished, says he has never seen the trick before ... N leaves. 10:
starts on waist portion with scraper .. . M leaves .. N returns... tsetse fly
pears, L2 recognizes, and doesn't like it... L2 uses knife on shelf above
(Point D, Fig. 1)... kids do trick with seeds involving a sentinel, two thieves
goats ... N leaves ... L2 sharpens scraper ... A says people do not make c
of goat's milk although some do drink the milk ... L2 remarks that he is
ing so that color will go on well, and because drum is going to Americ
returns and goes to work; is very quiet. . . L2 alternates with knife and scr
... N2 arrives and leaves... L2 very careful with shelves. 11:07 Rever
drum and begins scraping lower half of skirt ... N2 arrives ... L2 moves ou
sun ... M brings up tongue bit again ... I ask where L2 went... A says he w
to get a drink, but M says he went to relieve himself .. big laugh. 11:
leaves. 11:15 L2 back at work .. remarks it would be easier with a file ... M
returns with matches . . . L2 sharpens scraper with back of knife . . . asks wheth-
er APM wants to go with them when they look for roots to make the color ... I
say "yes" . . . M says, "If we go alone together, maybe he'll do some more
terrible things" ... is definitely uncertain .. . N arrives . . . M leaves . . .talk
about color ... M returns ... L finishes scraping by moving around (not up and
down) waist itself to remove last chips... sharpens scraper with knife. 11:34
L2 begins working on bottom skirt... M sends N2 to chase goats from goat-
house ... N2 beats with piece of rope ... L2 trims bottom shelf. 11:40 M
suggests we quit ... L2 wants to finish this job. 11:42 We quit.
Wednesday, September 16, 1959: Afternoon

2:04 p.m.: Present are L2, M, N2, A, A's brother, APM.. . L joins us as
we go past his house. 2:12 N carries hoe ... M takes hoe (lukasu, pl. nkasu)
and digs to expose root (mwishi, pl. mishi) of tree (kifumbe, pl. bifumbe) we
have found ... man comes by and is immediately pressed into service with hoe
... good luck that we came across roots so early... L2 and N go off toward
lake ... L leaves toward village ... M digging with machete and taking dirt out
with hands ... exposed root has brown outer skin, but inner bark is magenta in
color ... M chops root off near tree... wood inside is slightly pink and white
... root about 3" in diameter and 5' long ... M fills in hole he has dug... A and
N show me poison caterpillar, black and white and about 4" long (kishi, pl.
bishi). 2:28 Leave. 2:37 Arrive at M's... M immediately buries root to
keep wet. 2:40 L2 now begins to draw circle on top of drum with piece of
charcoal... this is a line to mark where he wants to thin down and make
rounder... works with adze on outside... M says he filled hole so that tree
would not dry out... he can go back sometimes for more root .. present now
Plate I. Drum before final finishing. (Photo by Barbara W. Merriam)
are M, L2, N, N2, A, L3, M5, K, several boys... K sharpens adze and t
over, L2 supervising him closely ... tell how someone this morning m
brother for an animal and fired at him ... K has cut down on one side to even
the circle ... now peels rest of rim down with adze ... M5 busy making bow, M
working on his drum... K now rounds edge where drummers' hands will
hit... K working with care and L2 watching closely... people comment that
APM had clean clothes this morning, now dirty from being in bush, D (washboy)
will have to wash tomorrow. 3:56 K finishes ... L2 picks up adze and bevels
inside and outside edges of mouth ... finishes off with knife ... someone calls
attention to M's moustache ... he twirls ... takes a joke well ... talk turns to
tongue bit... everyone has heard about it. 3:05 L2 begins scraping outside
rim. 3:07 M5 begins scraping inside ... L2 sharpens scraper... N goes and
gets root... gives to M... L2 takes over inside scraping... M cuts root in
half... K leaves... N puts half of root back in hole and covers ... talk again
turns to my tricks ... L3 tries trick with matchbox, smashes it, and is aggrieved.
3:17 L2 finishes with inside ... takes scraper and touches up spots on neck
... puts drum on knees and touches up design with knife ... occurs to me small
boys are around because school is out on Wednesday afternoons ... L2 touching
up area around where hole will be ... K returns, tries rope trick, fails ... tries
again and succeeds ... L2 carves last triangle design near where hole will be ...
M scrapes off thin brown outer bark of root and exposes magenta inner
bark. 3:27 L2 sets drum down with finality ... N returns with goatskin which
he spreads on ground, hide down ... N starts scraping root .. K takes over ...
wood very wet... peeled scraps of inner bark fall on goatskin. 3:34 L2 di-
rects N to make ball of bark and rub on section between neck and waist... big
crowd now... N follows by doing waist... stains a deep brown orange...
scrapes off a dirt spot at L2's direction before staining ... N then does base ...
L2 watching critically ... N does neck ... discover small hole in side ... says it
must be plugged... stain brings out design beautifully. 3:47 N puts drum in
sun to dry ... has not done uppermost section which will be covered by drum-
head, or upper or lower rims ... L2 remarks can put oil on bark if it becomes
too dry. 3:50 Quit, while stain dries. 5:24 L2 and M come to house to put
on second coat... bring small container of palm oil... M dips ball of bark in
oil... oil is to prevent drum from cracking and to keep bark wet... finish
5:35.
Saturday, September 19, 1959: Morning

