Micropile and Soil Nailing Design Concept

MICROPILE &
SOIL NAILING
DESIGN CONCEPT
Kursus Reka Bentuk Cerun
Chen Tian Hee
11st June 2012 (Monday)
2.30am - 4.30pm
Bilik Vitex, Tkt 18, Menara PJD
MICROPILE
DESIGN CONCEPT
Definition of Micropile
• BS EN 14199:2005 Execution of special geotechnical works -
Micropiles, a micropile is a small-diameter pile typically less
than 300 mm, drilled and grouted replacement pile that is
typically reinforced.
• Micropiles’ shaft diameter ranges from 50 to 300 mm, with
working loads in the range of 50 to 500 kN. (Tomlinson, 2008)
• A micropile is constructed by drilling a borehole, placing steel
reinforcement, and grouting the hole.
• Micropiles can withstand relatively significant axial loads and
moderate lateral loads.
• Micropiles are installed by methods that cause minimal
disturbance to adjacent structures, soil, and the environment.
• They can be installed where access is restrictive and in all soil
types and ground conditions.
Typical Detail of a Composite Reinforced Micropile
FHWA NHI-05-039
Typical Micropile Construction Sequence
FHWA NHI-05-039
Micropile may be used for
• Working under restricted access and/or headroom conditions;
• Foundations of new structures (particularly in very
heterogeneous soil or rock formations);
• Reinforcing or strengthening of existing structures to increase
the capacity to transfer load to depth with acceptable load
settlement characteristics, e.g. underpinning works;
• Reducing settlements and/or displacements;
• Forming a retaining wall;
• Reinforcing of soil to form a bearing and/or retaining structure;
• Improving slope stability;
• Securing against uplift.
MICROPILE
DESIGN CONCEPT
Micropile Classification System
Design Application Classification
FHWA-RD-96-016, –017, -018, and –019; 1997
• CASE 1 micropile elements, which are loaded directly and
where the micropile reinforcement resists the majority of
the applied load.
• CASE 2 micropile elements circumscribe and internally
reinforce the soil to theoretically make a reinforced soil
composite that resists applied loads. This is referred to as
a reticulated micropile network.
CASE 1 Applications
CASE 1 Applications
CASE 2 Applications
CASE 2 Applications
MICROPILE
DESIGN CONCEPT
Structural Design
Micropiles used for Structural Foundations
Design Steps for Micropiles used for Structural Foundations
FHWA NHI-05-039
1. Identify project requirements and evaluate micropile feasibility
2. Review available information and perform subsurface exploration and
laboratory testing program
3. Develop all loading combinations
4. Preliminary design of micropiles
• spacing
• length
• cross section
5. Evaluate allowable structural capacity of cased length
6. Evaluate allowable structural capacity of uncased length
7. Compare design loads to structural capacity from Steps 5 and 6 and modify
structural section, if necessary
8. Evaluate geotechnical capacity of micropile
• evaluate suitable ground stratum for bond zone
• select bond stress and calculate bond length required to resist design load
• evaluate micropile group capacity for compression and tension (i.e., uplift)
9. Estimate micropile group settlement
10. Design micropile to footing connection at pile cap
11. Develop load testing program
12. Prepare Drawings and Specifications
Design Steps for Micropiles used for Structural Foundations (continue)
Other Design Considerations
FHWA NHI-05-039
1. Corrosion Protection (Corrosion protection is a critical component
of all micropile designs)
2. Plunge Length
3. End Bearing Micropiles
4. Downdrag
5. Lateral Loads on Single Vertical Micropiles
6. Lateral Loads on Micropile Groups
7. Buckling
8. Seismic
Preliminary Design of Micropiles
• Selection of Micropile Spacing
• In all cases, the center-to-center spacing between individual micropiles
should be at least 760 mm or 3 micropile diameters, whichever is greater.
• Selection of Micropile Length
• The total length of an individual micropile will be selected such that the
required geotechnical capacity is developed by skin friction (or side
resistance) between the grout and the ground over a suitable length in an
