COMMUNICATION

AND SOFT
SKILLS
LABORATORY
 LANGUAGE
LABORATORY
 CAREER
LABORATORY
COVER
LETTER
 12th March,2018
Chennai.

From
Srinivasa Varadhan AR
No.6, Arumugam street
Triplicane
Chennai-05.

To
The Manager
Volkswagen India Pvt. Ltd
Bangalore

Respected Sir/Madam,

Sub: Applying for the post of junior engineer

I am submitting here with my resume for perusal and favourable

consideration for the post junior engineer in your organization. Review of my
credentials indicates that I am a qualified B.E. MECHANICAL ENGINEER
from Rajalakshmi Institute of Technology, Chennai affliated to Anna
University. I possess comprehensive knowledge in Manufacturing and
Technical skills. Also, I have rich knowledge with almost all designing
software. With exceptional communication and interpersonal skills, my self-
confidence, innovative approach and quick adaptability to changing processes
and trends have been my biggest assets. I am seeking a challenging job that
would synergize my skills and experience with the objectives of the
organization. The above credentials along with my enclosed resume make me
ideally suitable for a position in your organization. I would appreciate an
opportunity for a personal interview. Looking forward in anticipation of a
favourable reply.
Thanking you,

Yours faithfully,
Srinivasa Varadhan AR

Enclosures:
1. Resume
2.Copies of qualification certificates.
WORKSHEET
RESUME
 toreachsrini4@gmail.com
Srinivasa Varadhan AR

No.6, Arumugam Street, Ph :+91 9600149215

Triplicane,
Chennai-05.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-

CAREER OBJECTIVE:
To make a sound position in corporate world and work enthusiastically in
team to achieve goal of the organization with devotion and hard work and to
seek challenging assignment and responsibility, with an opportunity for
growth and career advancement as successful achievements.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION:
Degree/ Institute/Univ./Board Year of Passing Percentage
Examination
B.E Mechanical Rajalakshmi Institute of (completed till
Engineering
Technology Vth sem) 7.98(CGPA)

HSC Sri Ahobila math oriental 2014 93.75%

Higher secondary school

The Hindu higher 2012 88.5%

secondary school
SSLC

COMPUTER SKILLS:
Languages Known:C,C++, Java.
Web Technologies: HTML, MYSQL.
KEY SKILLS:
Quick Learner

Good narrator and orator

Good listener and patient observer

Able to adapt to any culture

Good communication skills

Committed, focused, determined and dedicated to the work.

EXTRA-CURRICULAR:
Participated and won prizes in various college level symposiums.

Performed and won prizes in quiz competitions.

Basically a good team player.

Actively participated in rotract club.

Has been the representative of the class and organizer of events.

CO-CURRICULAR:
✓ Obtained certification on Cloud Infrastructure and Services
program conducted by EMC Academic Associate.

✓ Published a paper titled “Development of shopping assistant using

extraction of text images for visually impaired” in IEEE digital library.

✓ Has Attended Workshop on Automobile Engines at MIT

Institute Of Technology.

✓ Has done an internship in Ashok Leyland

✓ Obtained certification on “Advanced IC Engines”.

✓ Obtained certification on designing softwares.

 Presented a paper titled “VOICE BASED APPLICATION AS
MEDICINE SPOTTER FOR VISUALLY IMPAIRED” at RMK
ENGINEERING COLLEGE and won THIRD PRIZE.

Presented a paper on “ Medicine identifying application using text

extraction for visually impaired” in an “ International Conference on
Engineering a Digital Green Era” at Rajalakshmi engineering college.

Has attended a 5-day UTLP program by wipro and completed a

project on “Base of Records”.

Member of Society of Automobile Engineers of India(SAE).

PERSONAL DETAILS:
NAME : Srinivasa varadhan AR
FATHER’S NAME : Ranga Ramanujam
DATE OF BIRTH : 20th Nov, 1996
GENDER : Male
MARITAL STATUS : Single

BLOOD GROUP : A1+ve

NATIONALITY : Indian
LANGUAGES KNOWN: English, Tamil, German, Hindi.
REFERENCES:
1. Dr.S.DINESH KUMAR,

Head Of The Department, Mechanical

Engineering, Rajalakshmi Institute Of
Technology.

2. Mr.P.Sethuramalingam,
Assistant Professor,
Dept Of Mechanical Engineering,
Rajalakshmi Institute Of Technology.

DECLARATION:
I hereby declare that above written particulars are true to the best of my
knowledge and belief.
Place: Chennai
Date: 12.03.2018
Yours Sincerely,
Srinivasa Varadhan AR
TECHNICAL
TOPIC
 TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION SYSTEM :-

Definition Of Transmission System :- The mechanism that transmits the
power developed by the engine of automobile to the engine to the driving
wheels is called the TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (or POWER TRAIN).

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

CLUTCH GEAR BOX PROPELLER SHAFT UNIVERSAL JOINTS Final

drive and differential REAR AXLE

It is composed of – Clutch The gear box Propeller shaft Universal joints

Rear axle Wheel Tyres Requirements Of Transmission System :- Provide
means of connection and disconnection of engine with rest of power train
without shock and smoothly. Provide a varied leverage between the engine and
the drive wheels Provide means to transfer power in opposite direction.
Enable power transmission at varied angles and varied lengths. Enable speed
reduction between engine and the drive wheels in the ratio of 5:1. Enable
diversion of power flow at right angles. Provide means to drive the driving
wheels at different speeds when required. Bear the effect of torque reaction ,
driving thrust and braking effort effectively.

