Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Medical Imaging
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Textbook and Materials
Rafael C. Gonzalez, Richard E. Woods,
Techniques “Digital Image Processing”, 2nd Edition,
Pearson Education, 2003
Digital Image Processing by Jayaraman,
Veerakumar, 2012
Khandpur R.S, Handbook of Biomedical
Instrumentation, 3/e, Tata McGraw
Hill,New Delhi, 2014
Dr. K. Adalarasu
KA – MIT – Unit IV – April, 2018, Sastra University KA – MIT – Unit IV – April, 2018, Sastra University
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Reference
William K. Pratt, “Digital Image Processing” ,
John Willey ,2001
Steve Webb, The physics of medical imaging, Ultrasound &
Adam Hilger, Bristol, England, Philadelphia,
USA, 1988 Thermal Imaging
Jain A.K., “Fundamentals of Digital Image
Processing”, PHI, 1995.
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Diagnostic Ultrasound
Ultrasound has become increasingly important in
medicine and has taken its place along with X-ray and
nuclear medicine as a diagnostic tool
Non-invasive character and ability to distinguish
Ultrasound & Thermal interfaces between soft tissues
X-rays
Imaging Respond to atomic weight differences
Often require the injection of a more dense contrast medium
for visualization of non-bony tissues
Nuclear medicine techniques
Measure the selective uptake of radioactive isotopes in
specific organs to produce information concerning organ
function
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Diagnostic Ultrasound
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Diagnostic Ultrasound
Radioactive isotopes and X-rays are, thus, clearly Main limitation of ultrasound, however, is that
invasive it is almost completely reflected at boundaries
Obtaining images of almost the entire range of with gas
internal organs in the abdomen
Is a serious restriction in investigation of and
Kidney, liver, spleen, pancreas, bladder, major blood
through gas-containing structures
vessels and of course, the foetus during pregnancy
To present pictures of the thyroid gland, the eyes, the
breasts and a variety of other superficial structures
Ultrasonic diagnostics has made possible the
detection of cysts, tumours or cancer in these organs
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Physics of Ultrasound Physics of Ultrasound
Ultrasonic waves are sound waves associated with
frequencies above the audible range and generally Information obtained by ultrasound, particularly in
extend upward from 20 kHz dynamic studies, cannot be acquired by any other
more convenient technique
Ultrasonic waves can be easily focussed, i.e., they
are directional and beams can be obtained with very Transmission of ultrasonic wave motion
little spreading Longitudinal, transverse or shear
They are inaudible and are suitable for applications Medical ultrasonic diagnostic applications
where it is not advantageous to employ audible Longitudinal mode of wave propagation is normally used
frequencies Can be propagated in all types of media, viz. solids, liquids
and gases
High frequency ultrasonic waves which are
associated with shorter wavelengths
It is possible to investigate the properties of very small
structures.
KA – MIT – Unit IV – April, 2018, Sastra University KA – MIT – Unit IV – April, 2018, Sastra University
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Physics of Ultrasound Characteristic Impedance
Specific acoustic impedance of a medium is defined as the
Characteristic Impedance product of the density of the medium with the velocity of
sound in the same medium
Wavelength and Frequency
Velocity of Propagation where z= specific acoustic impedance
ρ = density of the medium
Absorption of Ultrasonic Energy
V= velocity of sound in the medium
Beam Width
Resolution
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Characteristic Impedance Characteristic Impedance
Percent of the incident wave energy which is reflected is This difference is so large that most of the
ultrasonic energy tends to be reflected at the
Where
Z1 = acoustic impedance of medium 1
interface
Z2 = acoustic impedance of medium 2 Coupling medium like olive oil or special jelly is
Approximate value of acoustic impedance for most of the used
biological materials or organs is the same
1.6 X 105 g/cm2 s To minimize the energy reflection by providing an
Greater the difference in acoustic impedance air-free path between ultrasonic transducer and
Greater the amount of reflected energy skin
Acoustic impedance of air and tissue
42.8 g/ cm2s and 1.6 X l05 g/cm2 s respectively
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Wavelength and Frequency Wavelength and Frequency
Ultrasonics Ultrasonic waves are transmitted
As mechanical vibrations
Where V = propagation velocity of sound Pass only through a medium
n = frequency or number of cycles which pass any rf energy would be in the form of
given point in unit time Electromagnetic radiations
λ = wavelength, i.e., distance between any two No medium is necessary for propagation of
corresponding points on consecutive cycles energy and it would, therefore, pass even through
Ultrasonic frequencies employed for medical vacuum
applications range from 1 to 15 MHz
Also corresponds to radio frequencies (rf)
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Velocity of Propagation Velocity of Propagation
Velocity of propagation of the wave motion
Density of the medium it is travelling through and the
stiffness of the medium
Given temperature and pressure
Density and stiffness of the biological substances are