appropriate stratum.
• The total length will also be controlled by required penetration depths to
resist downdrag and uplift forces and to provide additional lateral
resistance where sources of lateral load need to be considered in the
design.
• Selection of Micropile Cross Section
• To carry required axial loads, it is not uncommon for up to one half of the
cross sectional area of the micropile to comprise steel casing and/or steel
reinforcing bar (s).
• The use of common casing sizes is preferred to avoid delays associated
with material availability.
Dimensions and Yield Strength of Common Micropile Pipe Types
and Sizes
FHWA NHI-05-039
Example Micropile Detail
Micropiles used for Structural Foundations (continue)
Structural Design of Micropile Cased Length
Structural Design of Micropile Uncased Length
Strain Compatibility between Grout, Casing, and Reinforcing Bar
• Strain compatibility under compression loads is considered for the steel components and grout by
limiting allowable compressive stresses to the minimum allowable for any individual component (i.e.,
steel casing, steel reinforcement, or grout).
• Therefore, the maximum yield stress of steel to be used in is the minimum of:
• yield stress of casing;
• yield stress of steel reinforcing bar; and
• maximum stress based on considerations of grout failure.
• Let say, “the maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber is equal to 0.003”.
Therefore, if the grout is limited to a compression strain of 0.003, the steel components must also be
limited to this value. The stress in the steel at this strain level is equal to the Young’s modulus of
steel, E, multiplied by strain (i.e., 0.003).
• For a typical E for steel of 200,000 Mpa, the allowable steel yield stress is then 200,000 MPa ×
0.003 = 600MPa. Therefore, the maximum stress based on considerations of grout failure is
600MPa.
• For example, for a micropile with a casing yield strength of 241 MPa, a reinforcing bar yield strength
of 520 MPa, and a grout failure controlled maximum stress of 600 MPa, a value of 241 MPa would
be used for the term Fy-steel.
Combined Axial Compression and Bending of Cased Length
Combined Axial Compression and Bending of Cased Length
Micropile Installed Through Voids in Karstic Terrain
Micropile Installed Through Voids in Karstic Terrain
Micropile Surrounded by Very Weak Soil
If the EsLIMIT value is less than the measured or assumed soil modulus, Es, then the
geotechnical and structural strength of the micropile will control the micropile capacity and
buckling does not need to be considered further. If the Es LIMIT value is greater than Es,
buckling should be evaluated further.
FHWA NHI-05-039 Elastic Constants of Various Soils
Elastic Constants of Various Soils Based on Elastic Constants of Various Soils Based on
Soil Type SPT N Value
(modified after AASHTO, 2002) (modified after AASHTO, 2002)
Limiting Lateral Modulus Values for Various Micropile
Materials (after Cadden and Gomez, 2002)
MICROPILE DESIGN
CONCEPT
Geotechnical Design
Ultimate Bond Stress and Calculate
Bond Length
• Design concept similar to conventional pilling design.
• The maximum compression and tension loads applied at
the top of the micropile must be resisted through grout to
ground bond over a specific length of the micropile.
• This length is referred to as the bond zone or bond length.
• Due to the small pile diameter and the difficulty to clean
the base properly, any end-bearing contribution in
micropiles is generally neglected.
• Bond length can be formed in most soil and rock strata
with the major differences being in the grout to ground
bond strength that can be developed in a given ground
type.
Skin Friction & End Bearing Pile
Braja M. Das 2011
Ultimate Bond Stress and Calculate
Bond Length
αbond, Grout to Ground Ultimate Bond Strength
• There are many different methods adopted by Malaysia
engineers that can be generally divided into 2 categories.
• Empirical Method
• Semi Empirical Method
Empirical Method
Piles in fine-grained soils
α = adhesion factor Nc = bearing capacity factor