The above requirements are fulfilled by the following main units of

transmission system :-
Clutch Gear Box Transfer Case Propeller Shaft and Universal Joints. Final
Drive Differential Torque Tube Road Wheel Difference between tyre and
wheel :- Wheel Tyre A wheel is a device that allows heavy objects to be moved
easily through rotating on an axle through its centre,
facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load (mass),or
performing labor in machine. While tyre is the outer part of the wheel made up
with rubber and mostly use in vehicles for smooth movement

Types Of Transmission System -: Hydraulic transmission system:- Fluid

coupling -: A fluid coupling is a hydrodynamic device used to transmit rotating
mechanical power.It has been used in automobile transmissions as an alternative
to a mechanical clutch. How fluid coupling can be act as a mechanical clutch ?
o In automotive applications, the pump typically is connected to the flywheel of
the engine The turbine is connected to the input shaft of the transmission. While
the transmission is in gear, as engine speed increases torque is transferred from
the engine to the input shaft by the motion of the fluid, propelling the vehicle .
So, the behavior of the fluid coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical
clutch driving a manual transmission.

Construction Of a Fluid Coupling :- It consists of a pump-generally known

as impeller and a turbine generally known as rotor, both enclosed suitably in a
casing . They face each other with an air gap. The impeller is suitably connected
to the prime mover while the rotor has a shaft bolted to it. This shaft is further
connected to the driven machine through a suitable arrangement. Oil is filled in
the fluid coupling from the filling plug provided on its body. Operating
principle of fluid coupling :- There is no mechanical interconnection between
the impeller and the rotor and the power is transmitted by virtue of the fluid
filled in the coupling. The impeller when rotated by the prime mover imparts
velocity and energy to the fluid, which is converted into mechanical energy in
the rotor thus rotating it. The fluid follows a closed circuit of flow from impeller
to rotor through the air gap at the outer periphery and from rotor to impeller
again through the air gap at the inner periphery. To enable the fluid to flow from
impeller to rotor it is essential that there is difference in the "heat" between the
two and thus it is essential that there is difference in R.P.M., known as slip
between the two. As the slip increases more and more fluid can be transferred
from the impeller to the rotor and more torque is transmitted.

Torque Converter :- Torque converter is a hydraulic transmission which

increases the torque of the vehicle reducing its speed .
It provides a continuous variation of ratio from low to high. The key
characteristic of a torque converter is its ability to multiply torque when there is
a substantial difference between input and output rotational speed, thus
providing the equivalent of a reduction gear. cars with an automatic
transmission have no clutch that disconnects the transmission from the engine.
So, they use an amazing device called a torque converter.

Torque converter:- What’s Inside The Torque Converter? There are four
components inside the very strong housing of the torque converter: Pump
Turbine Stator Transmission fluid These are the parts in the figure
turbine,stator,pump (left to right). The housing of the torque converter is bolted
to the flywheel of the engine, so it turns at whatever speed the engine is running
at. The pump inside a torque converter is a type of centrifugal pump. As it
spins, fluid is flung to the outside. As fluid is flung to the outside, a vacuum is
created that draws more fluid in at the center. The fluid then enters the blades of
the turbine, which is connected to the transmission.
The turbine causes the transmission to spin, which basically moves your car.
The blades of the turbine are curved. This means that the fluid, which enters the
turbine from the outside, has to change direction before it exits the center of the
turbine. It is this directional change that causes the turbine to spin.
In order to change the direction of a moving object, you must apply a force to
that object -- it doesn't matter if the object is a car or a drop of fluid. And
whatever applies the force that causes the object to turn must also feel that
force, but in the opposite direction. So as the turbine causes the fluid to change
direction, the fluid causes the turbine to spin.
The fluid exits the turbine at the center, moving in a different direction than
when it entered.The fluid exits the turbine moving opposite the direction that
the pump (and engine) are turning. If the fluid were allowed to hit the pump, it
would slow the engine down, wasting power. This is why a torque converter has
a stator.
The stator resides in the very center of the torque converter.
Its job is to redirect the fluid returning from the turbine before it hits the pump
again. This dramatically increases the efficiency of the torque converter. The
stator has a very aggressive blade design that almost completely reverses the
direction of the fluid. A one-way clutch (inside the stator) connects the stator to
a fixed shaft in the transmission (the direction that the clutch allows the stator to
spin is noted in the figure above). Because of this arrangement, the stator cannot
spin with the fluid -- it can spin only in the opposite direction, forcing the fluid
to change direction as it hits the stator blades.
The figure (top to bottom) shows the pump,turbine and the stator, sending the
fluid in their respective direction. Intersting facts about stator !!! Something a
little bit tricky happens when the car gets moving. There is a point, around 40
mph (64 kph), at which both the pump and the turbine are spinning at almost the
same speed (the pump always spins slightly faster).
At this point, the fluid returns from the turbine, entering the pump already
moving in the same direction as the pump, so the stator is not needed. Even
though the turbine changes the direction of the fluid and flings it out the back,
the fluid still ends up moving in the direction that the turbine is spinning
because the turbine is spinning faster in one direction than the fluid is being
pumped in the other direction. If you were standing in the back of a pickup
moving at 60 mph, and you threw a ball out the back of that pickup at 40 mph,
the ball would still be going forward at 20 mph.
This is similar to what happens in the turbine: The fluid is being flung out the
back in one direction, but not as fast as it was going to start with in the other
direction.