8:18 a.m.: People begin to make fire with soni (s. and pl.), which is
ordinary bush grass... throw in roots of the mulolo (pl. milolo) tree, and chips
left over from the process of drum making... cut off bark of hot roots and
throw root itself away ... take bundle of pitch (kabanda, pl. tubanda) from the
mpafu (s. and pl.?) tree ... put bark, still slightly warm, in mortar at 8:33 and
pound with pestles ... add 4" piece of manioc, already cooked, peeled and with
center core taken out... N arrives with goatskin which has been soaked in river
15% hours, tied to tree with piece of string to keep it from floating away...
two more 4" pieces of manioc added... add all pitch, about two pounds.
8:44 Put ashes in hole in ground ... put kisale, which is inner bark of a tree
unknown to me, in pan of water. 8:58 Stop pounding glue, mix a little with
knife ... make four sticks, each about 2" taller than drum ... A tells about man
who fell out of palm tree, was laid up two months... thinks this is terribly
funny... N2 kneads glue with hand... it is now greyish, putty-like mass...
N2 smears thickly on lip and whole top of drum, covering all unstained portions
... call the glue kabanda also ... use water-kisale mixture to soften glue and to
prevent so much from sticking on hands. 9:05 Wait around for something to
plug hole in drum ... it never arrives... N2 uses hot palm nut and its oil to get
glue off hands ... boys arrive with kibonja, (pl. bikonja), a heavy liana ... bend
into circle and tie knot, more an intertwining of the ends ... takes four men to
do it... twist to make it more pliant... M is only one who knows name of this
liana. 9:20 We walk 50 yards into the bush because women cannot see this
.. .now have a sort of cushion of liana bent into a circle ... tie four bundles of
kisale to cushion at points equivalent of corners, though cushion is circular
rather than square ... place drum on cushion ... send small boys out as guards
to warn women away... N2 places wet goatskin, hair up, on top drum...
women come anyway, but pass by quickly and generally with eyes averted ...
N2 trims off hide at legs... one man takes place at each of four corners .. put
3 palm nuts under hide, bundle hide around them, and tie off the bundle...
these placed at the legs of the hide and directly above the four bundles of
kisale ... then re-tie bundles with raffia... now tie hide down tight from bun-
dles of, nuts to cushion by means of fibre bundles attached to cushion ... these
wet and will shrink as they dry and thus pull drumhead tighter ... keep wrapping
and wrapping with kisale until have ropes at least an inch thick... N2 is defi-
nitely in charge of this operation .. finish at 9:43. N2 leads prayer, after some
foot shuffling on my account, during which all cross selves twice ... N2 then
puts stick under rope and makes a complete turn... tie down the raffia so
won't slip .. .woman coming and they take drum hurriedly farther off into bush
... real labor to give stick a full turn ... tighten one stick another full turn and
then another, after wetting head again with water ... find hole in head ... som
consternation . .. tighten another stick and rope breaks... act as though they
expected it... take all sticks off, and entire broken rope, including bun-
dle. 10:01 Trim off hide which is clearly too long... shift hide so hole no
longer on top . .. N2 peels hair off surface of head ... finds other possible weak
spots in hide, but continues (note: never did plug hole in body)... wets head
again . . . waiting for more fibre ... sends someone for more water
10:16 Boy returns with more water and bark fibre... must strip out inner
bark and use that. 10:20 N2 starts process again, making new rope ... A and
one man giggling like silly school girls ... N2 remains serious and intent ... wets
ropes and hide heavily. 10:32 Start with sticks again ... order is 1-3 on oppo-
site sides, change to 1-2 because do not have enough hide at 3 to cover glue ...
then 3 ... .more water . . .break stick-rope tie at 2, have to do it again ...
switch to 4, give it two turns ... #3 terrific; six young men with all strength
cannot turn stick ... more water... finally get it... ground all churned up
where they struggled to turn it ... turn some sticks clockwise and some
clockwise . . give #1 another half turn and cord partly breaks ... now
loose flap of hide and add fifth set nuts, rope and stick ... get three turn
stick ... look over carefully and tighten one stick ... N2 taps head and a
sound ... tightens another stick ... takes off #5, not tight enough ... sh
rope ... gives stick one full turn ... tightens another one half turn
whether tight enough by tapping and listening to tone at each pr
point. 11:15 N2 stands up and says it is finished... take to M's hou
M has built a stand of three poles about 5' high ... put on top of stand
(In later work with informants, the following points emerged. Ideally, n
should see the drum-making process, but in fact it is women who
intercourse that morning who are particularly enjoined. This also applies
The night before the drumhead was to be mounted, N2 went from ho
house warning the men who were to take part not to have intercourse
morning. Most specifically, such a person must not touch the drumhead
she does, the skin will fail to fix tightly against the glue, the work m
particularly difficult, and quite probably a new skin will have to be fo
the work begun again. The tabu, of course, also functions as an exp
principle; if something does go wrong, it can be explained in term
supposition that someone who worked on the drumhead or touched it
intercourse that morning. N2 came to my house the same night to say
was well with the head and, with genuine satisfaction, that this prove
had had intercourse that morning and then touched the drum. In this m
an outsider, do not count. The prayer led by N2 was addressed to Efile
(God); it is a general prayer used in advance of a large variety of op
asking for good fortune in the undertaking.
Atukutekyeobe Efile Mukulu mudimowetu wendekumpala tawulu