Whitaker & Cooke (1966) - 0.3 to Cub = characteristic undisturbed
0.6 for stiff overconsolidated clays undrained shear strength at the pile
Tomlinson (1994) and Reese & toe
O’Neill (1988) - 0.4 to 0.9 Ab = cross sectional area of pile toe
Cu = is the characteristic or The bearing capacity factor Nc is

average undisturbed undrained approximately equal to 9 provided that
shear strength the pile has been driven at least to a
As = is the surface area of the pile depth of 5 diameters into the bearing
shaft contributing to the support of stratum.
the pile in shaft friction
Empirical Method (continue)
Piles in coarse-grained soils
δ’ = effective overburden pressure at pile base level
Nq = bearing capacity factor
Ab = area of the base of the pile
Ks = coefficient of horizontal soil stress which depends on the relative density

and state of consolidation of the soil, the volume displacement of the pile, the
material of the pile and its shape
δ= characteristic or average value of the angle of friction between pile and soil
As = area of shaft in contact with the soil

Bearing capacity factors of Berezantsev et al. and Brinch Hansen
Values of the coefficient of horizontal soil stress, Ks
Values of the angle of pile to soil friction for various interface
conditions, δ
Pile Socket in Rock
Distribution of side-wall shear stress in relation to socket length and modulus
ratio
Osterberg and Gill
Semi Empirical Method
Shaft Resistance from SPT
(Poulous 1989)
Semi Empirical Method (continue)
Local Practice
• αbond = 2.0 x SPT N (Chang and Broms, 1991)
• The unit for αbond is kPa.
Micropile Group Compression Capacity
Micropile Group Compression Capacity (continue)
• Micropile Groups in Cohesive Soils

• The efficiency of a micropile group installed in cohesive soils is a
function of the centre-to-center spacing of the micropiles, s, and
contact condition between the bottom of the micropile footing cap
and the soil near the ground surface.
Micropile Group Compression Capacity (Continue)
• At small micropiles spacings, however, the potential for the micropile

group to fail as a “block” should be evaluated. For a micropile group
of width Bg and length Lg and depth D, the ultimate capacity of the
micropile group, Qg, is given by:
• where su is the average undrained shear strength along the depth of

penetration of the micropiles and su is the undrained shear strength
at the base of the micropile group. For this analysis, it is assumed that
the pile cap provides no resistance.
Block Failure Model for Micropile Group in
Cohesive Soil with Cap in Contact with Ground
• Micropile Groups in Cohesionless Soils

• As long as the centre-to-centre spacing of micropiles in a group is
greater than three times the diameter of the grouted body (i.e., s >
3Db), the capacity of a micropile group in cohesionless soils may be
calculated as the sum of the resistance of all the individual
micropiles in the group with η=1.0.
• Micropile Groups in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak or
Compressible Soil
• If a micropile group is embedded in a strong soil deposit overlying a
weaker soil deposit, then the potential for a “punching” shear failure
of the micropile group into the weaker soil stratum should be
considered during design.
• Micropile Groups in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak or

Compressible Soil (Continue)
MICROPILE
DESIGN CONCEPT
Micropiles used for Soil Slope Stabilization
Design Steps for Micropiles for Soil Slope Stabilization
FHWA NHI-05-039
1. Identify project specific constraints and evaluate feasibility
2. Identify performance requirements
3. Review available information and geotechnical data
4. Evaluate factor of safety of existing slope
5. Determine additional force required to obtain target factor of safety
• choose a location for the single vertical micropile within the existing slope
• model restraining force (micropile) and perform slope stability analysis
• evaluate the stability of the slope away from micropile
6. Select micropile cross section
7. Estimate length of micropile
8. Evaluate bending moment capacity of single vertical micropile
9. Evaluate shear capacity of single vertical micropile
10. Evaluate shear capacity of battered micropile group
• select batter angle for upslope and downslope micropile
• determine maximum shear capacity of a single battered micropile
• determine maximum shear capacity of battered micropile group
11. Calculate spacing required to provide required force to stabilize the slope
12. Check potential for soil flow between micropiles
13. Perform structural design of concrete cap beam
Example of Application – CASE 1
Micropiles resist unstable slope forces through a combination of axial