Manual transmission system :- In this type of transmission system , the

driver has to manually select and engage the gear ratios -: Clutch fully
depressed The clutch is fully disengaged when the pedal is fully depressed.
There will be no torque being transferred from the engine to the transmission
and wheels. Fully depressing the clutch allows the driver to change gears or stop
the vehicle. Clutch slips The clutch slips is the point that vary between being
fully depressed and released. The clutch slip is used to start the vehicle from a
stand still. It then allows the engine rotation to adjust to the newly selected gear
ratio gradually . It is recommended not to slip the clutch for a long time because
a lot of heat is generated resulting in energy wastage. Clutch fully realeased
The clutch is fully engaged when the pedal is fully released. All the engine
torque will be transmitted to the transmission. This results in the power being
transmitted to the wheels with minimum loss. Stages of Manual transmission.

Automatic transmission :- Automatic transmission system is the most

advanced system in which drives mechanical efforts are reduced very much and
different speeds are obtained automatically. This system is generally also called
hydramatic transmission. It contain epicyclic gear arrangement, fluid coupling
and torque converter. In this planetary gears sets are placed in series to provide
transmission. This type of transmission are used by Skoda ,Toyota , Lexus , etc
Epicyclic gearing (planetry gearing) :- it is a gear system consisting of one or
more outer gears, or planet gears, revolving about a central gear .By using
epicyclic gear , different torque speed ratio can be obtained . It also compact the
size of gear box.
Stages of automatic transmission :- Park(P) :- selecting the park mode will
lock the transmission, thus restricting the vehicle from moving. Reverse( R) :-
selecting the reverse mode puts the car into reverse gear, allowing the vehicle to
move backward. Neutral (N) :- selecting neutral mode disconnects the
transmission from the wheel. Low (L) :- selecting the low mode will allow you
to lower the speed to move on hilly and middy areas. Drive (D) :- selecting
drive mode allows the vehicle to move and accelerate through a range of gears.

Comparison between manual transmission and automatic transmission :-

Manual transmission Automatic transmission Vehicles with manual
transmission are usually cheaper . Vehicles with automatic transmission are
costlier than those of manual transmission. Manual transmission has better fuel
economy . This is because manual transmission has better mechanical and gear
train efficiency. Automatic transmission has not better fuel economy . This is
because automatic transmission has not better mechanical and gear train
efficiency as compare to those of automatic transmission. Manual transmission
offers the driver more control of the vehicle. Automatic transmission does not
offer the driver more control of the vehicle as compare to that of automatic
transmission system.

CLUTCH: A clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one

shaft to be transmitted at will to second shaft ,whose axis is coincident with that
of first. Clutch is located between engine and gear box. When the clutch is
engaged, the power flows from the engine to the rear wheels through the
transmission system and the vehicle moves . when the clutch is disengaged ,the
power is not transmitted to the rear wheels and the vehicle stops, while the
engine is still running. Clutch is disengaged whena) Starting the engine, b)
Shifting the gears, c) Idling the engine clutch is engaged only when the vehicle
is to move and is kept engaged when the vehicle is moving. Function Of a
Clutch :- a) To permit engagement or disengagement of a gear when the vehicle
is stationary and the engine is running b) To transmit the engine power to the
road wheels smoothly without shock to the transmission system while setting
the wheel in motion. c) To permit the engaging of gears when the vehicle is in
motion without damaging the gear wheels.

Principle Of Operation Of a Clutch :- The clutch principle is based on

friction . when two friction surface are brought in contact with each other and
pressed they are united due to friction between them. If one is revolved the
other will also revolve . The friction between the two surfaces depends uponi.
Area of the surface, ii. Pressure applied upon them, iii. Coefficient of friction of
the surface materials Here , One surface is considered as driving member and
the other as driven member. The driving member of a clutch is the flywheel
mounted on the crankshaft, the driven member is the pressure plate mounted on
the transmission shaft . Friction surfaces (clutch plates ) are between the two
members (driving and driven). On the engagement of the clutch, the engine is
connected to the transmission (gear box) and the power flows from the engine
to the rear wheels through the transmission system . when the clutch is
disengaged by pressing a clutch pedal, the engine is disconnected from the
transmission and consequently the power does not flow to the rear wheels while
the engine is still running.
 NON-
TECHNICAL
TOPIC
 ANGER

Anger or wrath is an intense emotional response usually involving agitation,

malice, or retribution. It is an emotion that involves a strong uncomfortable and
hostile response to a perceived provocation, hurt or threat.Anger can occur
when a person feels their personal boundaries are being or are going to be
violated. Some have a learned tendency to react to anger through retaliation as a
way of coping. Raymond Novaco of University of California Irvine, who since
1975 has published a plethora of literature on the subject, stratified anger into
three modalities: cognitive (appraisals), somatic-affective (tension and
agitations), and behavioral (withdrawal and antagonism). William DeFoore, an
anger management writer, described anger as a pressure cooker: we can only
apply pressure against our anger for a certain amount of time until it explodes.

Anger is an emotional reaction that impacts the body. A person experiencing

anger will also experience physical conditions, such as increased heart rate,
elevated blood pressure, and increased levels of adrenaline and
noradrenaline.Some view anger as an emotion which triggers part of the fight or
flight brain response.Anger is used as a protective mechanism to cover up fear,
hurt or sadness. Anger becomes the predominant feeling behaviorally,
cognitively, and physiologically when a person makes the conscious choice to
take action to immediately stop the threatening behavior of another outside
force.The English term originally comes from the term anger of Old Norse
language. Anger can have many physical and mental consequences.