relatively constant
Therefore, the sound velocity in them is also constant
Velocity of sound in a particular medium is important
Calculating the depth to which the sound wave has
penetrated before being reflected
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Velocity of Propagation Absorption of Ultrasonic Energy
Velocity of ultrasound in all body tissues is almost Reduction of amplitude of ultrasonic beam while
constant passing through a medium
Therefore, the depth of penetration can be read Can be due to its absorption by the medium
directly from the position of the echo pulse on the Its deviation from the parallel beam by reflection,
calibrated time axis of the oscilloscope trace refraction, scattering and diffraction etc
Relative intensity and the attenuation of an ultrasound
beam expressed in decibels (dB)
Absorption coefficient α is normally quoted in dB/cm
In soft tissues
Depends strongly on the frequency
Lower frequency ultrasonic signal would travel more than
the higher frequency signal
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Absorption of Ultrasonic Energy Beam Width
Average value of sound absorption in soft tissues is of the Ultrasonic waves are projected in a medium as a
order of 1 dB/cm/ MHz
beam
Near and far fields
Near field, within the first Fresnel zone
Beam is cylindrical with little spread
A series of maxima and minima are encountered in this
region
As one travels out from the transducer which corresponds
to constructive and destructive interference
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Beam Width Beam Width
Where r and λ are the radius of the transducer and Where n = frequency
the wavelength of the ultrasound respectively V = velocity of sound waves
Far field D = diameter of the transducer
Intensity of the beam reduces constantly with distance as
it spreads out due to the finite size of the source
cm diameter transducer
Angle of divergence within a cone of semi-angle θ about Excited at 1 MHz has a near field of about 10 cm
the central axis in water and a semi-angle of divergence of 3.5
degrees
Beam shape may be modified by the use of
focusing elements in front of the transducer
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Resolution Resolution
Ability to distinguish between closely related Axial resolution is determined by the wavelength of
structures the transmitted pulse
Axial and lateral resolution This means that the smaller the wavelength, the higher the
frequency and better the axial resolution
Axial Resolution
Lateral Resolution
Minimal axial distance
Lateral distance, in a plane perpendicular to the beam axis,
Parallel to the beam axis, at which two reflecting structures at which two reflecting structures can be seen as two
are recognized as separate structures separate structures
Lateral resolution is determined by the shape/divergence of
the ultrasound beam, produced by the probe
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Ultrasound Ultrasound
Piezoelectric effect Materials with high mechanical Q factor
Quartz, tourmaline and Rochelle salt Suitable as transmitters
Converting electrical energy into mechanical energy and Low mechanical Q and high sensitivity are
vice versa
Preferred as receivers
Natural crystals
Lead zirconate Titanate (PZT) crystals
It is difficult to establish the appropriate axis and cut the
crystal in the required form Much better than quartz crystals upto a frequency of about
15 MHz
Quartz has generally been replaced by synthetic High electro-mechanical conversion efficiency and low
piezoelectric materials namely intrinsic losses
Barium nitrate and lead zirconate titanate Operate at temperatures up to 100°C or higher and it is
stable over long periods of time
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Ultrasound Ultrasound
Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF)
Ferro-electric polymer that has been used effectively in high
frequency transducers
Three parameters that are important in optimizing
transducers
Frequency, active element diameter and focusing Active Element Diameter (AED)
Transducer face diameter increases
Higher frequencies (10-15 MHz) are used for
superficial organs, such as the eye, where deep Beam width decreases and therefore, lateral resolution
improve
penetration is not required
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Generation and Detection of Ultrasound
Patients’ body the transducer is to be positioned
Depth in the body to the structures of interest
Focusing
Minimizing the beam width and adjusting the focal zone to
give optimum results for a particular examination Basic Pulse-echo
Apparatus
Acoustic lenses can be used to shape the ultrasonic beam
pattern
Modern transducers are internally focused and externally
are of flat face
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Probe Pulse-echo technique of using ultrasound for
Pulse Repetition Frequency Generator diagnostic purposes in medical field
Transmitter Transmitter
Receiver Generates a train of short duration pulses at a repetition
frequency determined by the PRF generator
Transmitter-Receiver Matching
Converted into corresponding pulses of ultrasonic
Wide Band Amplifier waves by a piezoelectric crystal acting as the
Swept Gain Control transmitting transducer
Detector Echoes from the target or discontinuity are picked up
Video Amplifier by the same transducer and amplified suitably for
Time Delay Unit display on a cathode ray tube
Display
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
X plates of the CRT are driven by
Time base which starts at the instant when the transmitter
