4 CIRCULATION & PIPING
in many different configurations. The location and size
of return inlets are critical for uniform water and
chemical distribution throughout the pool/spa. The
location and type of the fittings will differ as to the
size and shape of the swimming pool and designed
flow pattern.
Return inlets are commonly installed within the walls
of the pool/spa, but, in many cases, they are also
installed within the floor. Return inlets installed within
the walls are normally directional and adjustable, al-
lowing adjustment of the flow (gpm) from each indi-
vidual fitting. Modern return inlets, commonly known
as “eyeball fittings” permit directional adjustment to
regulate flow patterns and are available in a variety
of diameter openings allowing control of gallon per
minute (gpm) output.
Where skimmers are used, the return inlet(s) shall be
located so as to help bring floating particles within
range of the skimmers. Through the use of the direc-
tional return inlet (eyeball fitting), a flow pattern can
be achieved across the surface of the water to allow
for greater efficiency of skimmer operation.
Floor return inlets are installed within the base of the
pool/spa in a predetermined pattern to direct the water
flow and are equipped with internal valves or rotat-
ing faceplates for the regulation of flow output. Floor
inlets are normally adjustable, allowing adjustment of
the flow (gpm), but floor inlets are not directional other
than from bottom outward and upward.
The number of return inlet(s) shall be based on a mini-
mum of one (1) return inlet per six hundred (600)
square feet of pool surface area, or fraction thereof.
Return inlet fittings shall be installed of sufficient pipe
size or quantity to allow full design turnover rate of
the circulation system in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations for return inlets.
Return inlet(s) from the circulation system shall be
designed so as not to constitute a hazard to the bather.
When a heater is used, a return inlet(s) may be in-
Revised Nov. 18, 2002
4-13
stalled in the deep end of the pool, i.e., deep heat
returns, to create a uniformity of heat called a valve
actuator and are normally wired into a control sys-
tem allowing remote operation of the circulation sys-
tem.
When used in spas and hot tub/spas return inlets are
designed for use as both a method of returning the
filtered water to the pool and designed to allow the
introduction of air into the water through the use of a
venturi tube or forced air from a blower. (Refer to
Article 9.12, ANSI/NSPI-5, 1995.) This equipment
is discussed further in Unit 5, Chapter 5-3: Spa
Packs, Blowers and Associated Control Systems.
Valves
Valves and gauges are installed throughout the circu-
lation system. These include valves to control and
direct the flow of water and chemicals and gauges to
monitor the pressure of both the suction and discharge
sides of the piping and equipment system. A valve is
any device that regulates flow. It can be used to com-
pletely stop the flow of water, regulate a limited flow
or be opened to allow maximum flow.
The most commonly used valves are: gate, ball,
multiport (disk and slide types), butterfly, globe and
check valves (swing and spring-loaded disc). Indi-
vidual manufacturers determine variations of port ar-
rangements, bonnets, glands, handles, construction
materials, and durability. Valves may be operated by
hand or automatically (electrically). Automatic valves
are normally controlled by the use of a small 24-volt
motor called a valve actuator and are normally wired
into a control system allowing remote operation of
the circulation system.
Depending on their type and style, valves used within
the circulation system create a resistance to flow and
add to the Total Dynamic Head (TDH). Gate valves
that open to nearly the full pipe size create a minor
resistance to flow, while rotary type multiport valves
Copyright © 2001 National Spa & Pool Institute
BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.

Figure 4-8 Valves

Copyright © 2001 National Spa & Pool Institute

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 4 CIRCULATION & PIPING

until the cement cures to a certain extent. This

also may occur when using pipe and fittings sup-
plied by different manufacturers or when joining
Sch 40 to Sch 80 PVC or PVC to CPVC.)

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BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.