The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body

language, physiological responses, and at times public acts of aggression.[8]
Some animals, for example, make loud sounds, attempt to look physically
larger, bare their teeth, and stare. The behaviors associated with anger are
designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior. Rarely does a
physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one
of the participants. While most of those who experience anger explain its
arousal as a result of "what has happened to them," psychologists point out that
an angry person can very well be mistaken because anger causes a loss in self-
monitoring capacity and objective observability.

Modern psychologists view anger as a primary, natural, and mature emotion

experienced by virtually all humans at times, and as something that has
functional value for survival. Anger is seen as a supportive mechanism to show
a person that something is wrong and requires changing. Anger can mobilize
psychological resources for corrective action. Uncontrolled anger can, however,
negatively affect personal or social well-being and impact negatively on those
around them. It is equally challenging to be around an angry person and the
impact can also cause psychological/emotional trauma if not dealt with. While
many philosophers and writers have warned against the spontaneous and
uncontrolled fits of anger, there has been disagreement over the intrinsic value
of anger.The issue of dealing with anger has been written about since the times
of the earliest philosophers, but modern psychologists, in contrast to earlier
writers, have also pointed out the possible harmful effects of suppressing anger.
Displays of anger can be used as a manipulation strategy for social influence.

The Anger of Achilles, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo depicts the Greek hero
attacking Agamemnon.
Three types of anger are recognized by psychologists:
Hasty and sudden anger is connected to the impulse for self-preservation. It is
shared by human and other animals, and it occurs when the animal is tormented
or trapped. This form of anger is episodic.
Settled and deliberate anger is a reaction to perceived deliberate harm or unfair
treatment by others. This form of anger is episodic.
Dispositional anger is related more to character traits than to instincts or
cognitions. Irritability, sullenness, and churlishness are examples of the last
form of anger.
Anger can potentially mobilize psychological resources and boost determination
toward correction of wrong behaviors, promotion of social justice,
communication of negative sentiment, and redress of grievances. It can also
facilitate patience. In contrast, anger can be destructive when it does not find its
appropriate outlet in expression. Anger, in its strong form, impairs one's ability
to process information and to exert cognitive control over their behavior. An
angry person may lose his/her objectivity, empathy, prudence or thoughtfulness
and may cause harm to themselves or others. There is a sharp distinction
between anger and aggression (verbal or physical, direct or indirect) even
though they mutually influence each other. While anger can activate aggression
or increase its probability or intensity, it is neither a necessary nor a sufficient
condition for aggression.

Neuropsychological perspective
Extension of the Stimuli of the Fighting Reactions. At the beginning of life the
human infant struggles indiscriminately against any restraining force, whether it
be another human being or a blanket which confines his movements. There is no
inherited susceptibility to social stimuli, as distinct from other stimulation, in
anger. At a later date the child learns that certain actions, such as striking,
scolding, and screaming, are effective toward persons, but not toward things. In
adults, although the infantile response is still sometimes seen, the fighting
reaction becomes fairly well limited to stimuli whose hurting or restraining
influence can be thrown off by physical violence.

Differences between related concepts

The words annoyance and rage are often imagined to be at opposite ends of an
emotional continuum: mild irritation and annoyance at the low end and fury or
murderous rage at the high end. Rage problems are conceptualized as "the
inability to process emotions or life's experiences" either because the capacity to
regulate emotion (Schore, 1994) has never been sufficiently developed or
because it has been temporarily lost due to more recent trauma. Rage is
understood as raw, undifferentiated emotions, that spill out when another life
event that cannot be processed, no matter how trivial, puts more stress on the
organism than it can bear.

Anger, when viewed as a protective response or instinct to a perceived threat, is

considered as positive. The negative expression of this state is known as
aggression. Acting on this misplaced state is rage due to possible potential
errors in perception and judgment.

Examples

Expressions of anger used negatively Reasoning

Over-protective instinct and hostility To avoid conceived loss or fear that
something will be taken away.
Entitlement and frustration To prevent a change in functioning.
Intimidation and rationalization To meet one's own needs.
Characteristics
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One simple dichotomy of anger expression is passive anger versus aggressive
anger versus assertive anger. These three types of anger have some
characteristic symptoms:

Passive anger
Passive anger can be expressed in the following ways:[citation needed]

Dispassion, such as giving someone the cold shoulder or a fake smile, looking
unconcerned or "sitting on the fence" while others sort things out, dampening
feelings with substance abuse, overreacting, oversleeping, not responding to
another's anger, frigidity, indulging in sexual practices that depress spontaneity
and make objects of participants, giving inordinate amounts of time to
machines, objects or intellectual pursuits, talking of frustrations but showing no
feeling.
Evasiveness, such as turning one's back in a crisis, avoiding conflict, not
arguing back, becoming phobic.
Defeatism, such as setting yourself and others up for failure, choosing
unreliable people to depend on, being accident prone, underachieving, sexual
impotence, expressing frustration at insignificant things but ignoring serious
ones.
Obsessive behavior, such as needing to be inordinately clean and tidy, making a
habit of constantly checking things, over-dieting or overeating, demanding that
all jobs be done perfectly.
Psychological manipulation, such as provoking people to aggression and then
patronizing them, provoking aggression but staying on the sidelines, emotional
blackmail, false tearfulness, feigning illness, sabotaging relationships, using
sexual provocation, using a third party to convey negative feelings, withholding
money or resources.
Secretive behavior, such as stockpiling resentments that are expressed behind
people's backs, giving the silent treatment or under-the-breath mutterings,
avoiding eye contact, putting people down, gossiping, anonymous complaints,
poison pen letters, stealing, and conning.
Self-blame, such as apologizing too often, being overly critical, inviting
criticism.