we ask you Efile Mukulu work our will go well spoil
(A loose translation is: "We ask you, Efile Mukulu, for good fortune (success) in
our work so that it will not be spoiled.")
Monday, September 21, 1959: Morning

8:12 a.m.: Present are M, N2, A, APM. N2 starts scraping head with piece
of glass to remove hair ... M brings goatskin, lays on ground, leaves. 8:27 Fin-
ish scraping . . M arrives .. .brings strips of previously trimmed goatskin ob-
tained when heading drum, and various young men begin to cut strips about one
inch wide .. .measure to see whether, when combined, they will go around
drum... square ends of strips... whittle a number of 21" slivers of bamboo
and point ends ... put strip into position near top of drum, try driving
of splinters... no go... N2 leaves to look for nails... M brings old b
tool and they take some nails from it... N2 returns with one nail, they
have five ... put strip of skin with hair side to drum ... pound nails wi
... have trouble because drum slopes toward top and strips won't fit fl
L2 arrives ... makes them take off strips they have done ... says they s
lower... also there is fringe of hair on strips and they have been left p
up... L2 points out that this will hurt drummers' hands. 8:47 L2
charge ... trims hair fringe from strips ... M scrapes sides of hide with
L2 puts strips much lower ... drills hole in strips with metal awl... look
as though the strips are now going to cover part of design on neck. . .
nothing... L2 puts on some strips with fringe of hair out... turn
around looking for a place to put last two nails... woman arrives an
several comments. 8:57 Finish this job ... L2 now begins placing slivers
drilling holes with awl . . about V?" apart. .. cuts off flush... befor
rived, M said he didn't have a hammer... it appeared immediately
started working ... N2 leaves .. M making slivers... flattens sliver heads
hammer... M7 arrives, says has something to talk over with M ... they
M's house ... A says M7 is the greatest Bala singer... seems effeminate t
with mincing walk and quick, nervous gestures; stands like woman... h
with one of M's two guns... M and L2 leave, probably to have a drin
turn... discuss price of drums... M raises price of drum from 80
frs.... says APM will have to decide on price for the new one... N2
leaves ... L2 has knife making slivers ... boy pounding says he cannot co
because L2 has knife and he can't cut slivers off flush ... L2 tells him t
driving in every other hole... he does. 9:38 Finish driving slivers
begins cutting off excess skin with knife flush with bottom of str
arrives ... L2 finishes cutting and then cuts skin down and tightening ap
falls off... immediately begins cleaning off excess glue and hair along c
friend of M's says he can't collect debt ... M says, "Don't worry, I'll app
his goods and sell them." ... A says M can do this because he is the yepa
the four quarter chiefs of the village who have legal responsibilities at th
level of the political order.) 10:00 Finishes and begins scraping hair off
of drumhead ... cleans more glue ... uses pointed awl to clean design
arrive with shredded palm nut fibre ... L2 says wait... brush off drum
with piece of goatskin to clean ... take heading apparatus away becau
not dispose of carefully, dogs will eat goatskin and get sick, cough, an
this stated as a fact ... M brings palm oil and N2 begins to rub on
drum... L2 leaves to get more nut fibre which is used as a "sponge" to p
on ... changes to a bit of rag ... I finally ask what L2 thinks about having
design covered after he spent so much time working on it... he replies, "I
always like that," and clearly doesn't care ... someone brings bundle o
raffia ... N2 rubs all over the drum with it... has put drum on goatskin t
it from getting dirtier. 10:22 Go to bush, chop gash in what appears t
strangler fig (moko, pl. miyoko). . . white liquid comes out (maka,
pl.)... tree has been well used judging from number of scars on it... c
drops on drumhead and rub over whole surface... bring back to M's
10:27 ... heat head over fire of brush for about one minute ... surface now
shiny and tacky . .. this is some sort of glue . . . have smallish ball of rubber
(bulondo, s. and pl.) ... mak, small balls and press on head ... rubber not raw
but already prepared by heating... say must have rubber to make drum sound
louder ... press rubber balls flat ... try drum... don't like sound and take off
rubber because there is not enough ... no more around. 10:50 We quit.
Monday, September 21, 1959: Afternoon