resistance developed at the grout-to-ground interface both above and
below the potential slip surface and structural (i.e., shear and bending)
resistance.
Micropiles used for Soil Slope Stabilization (continue)
Example of Application – CASE 2
Micropiles with Battered Uplsope Leg and Battered
Downslope Leg (modified after Hasenkamp, 1999)
Potential Instability Resulting from Future Excavation
Micropiles used for Soil Slope
Stabilization (continue)
• The design method described herein for micropiles is
based on the assumption that the portion of the micropiles
below the potential slip surface “tie” the slope mass above
the potential slip surface to the more competent ground
below the potential slip surface.
• In this sense, the micropiles serve as dowels. Also, the
design assumes that concentrated deformations occur at
the location of the potential slip surface.
• With this assumption, maximum bending moments and
shears in the micropiles occur near the location of the
potential slip surface.
Analysis of Existing Slope Using Best Predicted Parameters
Analysis of Existing Slope Using Parameters That Yield FOS = 1
Locating Most Effective Location for Micropile
Locating Most Effective Location for Micropile (continue)
Locating Most Effective Location for Micropile (continue)
Search for Possible Slips Away from Micropile
Battered Micropiles are More Effective for Slope Stabilization
Compression
Tension
Single Vertical Micropile Model for Design Analyses
Evaluation of Bending Moment Capacity of Single Vertical
Micropile
• The shear resistance of a micropile corresponds to the maximum
shear force that can be applied to the micropile that results in a
maximum bending moment within the micropile (at any location) to be
just equal to the ultimate bending moment of the micropile.
• To evaluate the shear resistance of a single micropile, the ultimate
bending moment (Mult) of the single micropile is checked.
• The ultimate bending moment of a single vertical micropile can be
conveniently evaluated using p-y curve or computer program.
• Since the bending moment capacity of a micropile (or any other
structural section) varies depending on the applied axial load, the
bending moment capacity of a single micropile is checked for two
limiting axial load conditions
1. axial load equal to zero, P = 0; and
2. axial load equal to the ultimate side resistance of the micropile, P = Pult
Evaluation of Shear Capacity of Single Vertical
Micropile
• The maximum shear force that the micropile can carry
corresponds to that shear force applied at the elevation of
the slip surface that results in a calculated maximum
bending moment in the micropile that is equal to Mult.
• This maximum bending moment is affected by the
stiffness (i.e., p-y response) of the ground above and
below the potential slip surface and the flexural rigidity of
the micropile.
• The shear force capacity of a single vertical micropile is
determined by analysing separately the portion of the
micropile above the potential slip surface (termed the “up”
analysis) and the portion of the micropile below the
potential slip surface (termed the “down” analysis).
Example Distribution of p-y Curves with Depth
Obtained from Laterally Loaded Pile Analysis
Example Distribution of p-y Curves with Depth
Obtained from Laterally Loaded Pile Analysis
Up Analysis Down Analysis
Criteria Need to be Satisfied When Comparing The Up
and Down Analyses
• The same value for axial load is used for both the up and
down analyses.
• The input shear force magnitude and direction applied at
the slip surface location is the same for the up and down
analyses.
• The input bending moment applied as a boundary
condition should be equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign for the up and down analyses.
• The calculated slope of the micropile head at the slip
surface should be the same for the up and down
analyses.
• The head of the micropile is modeled as free.
Example of Calculated Bending Moment Diagrams for
Up and Down Analyses
Up Analysis Down Analysis
Micropiles used for Soil Slope
Stabilization (continue)
Comparing Bending Moment Diagrams
for Up and Down Analyses
Shear Capacity of Battered Micropile Group
• The maximum lateral force (Hult) that an inclined (or
battered) single micropile can resist at the location of the
critical slip surface is evaluated in this step.
• The value for Hult which will be compared to the required
force to provide the target factor of safety, i.e., Hreq, is the
sum of the individual Hult values from each battered
micropile in the cross section.
Shear Capacity of Battered Micropile Group (continue)
Forces Acting On Vertical Forces Acting On Inclined
Micropile Along The Slip Surface Micropile Along The Slip Surface
• Because is a function of the inclination of
the micropile relative to the slip surface, it is necessary to
select a range of inclination angles for which the analyses
corresponding to P=0 is valid and for which the analyses
corresponding to P=Pult is valid.
• According to Poulos and Davis (1980), Pult may be
assumed to develop in a pile that is inclined at
approximately 30 degrees.
Slip Surface is Horizontal Slip Surface is not Horizontal