Aggressive anger
The symptoms of aggressive anger are:

Bullying, such as threatening people directly, persecuting, insulting, pushing or

shoving, using power to oppress, shouting, driving someone off the road,
playing on people's weaknesses.
Destructiveness, such as destroying objects as in vandalism, harming animals,
child abuse, destroying a relationship, reckless driving, substance abuse.
Grandiosity, such as showing off, expressing mistrust, not delegating, being a
sore loser, wanting center stage all the time, not listening, talking over people's
heads, expecting kiss and make-up sessions to solve problems.
Hurtfulness, such as violence, including sexual abuse and rape, verbal abuse,
biased or vulgar jokes, breaking confidence, using foul language, ignoring
people's feelings, willfully discriminating, blaming, punishing people for
unwarranted deeds, labeling others.
Manic behavior, such as speaking too fast, walking too fast, driving too fast,
reckless spending.
Selfishness, such as ignoring others' needs, not responding to requests for help,
queue jumping.
Threats, such as frightening people by saying how one could harm them, their
property or their prospects, finger pointing, fist shaking, wearing clothes or
symbols associated with violent behaviour, tailgating, excessively blowing a car
horn, slamming doors.
Unjust blaming, such as accusing other people for one's own mistakes, blaming
people for your own feelings, making general accusations.
Unpredictability, such as explosive rages over minor frustrations, attacking
indiscriminately, dispensing unjust punishment, inflicting harm on others for the
sake of it, using alcohol and drugs, illogical arguments.
Vengeance, such as being over-punitive. This differs from retributive justice, as
vengeance is personal, and possibly unlimited in scale.
Assertive anger
Blame, such as after a particular individual commits an action that’s possibly
frowned upon, the particular person will resort to scolding. This is in fact,
common in discipline terms.
Punishment, the angry person will give a temporary punishment to an individual
like further limiting a child’s will to do anything they want like playing video
games, no reading, etc, after they did something to cause trouble.
Sternness, such as calling out a person on their behaviour, with their voices
raised with utter disapproval/disappointment.
Six dimensions of anger expression
Anger expression can take on many more styles than passive or aggressive.
Ephrem Fernandez has identified six bipolar dimensions of anger expression.
They relate to the direction of anger, its locus, reaction, modality, impulsivity,
and objective. Coordinates on each of these dimensions can be connected to
generate a profile of a person's anger expression style. Among the many profiles
that are theoretically possible in this system, are the familiar profile of the
person with explosive anger, profile of the person with repressive anger, profile
of the passive aggressive person, and the profile of constructive anger
expression.

Causes
People feel angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has
been offended, when they are certain about the nature and cause of the angering
event, when they are convinced someone else is responsible, and when they feel
they can still influence the situation or cope with it.For instance, if a person's
car is damaged, they will feel angry if someone else did it (e.g. another driver
rear-ended it), but will feel sadness instead if it was caused by situational forces
(e.g. a hailstorm) or guilt and shame if they were personally responsible (e.g. he
crashed into a wall out of momentary carelessness). Psychotherapist Michael C.
Graham defines anger in terms of our expectations and assumptions about the
world. Graham states anger almost always results when we are caught up "...
expecting the world to be different than it is".

Usually, those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has
happened to them" and in most cases the described provocations occur
immediately before the anger experience. Such explanations confirm the
illusion that anger has a discrete external cause. The angry person usually finds
the cause of their anger in an intentional, personal, and controllable aspect of
another person's behavior. This explanation, however, is based on the intuitions
of the angry person who experiences a loss in self-monitoring capacity and
objective observability as a result of their emotion. Anger can be of multicausal
origin, some of which may be remote events, but people rarely find more than
one cause for their anger. According to Novaco, "Anger experiences are
embedded or nested within an environmental-temporal context. Disturbances
that may not have involved anger at the outset leave residues that are not readily
recognized but that operate as a lingering backdrop for focal provocations (of
anger)."According to Encyclopædia Britannica, an internal infection can cause
pain which in turn can activate anger.

Cognitive effects

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Anger makes people think more optimistically. Dangers seem smaller, actions
seem less risky, ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events
seem less likely. Angry people are more likely to make risky decisions, and
make more optimistic risk assessments. In one study, test subjects primed to
feel angry felt less likely to suffer heart disease, and more likely to receive a pay
raise, compared to fearful people. This tendency can manifest in retrospective
thinking as well: in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of
terrorism in the year following 9/11 in retrospect were low, compared to what
the fearful and neutral subjects thought.

In inter-group relationships, anger makes people think in more negative and

prejudiced terms about outsiders. Anger makes people less trusting, and slower
to attribute good qualities to outsiders.

When a group is in conflict with a rival group, it will feel more anger if it is the
politically stronger group and less anger when it is the weaker.

Unlike other negative emotions like sadness and fear, angry people are more
likely to demonstrate correspondence bias – the tendency to blame a person's
behavior more on his nature than on his circumstances. They tend to rely more
on stereotypes, and pay less attention to details and more attention to the
superficial. In this regard, anger is unlike other "negative" emotions such as
sadness and fear, which promote analytical thinking.