UNIT 4: HYDRAULICS

CHAPTER 4-2: HYDRAULICS

INTRODUCTION PRESSURE

Hydraulics is the science dealing with the mechani-
cal properties of liquids, such as water, and their ap-
plication in engineering. Within the pool and spa in-
dustry the science of hydraulics relates to the move-
ment of water through the filtration and circulation
system. This chapter will cover the basic concepts of
hydraulics as it pertains to residential swimming pools
and spas and hot tub/spas.
The importance of proper water flow through the
swimming pool/spa filtration system cannot be over-
emphasized. To design an efficient filtration system
we must know some basic hydraulic principles. A
poorly designed system creates excessive friction
losses, which waste energy and money. It is essential
that the pump(s) produces proper flow (gallons per
minute) to allow the filtration system and associated
equipment, such as a heater or chemical feeder, to
perform as intended. This chapter will present meth-
ods the service professional can utilize in choosing
the proper piping and equipment essential for pro-
viding a properly designed hydraulic system.
Pressure in pool/spa systems comes from three (3)
sources: static water pressure, atmospheric pressure
and dynamic water pressure created by the pump.
Static Water Pressure
Technicians must take static water pressure into
account when renovating or enlarging the shell of a
pool or spa. The material used in construction and
sources: static water pressure, atmospheric pressure
and dynamic water pressure created by the pump.
At sea level, a column of water exerts a pressure of
0.433 pounds per square inch (psi) for each foot of
its height (depth). Static water pressure depends
strictly upon the depth of the pool/spa. (For example,
the static pressure at any given point on the pool floor
is equal to: depth in feet x 0.433.)
A swimming pool containing 2.31 feet of water will
exert one (1) pound per square inch on the surfaces
of the pool (1 psi = 2.31 feet of head).

BASIC TERMS
This list covers most, but not all, major terms used in the chapter.

Atmospheric pressure Hydraulics Static water pressure

Dynamic water Pressure head System Head Curve
pressure Psi Total Dynamic Discharge Head
Equivalent pipe length Resistance head (TDDH)
Equipment head loss Static Discharge Head Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
Friction loss (Static Head) Total Dynamic Suction Lift
Head loss Static Suction Lift (TDSL)

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 4 CIRCULATION & PIPING

for the same size pipe, are different at dif-

ferent flow rates.

Friction loss created by pipefittings and

valves are also expressed as feet of
equivalent pipe length. This means that
the fitting causes the same friction loss as
a section of pipe of a stated length. The
friction loss through valves and fittings also
depends on the water flow rate.

Friction losses attained through main drain

grates and other fittings and equipment
Figure 4-17 Pump Flow Rate Depends on connected to the piping network can be obtained from
Head Loss manufacturer’s charts and literature.
in Figure 4-17. As the distance the pump must lift
Equipment Head Loss (Friction Loss)
the water within the discharge piping increases above
water level, resistance to flow increases, reducing the
The friction loss through a piece of equipment may
attainable gallons per minute (gpm).
be called equipment loss or equipment head loss.
Head losses for valves, filters, heaters, etc., can be
Friction Loss Through the Piping Network
obtained from the manufacturer’s product informa-
tion. This equipment must be calculated in the total
Friction loss caused by the piping network and equip-
loss figure and cannot be discounted as minor. Many
ment can be calculated from manufacturers’ specifi-
cations. It can also be measured by taking pressure
readings on the two ends of the individual piece of
equipment or a section of piping.

Measuring friction loss in existing piping is illustrated

in Figure 4-18.

The pressure recorded at pressure gauge P2 would

be lower than the pressure at gauge P1. The friction
causes the decrease in water pressure (pressure drop)
from one end of the pipe to the other. (P1 - P2)

To calculate friction loss in piping and equipment the

service technician can refer to friction loss charts pro-
vided by the manufacturer, as illustrated in the at-
tached tables. (Fig. 4-29 and 4-30)