1:58 p.m.: On my arrival, N2 begins cutting up heel of old tennis shoe
and putting small chunks in piece of old calabash. 2:12 Finishes... M making
windscreen to build fire . .. sets up four poles. .. leans bamboo slat pieces
against; these already made ... slat pieces are about 3' x 5' . . . puts three sticks
about 212" in diameter in ground and puts piece of old broken pot as shallow
dish on this tripod... pounds in deeper... N2 shapes stick to use as stirring
rod ... put rubber in pot on fire. 2:24 N2 asks A for match
Wind .... .A tells him to go get branch from a nearby fire in order
/ .o \ not to waste matches .. .light fire under pot. . bring pot of
palm oil and about 1/3 cup manioc flour ... close windscreen
more with palm branches... M leaves, returns with more
wood. 2:40 Getting no place with melting rubber... M now sweeping his
yard. 2:43 Rubber still not melted... M adds palm oil. 2:50 Rubber now
melting... N2 stirs with stick to break up lumps... M goes off but keeps
shouting to N2 to keep stirring. 3:58 M takes brew off fire .. . puts in more
palm oil... puts in half the manioc flour, and then the rest... transfers brew
into metal dish ... mixes with stick ... goes to get more manioc, returns, adds a
bit to mixture ... takes previous rubber off drumhead and works into ball of
paste in hand. 3:13 Begin putting little balls of rubber on drumhead... I ask
M why put the rubber on ... he says to make the drum sound loud as though it
were moist . .. gradually flatten and spread balls until becomes solid
mass. 3:27 Finishes, and the drum is done.
Mukanwa - "mouth"
4"
y" t: I
S Shingo -
-"neck"
3/16"
3/16 I I Efu - "stomach"
5?"
y 9 / Kitako - "bottom"
Figure 3. Cross-section of completed
What do we learn from this detaile

Lupupa Ngye? In the first place, we learn
village, construct a drum; but more prec
view drum-making as a social and cultur
say merely that the maker at such-and
"this" was related to '"that," and how t
pinged upon, by other processes in the c
that certain kinds of generalization cann
ence. While I am convinced that most drum-makers would follow the same
general procedure, other occasions of drum-making would have to be viewed for