An angry person tends to anticipate other events that might cause them anger.
They will tend to rate anger-causing events (e.g. being sold a faulty car) as more
likely than sad events (e.g. a good friend moving away).

A person who is angry tends to place more blame on another person for their
misery. This can create a feedback, as this extra blame can make the angry
person angrier still, so they in turn place yet more blame on the other person.

When people are in a certain emotional state, they tend to pay more attention to,
or remember, things that are charged with the same emotion; so it is with anger.
For instance, if you are trying to persuade someone that a tax increase is
necessary, if the person is currently feeling angry you would do better to use an
argument that elicits anger ("more criminals will escape justice") than, say, an
argument that elicits sadness ("there will be fewer welfare benefits for disabled
children").Also, unlike other negative emotions, which focus attention on all
negative events, anger only focuses attention on anger-causing events.

Anger can make a person more desiring of an object to which his anger is tied.
In a 2010 Dutch study, test subjects were primed to feel anger or fear by being
shown an image of an angry or fearful face, and then were shown an image of a
random object. When subjects were made to feel angry, they expressed more
desire to possess that object than subjects who had been primed to feel fear.

Expressive strategies
As with any emotion, the display of anger can be feigned or exaggerated.
Studies by Hochschild and Sutton have shown that the show of anger is likely to
be an effective manipulation strategy in order to change and design attitudes.
Anger is a distinct strategy of social influence and its use (i.e. belligerent
behaviors) as a goal achievement mechanism proves to be a successful strategy.

Larissa Tiedens, known for her studies of anger, claimed that expression of
feelings would cause a powerful influence not only on the perception of the
expresser but also on their power position in the society. She studied the
correlation between anger expression and social influence perception. Previous
researchers, such as Keating, 1985 have found that people with angry face
expression were perceived as powerful and as in a high social
position.Involving an angry and a sad character, attributed a higher social status
to the angry character.Tiedens examined in her study whether anger expression
promotes status attribution. In other words, whether anger contributes to
perceptions or legitimization of others' behaviors. Her findings clearly indicated
that participants who were exposed to either an angry or a sad person were
inclined to express support for the angry person rather than for a sad one. In
addition, it was found that a reason for that decision originates from the fact that
the person expressing anger was perceived as an ability owner, and was
attributed a certain social status accordingly.

Showing anger during a negotiation may increase the ability of the anger
expresser to succeed in negotiation. A study by Tiedens et al. indicated that the
anger expressers were perceived as stubborn, dominant and powerful. In
addition, it was found that people were inclined to easily give up to those who
were perceived by them as powerful and stubborn, rather than soft and
submissive. Based on these findings Sinaceur and Tiedens have found that
people conceded more to the angry side rather than for the non-angry one.
A question raised by Van Kleef et al. based on these findings was whether
expression of emotion influences others, since it is known that people use
emotional information to conclude about others' limits and match their demands
in negotiation accordingly. Van Kleef et al. wanted to explore whether people
give up more easily to an angry opponent or to a happy opponent. Findings
revealed that participants tended to be more flexible toward an angry opponent
compared with a happy opponent. These results strengthen the argument that
participants analyze the opponent's emotion to conclude about their limits and
carry out their decisions accordingly.

Coping strategies
Main article: Anger management
According to Leland R. Beaumont, each instance of anger demands making a
choice.A person can respond with hostile action, including overt violence, or
they can respond with hostile inaction, such as withdrawing or stonewalling.
Other options include initiating a dominance contest; harboring resentment; or
working to better understand and constructively resolve the issue.

According to R. Novaco, there are a multitude of steps that were researched in

attempting to deal with this emotion. In order to manage anger the problems
involved in the anger should be discussed, Novaco suggests. The situations
leading to anger should be explored by the person. The person is then tried to be
imagery-based relieved of his or her recent angry experiences.

Conventional therapies for anger involve restructuring thoughts and beliefs to

bring about a reduction in anger. These therapies often come within the schools
of CBT (or Cognitive Behavioural Therapies) like modern systems such as
REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy). Research shows that people who
suffer from excessive anger often harbor and act on dysfunctional attributions,
assumptions and evaluations in specific situations. It has been shown that with
therapy by a trained professional, individuals can bring their anger to more
manageable levels.The therapy is followed by the so-called "stress inoculation"
in which the clients are taught "relaxation skills to control their arousal and
various cognitive controls to exercise on their attention, thoughts, images, and
feelings. They are taught to see the provocation and the anger itself as occurring
in a series of stages, each of which can be dealt with.

The Skills-deficit model states that poor social skills is what renders a person
incapable of expressing anger in an appropriate manner.Social skills training
has been found to be an effective method for reducing exaggerated anger by
offering alternative coping skills to the angry individual. Research has found
that persons who are prepared for aversive events find them less threatening,
and excitatory reactions are significantly reduced. In a 1981 study, that used
modeling, behavior rehearsal, and videotaped feedback to increase anger control
skills, showed increases in anger control among aggressive youth in the study.
Research conducted with youthful offenders using a social skills training
program (aggression replacement training), found significant reductions in
anger, and increases in anger control. Research has also found that antisocial
personalities are more likely to learn avoidance tasks when the consequences
involved obtaining or losing tangible rewards. Learning among antisocial
personalities also occurred better when they were involved with high intensity
stimulation.Social Learning Theory states that positive stimulation was not
compatible with hostile or aggressive reactions.Anger research has also studied
the effects of reducing anger among adults with antisocial personality disorder
(ASPD), with a social skills program approach that used a low fear and high
arousal group setting. This research found that low fear messages were less
provocative to the ASPD population, and high positive arousal stimulated their
ability to concentrate, and subsequently learn new skills for anger reduction.