These charts show the friction loss per 100 feet of Figure 4-18 Friction Loss at Different Flow Rates
piping in various diameters. Notice the friction losses
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BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.
such pieces of equipment, e.g., multiport valves, add
greatly to the total head loss calculation.
It is important to note that head loss is different for a
clean filter than a dirty filter. Head loss is also differ-
ent during normal operation and during backwash.
Be careful when stating the friction loss for a filter. Is
it for a clean or dirty filter and in what mode of op-
eration?
Elevation Gain: Static Suction Lift and Static
Discharge Head
These two quantities have to do with resistance
caused by a net elevation gain or loss when water is
brought by the pump from inlet water level and re-
leased to outlet water level. When there is no differ-
ence in elevation, the resistance caused by SSL (Suc-
tion Side Lift) is canceled out by the negative resis-
tance of SDH (Static Discharge Head). Generally,
the hydraulic systems of swimming pools and spas
are closed systems with no elevation gain an excep-
tion would be a gutter system, which works on grav-
ity flow.
Suction Side
Static Suction Lift (SSL) is added resistance on the
suction side that has to be overcome when water is
lifted up to the pump. It is defined as the vertical dis-
tance from the level of the water in the pool/spa up to
the center of the impeller, expressed as feet of head.
If the pump is below water intake level, SSL is a
negative quantity. Negative SSL reduces total resis-
tance on the suction side because gravity pulls the
water downward and doesn’t work against the pump.
Discharge Side
Static Discharge Head (SDH) is the resistance that
discharge water has to overcome when it flows ver-
tically from the pump to its discharge elevation. SDH
is the vertical distance between the center of the im-
4-30
peller and the point of free discharge of water into
the pool. In normal filter mode, discharge level is usu-
ally below the pump. In this case, SDH is a negative
quantity, and it decreases the total resistance on the
discharge side. During backwashing on pools with
raised spas or waterfalls, water may be discharged
above the pump center. In this case SDH adds to the
resistance of the whole circulation system.
Velocity and Friction Loss
In a hydraulic system velocity is the speed water
moves through the pipelines and the related equip-
ment. The velocity that water flows through piping
and equipment is measured in feet per second (fps).
The ANSI/NSPI-5 1995 Standard for Residential
Inground Swimming Pools recommends that the wa-
ter velocity in pool piping shall not exceed 10 feet
per second for pressure piping and 8 feet per second
for suction piping. When using copper piping, the
velocity shall not exceed 8 feet per second for either
suction or discharge piping.
Figure 4-19 Elevation Can Change Resistance –
SSL & SDH
Pool piping shall be sized to permit the rated flows
for filtering and cleaning without exceeding the maxi-
mum head of the pump. (Refer to Article 9.2, ANSI/
NSPI-5, 1995.) The National Hydraulic Institute rec-
ommends a maximum velocity of 7 fps for optimum
hydraulic efficiency. Some state codes only allow 6
fps on suction piping.
A quick method of calculating the velocity (fps) for a
known gpm flowing through a given pipe size is:
Gallons per minute (gpm) x .32 (constant)/ area of
the pipeline.
Copyright © 2001 National Spa & Pool Institute
 4 CIRCULATION & PIPING

can it be assumed that Sch. 40 PVC and Sch. 80

PVC will have the same inside diameter.

Example: What is the velocity, in fps, for 60 gpm

of water traveling through a 1-1/2" Sch. 40 PVC
pipe?

Gallons per minute (gpm) x.32 (constant) / area

of the pipeline

60 gpm x .32 / 1.98 = fps

19.2 / 1.98 = 9.7 fps

Flow Velocities and Friction Losses are also avail-

able through the use of charts for the various types
and sizes of pipe and fittings. Refer to Fig. 4-29 Flow
Velocity and Friction Loss - Schedule 40 Pipe.

TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD (TDH)

TDH can refer to pressure head or resistance head.

For a pump, TDH is the pressure at which it can
produce a given flow rate. TDH for the circulation
system is the total resistance of the system at a given
flow rate. TDH varies at different flow rates. TDH is
measured in feet of head.

For the circulation system to operate, TDH (pres-

sure head of pump) must be greater than or equal to
TDH (resistance head of system). The subtotal of
the suction side of TDH is called Total Dynamic
Suction Lift (TDSL) The subtotal of the discharge
side is called the Total Dynamic Discharge Head
(TDDH).

Other Terms for TDH

Figure 4-20 Static Suction Lift & Static
Discharge Head Different manufacturers’ hydraulics manuals use dif-
ferent terms for TDH (resistance head). You may see
When using this calculation, it is important to remem- TDH called TH (total head). Sometimes it is called
ber that the area of the pipeline is calculated using the Total System Head Loss.
inside diameter of the pipe. A 1-1/2" Sch. 40 PVC
pipe does not have an inside diameter of 1-1/2", nor