radiates a pulse
Probe
Transducer consists of a piezo-electric crystal which
generates and detects ultrasonic pulses
Barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate
Crystal is cut in such a way that it is mechanically resonant of
an increased efficiency of conversion of electrical energy to
acoustic energy
Transducer is excited at its resonance frequency
It will continue to vibrate mechanically for some time after the
electrical signal ceases
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus Pulse Repetition Frequency Generator
Single quarter wavelength matching layer transducer Produces a train of pulses which control the
Concave curvature sequence of events in the rest of the equipment
Lead to air bubble entrapment or patient contact problems
PRF is usually kept between 500 Hz to 3 kHz
Multi-layer matching technology overcomes these
Blocking oscillator or some form of the astable multi-
problems by interposing two layers between the
vibrator
piezo-electric element and body
Width of the output pulse
Two materials are chosen with acoustic impedances
Order of a micro-second
between the values for ceramic and tissue
Stepwise transition of impedance from about 30 for
ceramic to about 1.5 for tissue
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Under normal conditions Voltage at ‘A’ will fall rapidly resulting in a short
SCR is non-conducting duration
Capacitor C1 can charge through the resistance R to the +V potential High voltage pulse at ‘B’
Short triggering positive pulse is applied to the gate of the
SCR
This pulse appears across the crystal which
It will fire and conduct for a short time
generates short duration ultrasonic pulse
SCR 2N4203 can be used because
Its high peak forward blocking voltage (700 V)
High switching current capability (100 A)
Fast turn-on time (100 ns)
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
During reception, the presence of Rs degrades the signal-to-
Receiver noise ratio due to signal attenuation
Function of the receiver is to obtain the signal from the
Johnson noise and increased receiver amplifier noise due to
transducer
raised source impedance
To extract from it the best possible representation of an
echo pattern
Receiver bandwidth is about twice the effective transducer
bandwidth
Transmitter-Receiver Matching
A common source-receiver of ultrasound - sensitive input
stage of the receiving amplifier must be protected from the
high voltage transmission pulse
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Improved circuit to provide more effective transmitter/ Wide Band Amplifier
receiver switching Echo-signals received at the receiving transducer are in
the form of modulated carrier frequency and may be as
small as a few microvolts
Sufficient amplification before being fed to a detector
circuit for extracting modulating signals which carry the
useful information
Desirable gain of wide band amplifier is of the order of 80-
100 dB
Amplifier does not operate in the non-linear regions with
large input signals
Low noise level to receive echoes from deep targets
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Wide Band Amplifier Swept Gain Control
A dual gate MOSFET which is very suitable for high Reduces the amplification for the first few centimetres of
frequency signals and provides a high input impedance to body tissue and progressively increases it to a maximum
the signals from the transducer for the weaker echoes from the distal zone
Log amplifier is usually utilized Detector
One can see small relative differences in both low amplitude and After the logarithmic amplification, the echo signals are
high amplitude echoes in the same image rectified in the detector circuit
Swept Gain Control Conventional diode-capacitor type with an inductive filter to
Stronger echoes are received from the more proximal have additional filtering of the carrier frequency
zones under examination than from the deeper structures Demodulator circuit - synchronous demodulation intended
Receiving amplifier can only accept a limited range of for FM sound demodulation in television receivers
input signals without overloading and distortion
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Video Amplifier Time Delay Unit
Signal requires further amplification after its demodulation SCR is fired
in the detector circuit before it can be given to the Y-plates Start of the trace can be delayed by the time delay unit so
of the CRT that the trace can be expanded to obtain better display
Output of the detector circuit is typically around 1 V
Time Base
But for display on the CRT, the signal must be amplified to
Time base speed is adjusted
about 100 to 150 V
So that echoes from the deepest structures of interest will appear on
Amplifier must have a good transient response with the screen before the beam has completely traversed it
minimum possible overshoot Speed of ultrasound in soft tissue to be about 1,500 m/s, a
Video amplifier is the RC coupled type time of 13.3 µs must be allowed
Horizontal sweep generator is controlled by the PRF
generator
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Time Marker
Produces pulses that are a known time apart
Therefore correspond to a known distance apart
in human tissues
Marker pulses are given to the video amplifier and
then to the Y plates for display along with the
echoes
Display
CRT is not only a fast-acting device but also gives
a clear presentation of the received echo signals
‘Reject’ and ‘Damping’ controls
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