Cognitive behavioral affective therapy:

A new integrative approach to anger treatment has been formulated by Ephrem

Fernandez (2010) Termed CBAT, for cognitive behavioral affective therapy,
this treatment goes beyond conventional relaxation and reappraisal by adding
cognitive and behavioral techniques and supplementing them with affective
techniques to deal with the feeling of anger. The techniques are sequenced
contingently in three phases of treatment: prevention, intervention, and
postvention. In this way, people can be trained to deal with the onset of anger,
its progression, and the residual features of anger.

Suppression
Modern psychologists point out that suppression of anger may have harmful
effects. The suppressed anger may find another outlet, such as a physical
symptom, or become more extreme. John W. Fiero cites Los Angeles riots of
1992 as an example of sudden, explosive release of suppressed anger. The anger
was then displaced as violence against those who had nothing to do with the
matter. Another example of widespread deflection of anger from its actual cause
toward scapegoating, Fiero says, was the blaming of Jews for the economic ills
of Germany by the Nazis.

However, psychologists have also criticized the "catharsis theory" of

aggression, which suggests that "unleashing" pent-up anger reduces aggression.

Dual thresholds model

Anger expression might have negative outcomes for individuals and
organizations as well, such as decrease of productivity and increase of job
stress,[54] however it could also have positive outcomes, such as increased
work motivation, improved relationships, increased mutual understanding etc.
(for ex. Tiedens, 2000). A Dual Thresholds Model of Anger in organizations by
Geddes and Callister, (2007) provides an explanation on the valence of anger
expression outcomes. The model suggests that organizational norms establish
emotion thresholds that may be crossed when employees feel anger. The first
"expression threshold" is crossed when an organizational member conveys felt
anger to individuals at work who are associated with or able to address the
anger-provoking situation. The second "impropriety threshold" is crossed if or
when organizational members go too far while expressing anger such that
observers and other company personnel find their actions socially and/or
culturally inappropriate.

The higher probability of negative outcomes from workplace anger likely will
occur in either of two situations. The first is when organizational members
suppress rather than express their anger—that is, they fail to cross the
"expression threshold". In this instance personnel who might be able to address
or resolve the anger-provoking condition or event remain unaware of the
problem, allowing it to continue, along with the affected individual's anger. The
second is when organizational members cross both thresholds—"double
cross"— displaying anger that is perceived as deviant. In such cases the angry
person is seen as the problem—increasing chances of organizational sanctions
against him or her while diverting attention away from the initial anger-
provoking incident. In contrast, a higher probability of positive outcomes from
workplace anger expression likely will occur when one's expressed anger stays
in the space between the expression and impropriety thresholds. Here, one
expresses anger in a way fellow organizational members find acceptable,
prompting exchanges and discussions that may help resolve concerns to the
satisfaction of all parties involved. This space between the thresholds varies
among different organizations and also can be changed in organization itself:
when the change is directed to support anger displays; the space between the
thresholds will be expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing
such displays; the space will be reduced.

Neurology
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2017)
In neuroimaging studies of anger, the most consistently activated region of the
brain was the lateral orbitofrontal cortex.This region is associated with approach
motivation and positive affective processes.

Physiology

An angry exchange between two people, as evidenced by their body language

and facial expressions. To hear the angry exchange, listen to the audio below.

Audio file of an angry exchange at a protest.

Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in
the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional
significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the
amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural pathways
towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus
features, thoughts, or memories however occurs when its information is relayed
from the thalamus to the neocortex.Based on some statistical analysis, some
scholars have suggested that the tendency for anger may be genetic.
Distinguishing between genetic and environmental factors however requires
further research and actual measurement of specific genes and environments.
The external expression of anger can be found in physiological responses, facial
expressions, body language, and at times in public acts of aggression. The rib
cage tenses and breathing through the nose becomes faster, deeper, and
irregular.[61] Anger activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. The
catecholamine activation is more strongly norepinephrine than
epinephrine.Heart rate and blood pressure increase. Blood flows to the hands.
Perspiration increases (particularly when the anger is intense).The face flushes.
The nostrils flare. The jaw tenses. The brow muscles move inward and
downward, fixing a hard stare on the target. The arms are raised and a squared-
off stance is adopted. The body is mobilized for immediate action, often
manifesting as a subjective sense of strength, self-assurance, and potency. This
may encourage the impulse to strike out.

Philosophical perspectives

The Fury of Athamas by John Flaxman (1755–1826).

Antiquity
Ancient Greek philosophers, describing and commenting on the uncontrolled
anger, particularly toward slaves, in their society generally showed a hostile
attitude towards anger. Galen and Seneca regarded anger as a kind of madness.
They all rejected the spontaneous, uncontrolled fits of anger and agreed on both
the possibility and value of controlling anger. There were however
disagreements regarding the value of anger. For Seneca, anger was "worthless
even for war." Seneca believed that the disciplined Roman army was regularly
able to beat the Germans, who were known for their fury. He argued that "... in
sporting contests, it is a mistake to become angry".
Aristotle on the other hand, ascribed some value to anger that has arisen from
perceived injustice because it is useful for preventing injustice.Furthermore, the
opposite of anger is a kind of insensibility, Aristotle stated. The difference in
people's temperaments was generally viewed as a result of the different mix of
qualities or humors people contained. Seneca held that "red-haired and red-
faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry
humors."Ancient philosophers rarely refer to women's anger at all, according to
Simon Kemp and K. T. Strongman perhaps because their works were not
intended for women. Some of them that discuss it, such as Seneca, considered
women to be more prone to anger than men.