• The capacity of the upslope micropile and the downslope
micropile can be evaluated using the criteria presented
concerning appropriate values for Q and P and depending
on the micropile inclination angle,ψ.
• The inclination angle should be assessed at the location
where each of the two micropiles crosses the slip surface.
• The combined capacity of the upslope and downslope
micropile is determined as:
Spacing Required to Provide Required Force to
Stabilize the Slope
Potential for Soil Flow Between Micropiles
Potential for Soil Flow Between Micropiles (continue)
• If the plastic flow conditions are satisfied, then Smax does
not need to be reduced.
• If Hult-soil/pile < Hult-pair/2, then plastic flow conditions
govern and Smax should be reduced.
• The plastic flow analysis should be repeated based on the
new pile spacing corresponding to the reduced Smax. The
final design spacing should be selected as the spacing
that satisfies Hult-soil/pile ≥ Hult-pair/2.
Example (Geometry of The Slope)
Example (Determine The Required From Micropile)
The additional force required from the micropile
Existing Slope (modified) (Hreq) is 650 kN/m (44.54 k/ft) of slope length
Example (Check Nearby Slopes Stability)
Example (Select a Micropile Section)
Example (Estimate Length of Micropile)
Example (Evaluate Bending Capacity Of Single Vertical
Micropile)
Example (Evaluate Shear Capacity of Single Vertical
Micropile)
• The maximum shear capacity of a single vertical micropile
(Q) is determined iteratively by performing laterally loaded
pile analyses.
• For the design example, p-y curves may be generated
within the software in the same analyses as were
performed for the calculation of Mult.
Example (Screenshots of Using The p-y curve for Mult
for Up and Down Analysis)
(continue)
Example (Process to Evaluate Shear
Resistance (Q) of Single Vertical Micropile
Using Up and Down Laterally Loaded Pile
Analyse)
Example (Evaluate Shear Capacity of Single Vertical Micropile)
• For the P = 0 case, the shear capacity of the micropile
(QP=0) is calculated as 365 kN and the maximum
bending moment (Mmax) is calculated as 161.3 kN.m.
The Mult for this axial load case was previously calculated
as 161.3 kN.m.
• For the P = Pult case, the shear capacity of the micropile
(QP=Pult) is calculated as 330 kN and the maximum
bending moment is calculated as 147.7 kN.m. The Mult
for this axial load case was previously calculated as 147.7
kN.m.
• For both axial load conditions, Mmax is approximately
equal to Mult and the up/down analyses are considered to
be complete.
Example (Evaluate Shear Capacity of Battered Micropile Group)
• In this design example, the batter angle for the upslope