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BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.
Using TDH Information
Why do we have to know the TDH of a system?
The first reason is to accurately choose the proper
size pump for a new or renovated system. The pump
has to have enough pressure to overcome the TDH
of the system (resistance head) and still produce the
flow rate required for proper turnover (time required
to pass a volume of water equal to the pool/spa
through the filter one time) and backwashing. Calcu-
late TDH for the maximum flow rate your system
needs. Maximum flow may be required during back-
wash, when the filter provides the most resistance.
Then consult the manufacturers’ pump curves to see
which pump can produce the flow rate you need at
this TDH.
Figure 4-21 Calculating New Friction Loss At
Increased Flow Rate
Revised Nov. 18, 2002
4-32
Another way to select the proper pump size is to use
the TDH and the flow rate it matches to calculate
and plot a System Head Curve. You can then see
how different pumps match your needs by where their
pump curves intersect with the System Head Curve.
The second reason to calculate the system’s TDH is
to choose the proper size piping for a new system or
renovation. Piping must permit the required flow rate,
keeping the flow beneath a maximum allowed veloc-
ity, and not create too much resistance.
System Head Curves: Friction Loss at Increased
Flow Rates
In a given system, the faster the water flows, the more
pressure it loses. It is important to realize that friction
loss (or resistance head, friction head and other
equivalent terms) increases dramati-
cally as flow rate increases. The to-
tal resistance (TDH) of a pool/spa
system also increases dramatically
with increased flow rates. Most
manufacturers’ charts take this into
account by showing friction loss at
different flow rates for individual
pieces of equipment or fittings. A
graph that shows how TDH (resis-
tance head) increases as flow rate
increases is called a system head
curve.
Finding TDH
TDH can be measured by pressure/
vacuum gauges on either side of the
pump of an operating pool/spa sys-
tem as shown in Figure 4-23.
This is useful when you don’t know
all the piping specifications of the
original installation. TDH can also be calculated by
adding the friction head loss of piping, equipment head
Copyright © 2001 National Spa & Pool Institute

loss, static suction lift and static suction head. A sim-
plified way of estimating TDH is to add up just the
friction head loss and equipment head loss. Manu-
facturers supply resistance specifications with all
equipment and piping.
TDSL
The TDSL resistance alone tells whether the system
will be able to operate at all. TDSL cannot exceed
24 to 28 feet of head, as explained earlier. A poorly
designed suction pipeline may have TDSL equal to,
or more than, 25 to 28 feet of head. It will not func-
tion. A larger pump will not correct the problem. The
limit is created by atmospheric pressure, not the size
of the pump.
Figure 4-22 System Head Curves with Performance Curves
Revised Nov. 18, 2002
4-33
4 CIRCULATION & PIPING
Estimating TDH
(During operation)
Although the builder can normally calculate the TDH
of a piping system through visual inspection of the
system during installation, the service technician may
be called upon to replace a pump on an existing sys-
tem during a renovation that does not require the un-
earthing and replacement of the existing piping. In
this situation, an alternate means of establishing the
head loss of the existing system is necessary. To se-
lect a replacement pump to fit an established system,
we can measure the required TDH (resistance) by
taking pressure/vacuum readings during filter opera-
tion. The new pump must produce a TDH equal to,
or greater than, the TDH (resistance head) of our
Copyright © 2001 National Spa & Pool Institute
BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.
Figure 4-23 Measuring TDH During Operation
system working at the maximum required flow rate.
As an example, in Figure 4-23, readings from a
vacuum gauge indicating inches of mercury (in. Hg)
and a pressure gauge recording pounds per square
inch (psi) can be used to determine the TDH of an
existing system. Considering the average residential
system, this method would require the insertion of
the gauges as shown in the illustration. When the sys-
tem is in operation, either filter or backwash, the
gauges give the necessary information required to
calculate the TDH. Using the mathematical equations
below we can calculate the TDSL and TDDH for an
existing system.
The illustration shows that the TDSL measured on
the vacuum gauge is 6 inches of mercury. Convert
the reading to feet of head by multiplying that reading
by 1.13.
(TDSL) = 6 x 1.13 (constant)
= 6.78 feet of head
The TDDH measured on the pressure gauge indi-
cates 14 pounds per square inch. Again convert to
feet of head, this time by multiplying by the constant
2.31.
Revised Nov. 18, 2002
4-34
(TDDH) = 14 x 2.31 (constant)
= 32.34 feet of head
The total dynamic head (TDH) for this system is the
sum of the TDSL and the TDDH.
TDSL + TDDH = TDH
TDH = 6.78 feet of head +
32.34 feet of head
= 39.12 feet of head
To use this TDH information, measure the flow rate
of the existing system with a flow meter. Both TDH
and flow rate must be known to use manufacturers’
pump curves to select the proper size replacement
pump for this existing system.
Calculating TDH:
A visual inspection of piping and equipment con-
figuration
The simplest way to calculate TDH is to add up the
piping friction head of the branch that produces the
largest loss (head losses are not added) and equip-
ment head losses. This type of calculation is the most
common on the installation of a new swimming pool/
spa where the inlet and outlet elevations are the same.
1. Calculate the required rate of flow based on pool
volume and turnover rate.
2. Calculate the TDSL at the predetermined flow
rate, by adding up one branch of the suction side
friction losses through piping, fittings, valves and
suction side circulation equipment.
3. Calculate the TDDH at the predetermined flow
rate, by adding up the discharge side friction
losses through piping, fittings, valves and dis-
charge side circulation, filtration and heating
equipment.
Copyright © 2001 National Spa & Pool Institute