absolutely precise description. The question arises, of course, how precise the
description of this particular process needs to be, but this depends upon the
investigator and particularly upon the purposes of his investigation. The same
caveat must be entered for the other kinds of information gained as a spin-off
from the drum-making process. None of the pieces of information discussed
below could be accepted as finally understood and thus a completed item of
study, but each of them provides the ethnographer with leads for further investi-
gation.
One of the most interesting of these is the nature of work and work
patterns among the Bala. The drum construction process required the best part
of ten half days, or roughly five working days in all. Subsequent observation and
questioning revealed the high probability that without the intervention and con-
stant presence of the ethnographer, the process would probably have been
spread out over a much longer period of time-quite probably several weeks or
even months-and that work would not have continued in a concentrated fash-
ion throughout a single day or probably even a half day.
This may indicate one of two things. Either drum-making is not itself an
important process for the Bala, or work patterns simply do not involve long
periods of concentration upon a single task. In fact, the answer lies somewher
in between. A drum is a fairly important cultural item for the Bala, but its
importance depends partly, at least, upon its availability. In this case, othe
drums were already available in the village, this particular instrument was des
tined to leave the area, and therefore no particular urgency attached itself to th
process, although pains were taken precisely because it was to be transported to
America. Were no drums available, it is probable that work would be reasonably
intense, but not as intense as in the present case.
Work patterns, as viewed throughout the duration of the research period,
do differ sharply from those followed in the industrialized world, and this fact
has been commented upon by many observers of Africa. Whereas Westerners
tend to stick to a single task-the ultimate example is the assembly line-or to a
group of single tasks each of which is finished before the next is begun, the Bala
neither keep regular hours nor consider it essential to complete tasks. Wherea
our overall activities tend to fall into a regular cycle of events and patterns, Bala
work is much less regularized and formalized. This is partly due, of course, to
the agricultural cycle with which the Bala are in close touch and which strongly
affects the kind of work being done at a particular season of the year, but it is
also a general pattern of life. Activities in any given day tend to vary sharply
and this is also the case with allocations of work over any longer period of time
For example, taking only the most important focus of the day's activities, the
following work arrangements were carried out by an informant during a single
month selected at random: X spent eleven days working in the fields, three day
working as a tailor, one day repairing the roof of his house, one day collecting
palm nuts in the forest, one day at home because of the illness of his child, two
days at home because of his own illness, five days in travel, and six days in rest
In the same month, Y spent eight days in the fields, one day collecting palm nuts
in the forest, twelve days in travel, two days at home because of his own illness
and seven days in rest. These two are both older men, both are horticulturalists,
and the period fell within a time or rather heavy agricultural activity. While the
differences in their allocation of time is important, major attention is called here
to the diversity of their activities during the month.
Thus the drum-making situation described above represents a somewhat
special case in respect to work patterns-while the work was continued through
because of my presence and insistence, the underlying patterns remained

the same. In the latter connection, we can note, for example, that althou
was the official maker of the drum, in fact he probably participated in su
tially less than half the actual construction. Almost from the start, he b
turning various aspects of the work over to other individuals, and shortly
the project commenced, went so far as to call in from a neighboring vill
greater expert than himself. But this pattern was not only an initiative tak
M, for it also involved the nature of intragroup communication in the vil
well as patterns of workmanship.
As soon as the process was launched it became village knowledge tha
was taking place, and the continuing event began to attract the villagers to
people started to come by, those who were interested began to part
actively, for one of three reasons or for a combination of all of them. Firs
pooling of labor is a commonplace in Basongye society. Second, some of t
who had never worked on a drum or had never seen one made were genu
interested in trying their own hand at it. Third, the Bala pattern expres
"having watched you do it, I could do it, and probably better than you,"
strong one in all aspects of processes of material culture. Although I hav
counted, certainly no fewer than ten persons, and probably fifteen, took
actual physical part in making the drum, and a good score of others offered
advice. It is thus clear, and was subsequently reconfirmed, that work patter
the Bala are often group patterns, not in the sense of work in which a num
persons are participating in the same task simultaneously, such as in coope
hoeing of fields, for example, but in the sense of a substantial number of p
contributing their skills to a single project which, for the most part, ca
worked by only one man at any given point in time.
Other work patterns emerged from this experience, and were subseque
confirmed. Given the fact that people do not feel compelled to finish a g
task, and that the drum-making process turned out to be one of interest in
it is not surprising that our activity quickly became a center for short per
rest and relaxation on the part of people who were otherwise occupied. S
of people came and went, each to stay but a short period of time before
tinuing on his way. In the same connection, it was observed that no one sm
while he worked, and that instead, cigarettes were saved until the worker
break or was replaced by someone else. It was again subsequently confirme
smoking is a leisure time activity, not one to be combined with work
Western society. Finally, all those who came to view the drum-making p
were not idle. Those who had work which could be brought to the site di
thus in effect not losing their labor time but lightening it by joining another
congenial working group.
In sum, the drum-making process provided not only a good d