Control methods
Seneca addresses the question of mastering anger in three parts: 1. how to avoid
becoming angry in the first place 2. how to cease being angry and 3. how to deal
with anger in others. Seneca suggests, to avoid becoming angry in the first
place, that the many faults of anger should be repeatedly remembered. One
should avoid being too busy or deal with anger-provoking people. Unnecessary
hunger or thirst should be avoided and soothing music be listened to. To cease
being angry, Seneca suggests "one to check speech and impulses and be aware
of particular sources of personal irritation. In dealing with other people, one
should not be too inquisitive: It is not always soothing to hear and see
everything. When someone appears to slight you, you should be at first
reluctant to believe this, and should wait to hear the full story. You should also
put yourself in the place of the other person, trying to understand his motives
and any extenuating factors, such as age or illness." Seneca further advises daily
self-inquisition about one's bad habit.To deal with anger in others, Seneca
suggests that the best reaction is to simply keep calm. A certain kind of
deception, Seneca says, is necessary in dealing with angry people.
Galen repeats Seneca's points but adds a new one: finding a guide and teacher
can help the person in controlling their passions. Galen also gives some hints
for finding a good teacher.Both Seneca and Galen (and later philosophers) agree
that the process of controlling anger should start in childhood on grounds of
malleability. Seneca warns that this education should not blunt the spirit of the
children nor should they be humiliated or treated severely. At the same time,
they should not be pampered. Children, Seneca says, should learn not to beat
their playmates and not to become angry with them. Seneca also advises that
children's requests should not be granted when they are angry.

By gender
Wrath was sinful because of the social problems it caused, sometimes even
homicide. It served to ignore those who are present, contradicts those who are
absent, produces insults, and responds harshly to insults that are received.[66]
Aristotle felt that anger or wrath was a natural outburst of self- defense in
situations where people felt they had been wronged. Aquinas felt that if anger
was justified, it was not a sin. For example, "He that is angry without cause,
shall be in danger; but he that is angry with cause, shall not be in danger: for
without anger, teaching will be useless, judgments unstable, crimes unchecked.
Therefore to be angry is not always an evil."

The concept of wrath contributed to a definition of gender and power. Many

medieval authors in 1200 agreed the differences between men and women were
based on complexion, shape, and disposition. Complexion involved the balance
of the four fundamental qualities of heat, coldness, moistness, and dryness.
When various combinations of these qualities are made they define groups of
certain people as well as individuals. Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen all
agreed on that, in terms of biology and sexual differentiation, heat was the most
important of the qualities because it determined shape and disposition.
Disposition included a balance of the previous four qualities, the four elements
and the four humors. For example, the element of fire shared the qualities of
heat and dryness: fire dominated in yellow bile or choler, meaning a choleric
person was more or hot and dry than others. Hot and dry individuals were
active, dominant, and aggressive. The opposite was true with the element of
water. Water, is cold and moist, related closely to phlegm: people with more
phlegmatic personalities were passive and submissive. While these trait clusters
varied from individual to individual most authors in the Middle Ages assumed
certain clusters of traits characterized men more than women and vice versa.

Women
Scholars posted that females were seen by authors in the Middle Ages to be
more phlegmatic (cold and wet) than males, meaning females were more
sedentary and passive than males. Women's passive nature appeared "natural"
due to their lack of power when compared to men. Aristotle identified traits he
believed women shared: female, feminine, passive, focused on matter, inactive,
and inferior. Thus medieval women were supposed to act submissively toward
men and relinquish control to their husbands. However Hildegard of Bingen
believed women were fully capable of anger. While most women were
phlegmatic, individual women under certain circumstances could also be
choleric.

Men
Medieval scholars believed most men were choleric, or hot and dry. Thus they
were dominant and aggressive. (Barton) Aristotle also identified characteristics
of men: male, masculine, active, focused on form, potent, outstanding, and
superior. Men were aware of the power they held. Given their choleric "nature",
men exhibited hot temperatures and were quick to anger. Peter of Albano once
said, "The male's spirit, is lively, given to violent impulse; [it is] slow getting
angry and slower being calmed." Medieval ideas of gender assumed men were
more rational than women. Masculinity involved a wide range of possible
behaviors, and men were not angry all the time. Every man's humoral balance
was different, some men were strong, other weak, also some more prone to
wrath then others.

Control methods
Maimonides considered being given to uncontrollable passions as a kind of
illness. Like Galen, Maimonides suggested seeking out a philosopher for curing
this illness just as one seeks out a physician for curing bodily illnesses. Roger
Bacon elaborates Seneca's advices. Many medieval writers discuss at length the
evils of anger and the virtues of temperance. In a discussion of confession, John
Mirk, an English 14th-century Augustinian writer, tells priests how to advise the
penitent by considering the spiritual and social consequences of anger.

In The Canon of Medicine, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) modified the theory of

temperaments and argued that anger heralded the transition of melancholia to
mania, and explained that humidity inside the head can contribute to such mood
disorders.

On the other hand, Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi classified anger (along with
aggression) as a type of neurosis,while al-Ghazali (Algazel) argued that anger
takes form in rage, indignation and revenge, and that "the powers of the soul
become balanced if it keeps anger under control."