a. Pipe and Fitting Loss
Measure the total feet of pipe. Using manufac-
turers’ charts, add the equivalent pipe length of
all the fittings and valves. Divide the total by 100,
because standard charts give friction loss per 100
feet of pipe. Multiply the result by the friction loss
shown on the chart for the required flow rate.
b. Equipment Loss
Use friction loss as specified on manufacturers’
charts for the necessary flow rate for each piece
of equipment, i.e., filters, multiport valves, heat-
ers, in- line chlorinators, etc.
4. The sum of the TDSL and TDDH is the TDH for
the system.
Example: The residential pool illustrated in
Fig. 4-24 measures 16' x 32' and has one skimmer,
two main drains and two returns.
Note:
When calculating the friction loss of
pipe and fittings in a system that con-
tains pipelines that are installed in par-
allel, as illustrated in Figure 4-25, only
the pipeline containing the greatest
resistance is added into the calcula-
tion. In most cases, but not all, it is
the longest pipeline. If it is necessary
to calculate the TDH during the
backwashing cycle, the method
shown above would apply.
The filtration system was chosen to provide for a 10-
hour turnover.
a. Flow Rate
Calculate the flow rate as follows:
GPM = Volume/Turnover Rate (in hours) x 60 min.
Revised Nov. 18, 2002
4-35
4 CIRCULATION & PIPING
GPM = 23,000 gal./10 hours x 60 min
GPM = 23,000 gal./600 minutes
GPM = 38.3
We will need a minimum flow rate of 39 gpm. Verify
from manufacturers’ data that the filter will allow a
minimum flow rate of 39 gpm.
b. Suction Losses
The are two suction lines from the pool to the pump,
one from the main drain and one from the skimmer;
they are plumbed in parallel. For circuits plumbed in
parallel, pressure does not add, but remains the same
in both lines; flow is split between them. The pump
does not have to overcome the sum of the resistance
in both lines, just the greater resistance of the two
lines.
c. Discharge Losses
Water is discharged from the pump to the pool through
one pipe that splits in two near the pool. The full flow
is carried through the single pipe section, and half the
flow is carried through the split section.
d. Totaling TDH
To complete our calculations, we add the TDSL and
TDDH for the piping system and equipment.
Calculating True TDH
The true TDH differs from estimated TDH because
it takes into account Static Suction Lift (suction side)
and Static Discharge Head (discharge side). This
would require an addition to, and/or subtraction from,
the estimated TDH calculation to account for the ac-
tual amount of lift above the water level that the pump
would have to raise the water into the hair strainer or
pump housing. (If the pump were installed 2 feet above
the water level, 2 feet of additional head would be
Copyright © 2001 National Spa & Pool Institute
BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.

added to the TDSL.) Conversely, if the water flow- calculation requires true TDH, the distance the water
ing back to the pool/spa travels the same distance will have to travel through vertical piping must be
(2') at a vertical drop, the 2 feet of head loss would added into the calculation.
be subtracted from the TDDH.

TDH and Backwashing

Some manufacturers suggest that the pump be sized

at the maximum TDH. Calculation of the TDH dur-
ing the backwash cycle will differ because of the pip-
ing configuration (length of pipelines, size and quan-
tity of fittings) and because some of the equipment
(heater, in-line chlorinator and inlet fittings) will not
be in the circuit during the backwash cycle. Also when

Figure 4-24 Estimating TDH on a Residential Pool

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 4 CIRCULATION & PIPING

Figure 4-25 Estimating Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for Figure 4-24

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BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.

Figure 4-26 Calculating True TDH –Small Public Pool

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 4 CIRCULATION & PIPING

Figure 4-27 Calculating True TDH for Figure 4-26

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BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.

Figure 4-28 Conversion Tables for Feet of Head

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 4 CIRCULATION & PIPING

Figure 4-29 Friction Loss Chart for Sch. 40 Rigid PVC Pipe

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BASIC POOL & SPA TECHNOLOGY, 3rd ed.

Figure 4-30 Friction Loss Chart for Pipe Fittings (PVC)

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