micropile leg is selected as 3° and the batter angle for the
downslope micropile leg is selected as 21°. The Hult for
each leg is calculated as shown below:
Example (Calculate Spacing Required to Provide Force to
Stabilize the Slope)
Example (Check Potential Soil Flow between
Micropiles)
SOIL NAILING
DESIGN CONCEPT
Definition of Soil Nail
• Soil nailing is an in-situ soil reinforcement technique used for
enhancing the stability of slopes, retaining walls and
excavations. The technique involves installation of closely
spaced, relatively slender structural elements, i.e., soil nails,
into the ground to stabilise the soil mass. A soil-nailed system
is a slope, a retaining wall or an excavation reinforced by soil
nails. (Geoguide7, 2008)
• Soil nailing is a ground stabilization method used to enhance
the stability of slopes and faces. It is employed in “in-situ”
ground, which may be natural or deposited by man, by the
insertion of soil nails. Correctly orientated soil nails can
improve the shear strength of soil, which is naturally weak in
tension. Frictional forces are mobilized when surrounding soil
shears against relatively inextensible soil nails. (BS8006:2011)
Soil Nailing Merits
Geoguide7, 2008
1. It is suitable for cramped sites with difficult access because the
construction plant required for soil nail installation is small and mobile.
2. It can easily cope with site constraints and variations in ground
conditions encountered during construction, e.g., by adjusting the
location and length of the soil nails to suit the site conditions.
3. During construction, it causes less environmental impact than cutting
back and retaining wall construction as no major earthworks and tree
felling are needed.
4. There could be time and cost savings compared to conventional
techniques of cutting back and retaining wall construction which
usually involve substantial earthworks and temporary works.
5. It is less sensitive to undetected adverse geological features, and thus
more robust and reliable than unsupported cuts. In addition, it renders
higher system redundancy than unsupported cuts or anchored slopes
due to the presence of a large number of soil nails.
6. The failure mode of a soil-nailed system is likely to be ductile, thus
providing warning signs before failure.
Soil Nailing Limitations
Geoguide7, 2008
1. The presence of utilities, underground structures or other buried obstructions poses restrictions to
the length and layout of soil nails.
2. The zone occupied by soil nails is sterilised and the site poses constraints to future development.
3. Permission has to be obtained from the owners of the adjacent land for the installation of soil nails
beyond the lot boundary. This places restrictions on the layout of soil nails.
4. The presence of high groundwater levels may lead to construction difficulties in hole drilling and
grouting, and instability problems of slope surface in the case of soil-nailed excavations.
5. The effectiveness of soil nails may be compromised at sites with past large landslides involving
deep-seated failure due to disturbance of the ground.
6. The presence of permeable ground, such as ground with many cobbles, boulders, highly fractured
rocks, open joints, or voids, presents construction difficulties due to potential grout leakage
problems.
7. The presence of ground with a high content of fines may lead to problems of creeping between the
ground and soil nails.
8. Long soil nails are difficult to install, and thus the soil nailing technique may not be appropriate for
deep-seated landslides and large slopes.
9. Because soil nails are not prestressed, mobilisation of soil-nail forces will be accompanied by
ground deformation. The effects on nearby structures, facilities or services may have to be
considered, particularly in the case of soil-nailed excavations.
10. Soil nails are not effective in stabilising localised steep slope profiles, back scarps, overhangs or in
areas of high erosion potential. Suitable measures, e.g., local trimming, should be considered prior
to soil nail installation.
General Terms for Soil Nail
Possible Components of Soil Nail
System
Typical Applications
• Stabilizing new cut slopes.
Typical Applications (continue)
• Stabilizing existing slopes.
• Stabilizing existing retaining structures.
• Embankment stabilization.
• Hybrid applications.
• There are a number of applications where soil nails may be used in
combination with other forms of construction such as providing an
anchorage for reinforced fills, or where they may be used in
combination with rock bolts and ground anchors to stabilize a
variably weathered slope.
Summary of Ground Conditions Best Suited
and Less Well Suited to Soil Nailing
Examples of The Effect of Pre-existing Shear
Surfaces on Soil-nailed Structures
Typical Dimensions of Soil Nailing
Applications Based on Slope Angle
Geometry and Dimensions of a Soil
Nailed Slope
Relevant Modes of Ultimate and
Serviceability Limit States
Ultimate Limit State Modes of Failure
Internal and External Stability
Partial Factors for Soil Nail Design
Table 5, BS8006:2011
Principles of Design
• Only the tensile (axial) capacity of the soil nails should be
considered.
• The contribution of nail bending and shear resistance are
second-order effects only seen at high deformation levels
and should be conservatively ignored.
Pull Out Capacity/Design Nail Force of Soil Nail
τ bk πd hole Le f yk As ,nom
Td = ≤
γ τb γs
τ bond πd hole Le f y As
Td = ≤
FOSbond FOS structural
Pull Out Capacity/Design Nail Force of
Soil Nail (continue)
τ bond πd hole Le f y As
Td = ≤
FOSbond FOS structural
τ bond = Ultimate bond strength between grout and ground (kPa)