information about working in Bala society, but gave also a substantial n
leads about work patterns which were subsequently confirmed or, in so
denied.
Ideas of work patterns, however, were not the only kind of information
gained. Without going into detail, a substantial number of bits and pieces of
culture patterns were revealed, and these included, among others: taboos; chil-
dren's games; patterns of badinage and boasting; real and ideal behavior; techno-
logical information such as types of woods, the sources of colors, and tool-use
patterns; linguistic information, including terms for parts of the drum, tools,
woods, and others, as well as singular and plural forms; ideas of Europeans;
concepts of design; institutional friendship; learning by imitation (one of the
strong patterns of learning in Bala society); and tricks and jokes. Almost every
one of these items required further research, but all of them were spin-off from
the central procedure being studied.
Plate II. Bala 3-drum choir. Instrument on right is the subject of this article. (Photo
by Barbara W. Merriam)
Finally, the process of drum-making turned out to be an excellent m

ological device. Friends were made, and personalities revealed. Social lif
observed, and rapport established. The activity was harmless and thus
enabling the ethnographer to establish himself as a "member" of the co
ty. Many hurdles remained to be overcome, but in looking back upon th
I can hardly think of a better way I might have begun.
In sum, what might be conceived of as a strictly ethnomusicologica
illustrates clearly the interrelatedness of human culture. Not only was t
made, but scores of bits of information about the culture and soci
enacted and perceived. Making a drum is not only an ethnomusicological
but an ethnographic process as well, with implications which extend far
our knowledge of the music of Bala society.
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
Grateful acknowledgment is hereby made for the financial assistance under wh

field study was carried out, including grants from the National Science Foundati
Belgian American Educational Foundation, and to Mrs. Merriam and the Program o
Studies, Northwestern University. The cooperation of l'Institut pour la Recherch
tifique en Afrique Centrale and l'Universite Lovanium was also of great value.

Drum Making Basongiye Merriam PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Drum Making Basongiye Merriam PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

The Ethnographic Experience: Drum-Making among the Bala (Basongye)

Author(s): Alan P. Merriam

DRUM-MAKING AMONG THE BALA (BASONGYE)

It is a truism in anthropology that no event or object in human society or

Thus almost anything may lead to almost anything else in ethnographic

1959-60. The Basongye people inhabit an area of the Eastern Kasai Pr

The common drum, etumba (pl. matumba), made from a hollo

drum construction began on September 12-we were still cautionsly feeling

Saturday, September 12, 1959: Morning

M is an older man of some standing in the village. He is an alcoholic by

A is my interpreter, a young man of twenty-one, charming, thoughtful,

N2 is a young man and a musician especially skilled on the xylophon

then shallower groove some 5" toward mid-

C is a middle-aged man and also a musician, the official player of the

M3 is a middle-aged man, a part-time musician of secondary skill, and a

L is a man in late middle age, physically very active, a reputed sorcerer

... M astonished when I greet L by name . . M continues working righ

drum seat... L squatting at this work... man #2 leaves... M says hole

M4 is the last remaining person in the village with slave status.

Saturday, September 12, 1959: Afternoon

M5 is a middle-aged man who is considered to be the best carpe

M6 is a man of about 35 years, an excellent musician, player of the

man #6 leaves... M leaves ... N returns ... M6 and N2 go short distance

Monday, September 14, 1959: Afternoon

institutionalized friends. M and I never completed the formal procedure

Tuesday, September 15, 1959: Morning

K is a man in early middle age, a woodcarver and political dignitar

Tuesday, September 15, 1959: Afteroon

L3 is a youth with no particular skills.

Wednesday, September 16, 1959: Morning

Wednesday, September 16, 1959: Afternoon

Plate I. Drum before final finishing. (Photo by Barbara W. Merriam)

Saturday, September 19, 1959: Morning

Atukutekyeobe Efile Mukulu mudimowetu wendekumpala tawulu

Monday, September 21, 1959: Morning

Monday, September 21, 1959: Afternoon

3/16 I I Efu - "stomach"

Figure 3. Cross-section of completed

What do we learn from this detaile

general procedure, other occasions of drum-making would have to be viewed for

because of my presence and insistence, the underlying patterns remained

In sum, the drum-making process provided not only a good d

Finally, the process of drum-making turned out to be an excellent m

Grateful acknowledgment is hereby made for the financial assistance under wh

Potrebbero piacerti anche