5 × SPT N
=
FOSbond
FOSbond = 3
d hole = Diameter drill hole (m)
L e = Length of embedment zone/bond zone (m)
f y = Yield strength of steel reinforcement (MPa)
= 460 MPa for High Yield Type II Deformed Bar
FOSStructure = 2
Slip Circle Method of Slices
The Method of Slices
The Method of Slices (continue)
The Fellenius (or Swedish or Ordinary)
Solution
The Bishop Routine Solution
Soil Nail Design with Commercial
Software in Practice
• In practice, commercial software will normally do all of the
above for the engineer.
• Provided that the user inputs into the program the
relevant characteristic values and appropriate partial
factors, and that the user then looks for an overall factor
of safety of more than one.
• If conventional method which adopting characteristic
values without partial factors, and that the user then looks
for an factor of safety as per guideline (e.g. 1.5).
Types of Facing
• Generally divided into 3 types, namely, soft, flexible and hard facing.
• Soft
• Soft facings should not be used to perform a long term role but may be
provided to stabilize the slope surface while vegetation establishes itself.
• Their main function may be to retain a topsoil layer and prevent erosion.
• Soft facings should not be used for slopes that are steeper than where the
soil forming the slope would be naturally stable when protected from
weathering.
• However, the need to protect topsoil from wash off in the short term may
limit most soft face installations to 45° or less.
• Many types of geogrids, cellular geofabrics and light metallic mesh may be
used, including degradable coir mats.
Types of Facing (continue)
• Flexible
• Flexible structural facings may be used to provide long-term stability of the
face by supporting the soil between nail locations and transmitting the load
from the soil to the soil nails via the nail heads.
• Flexible facing may be used to provide support through the mobilization of
tensile forces within them and therefore some deformation is required in
order for a component of these forces to act normal to the face.
• Flexible facings are not normally recommended for permanent slopes in
excess of 70° (60° for complex flexible faces).
• Materials used often comprise coated metallic meshes of either the woven
or welded types which are considered “continuous” in the design process;
detailed consideration should be given to the jointing of these materials
(either by physical connections or overlaps) in order to ensure continuity.
• Edge and termination details should also be considered carefully. The
concentrations of load around the nail plate should be given particular
attention to ensure that adequate resistance to punching and rupture is
provided.
Design of Nail Plates for Soft or Flexible Faces
Calculation of Required Nail Plate Size for a Given
Design Nail Force
Soil Nail Head Design Table derived from Numerical
Analysis (Shiu & Chang, 2004)
GEO Technical Guidance Note No. 21
Typical Reinforcement Details of a Soil-nail Head
Geoguide7, 2008
Types of Facing (continue)
• Hard
• Hard facings may be used to provide the same function as flexible
structural facing but require far less deformation in order to mobilize their
strength and may be designed for faces up to 90°.
• Hard facings may be formed from reinforced concrete (sprayed, cast in situ
or pre-cast panels), crib work or gabions.
• Existing retaining walls which are to be strengthened/stabilized by soil
nailing may also be considered to act as a hard facing.
• Where hard facings are largely impermeable they may require additional
drainage arrangements beyond that which might be required for a more
permeable face.
Calculation of Design Loading Acting on
The Rear of Hard Facing
Typical Drainage for Soil-nailed Slope
Typical Surface Water Interceptor Detail
Above a Steep Soil-nailed Slope
Example of a Raking Drain in a Steep
Soil-nailed Slope
Typical Detail for a Weep Hole in a
Steep Soil-nailed Wall
Recommended Test Frequency
BS EN 14490:2010
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MICROPILE &

α = adhesion factor Nc = bearing capacity factor

Cu = is the characteristic or The bearing capacity factor Nc is

δ’ = effective overburden pressure at pile base level

Nq = bearing capacity factor

Ab = area of the base of the pile

Ks = coefficient of horizontal soil stress which depends on the relative density

As = area of shaft in contact with the soil

• Micropile Groups in Cohesive Soils

• At small micropiles spacings, however, the potential for the micropile

• where su is the average undrained shear strength along the depth of

• Micropile Groups in Cohesionless Soils

• Micropile Groups in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak or

Micropiles resist unstable slope forces through a combination of axial

Slip Surface is Horizontal Slip Surface is not Horizontal

• In this design example, the batter angle for the upslope

τ bond = Ultimate bond strength between grout and ground (kPa)

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