www.iasscore.

in

Index

World Regional Geography

1. Asia
2. Europe
3. Africa
4. Australia and New Zealand
5. Oceania
6. North America
7. South America
Notes
 Geography www.iasscore.in

ASIA
Asia is the World's largest continent - 43,810,582 km². covering approximately 30% of the Earth's land and
8.66% of the Earth's surface.
It is bordered by the Ural Mountains to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the west
and the Indian Ocean to the south.
The highest point in the World, is Mount Everest (8,848 m), situated in the Tibetan region of the Himalayas.
The longest river in Asia and third longest in the World is the Yangtze (6,211 km) which flows through China.

E
OR
SC
GS
Notes

1
 www.iasscore.in

REGIONS
The regions of Asia include:
• Central Asia: Commonly understood as comprising; Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan
and Kyrgyzstan.
• East Asia: Commonly understood as comprising;[16] China, Hong Kong, Macau, North Korea, South
Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Mongolia.
• South Asia: Commonly understood as comprising; Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Maldives, Sri Lanka,
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh. A common approximate synonym for South Asia is the Indian subcontinent,
plus Afghanistan.
• Southeast Asia: Commonly understood as comprising; Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Vietnam.
• Western Asia (or Southwestern Asia, or Middle East minus Egypt): Commonly understood as comprising;
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, the Gaza Strip,
Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Yemen.

E
IMPORTANT SEAS
OR
NAME LOCATION PART OF OCEAN
Kara Sea, Laptev North of Russia Arctic Ocean
Sea, and East
Siberian Sea
SC

Bering Sea Northeast of Russia Pacific Oceans

Sea of Okhotsk East of Russia Pacific Ocean
Sea of Japan West of Japan Pacific Ocean
Yellow Sea West of Korea Pacific Ocean
GS

East China Sea East of China Pacific Ocean

South China Sea South of China Pacific Ocean
Sulu Sea West of the Philippines Island Pacific Ocean
Celebes Sea North of Celebes Island Pacific Ocean
Banda Sea East of Celebes Sea Pacific Ocean
Flores Sea South of Celebes Sea Pacific Ocean
Java Sea North of Java Pacific Ocean
Timor Sea Northwest of Australia Pacific Ocean
Arafura Sea North of Australia South Pacific Ocean
Bay of Bengal East of the Indian Peninsula Indian Ocean
Arabian Sea West of the Indian peninsula Indian Ocean
Red Sea Separates Asia from Africa Indian Ocean
Notes

2
 www.iasscore.in

IMPORTANT GULFS
NAME LOCATION PART OF OCEAN
Gulf of Ob Between Yamal Peninsula and Gyda Arctic Ocean
Peninsula
Gulf of Chihll East of China Yellow Sea (Pacific Ocean)
Gulf of Tonkin East of Vietnam China Sea (Pacific Ocean)
Gulf of Thailand South of Thailand South China Sea
Persian Gulf Separates Arabian Peninsula from Indian Ocean
the plateau of Iran
Gulf of Oman Between Iranian Plateau and Oman Indian Ocean
Gulf of Aden Between Somalia and Yemen Indian Ocean

E
Gulf of Aquaba Between Aquaba (Jordan) and Red Sea
Sinai Peninsula (Egypt).

NAME LOCATION
IMPORTANT ISLANDS
OR
PART OF OCEAN
Severnaya Islands North of Russia Arctic Ocean
SC
New Siberian Islands North of Russia Between Laptev Sea and East Siberian Sea,
Arctic Ocean
Wrangel Islands North of Russia East Siberian Sea, Arctic Ocean
Kurile Islands Between Kamchatka Peninsula and Pacific Ocean
• An extention of Hokkaido Island
GS

the volcanic
Kamchatka
Peninsula.
Ryukyu Islands Between Kyushu and Taiwan Pacific Ocean
• An example of
Submerged island.
Bonin Island East of Ryukyu Island Pacific Ocean
Babuyan Islands Between Taiwan and Luzon Pacific Ocean
(Philippines)
Spartly and Parcel A group of atolls in South China Pacific Ocean
Islands Sea
• A disputed group
of islands claimed
by China, Vietnam,
Malaysia, Taiwan,
Notes

3
 www.iasscore.in

Philippines, Brunei
because of vast
reserves of oil
beneath these
islands.
The Philippines Lying 1200 km east of Vietnam and Pacific Ocean
archipelago 15º north of the equator.
LUZON
• The largest and the important
island of the Philippines is
known as the 'Rice Bowl of
Philippines'
• Mount Mayon, the only active
volcano of the Philippines, is
located in the Luzon.
• Good quality cigar tobacco is

E
OR
grown in the northern Luzon
(mainly Cagayan Valley)
• Igorot tribe lives in the northern
region of island
• Mindano Island: Second largest
SC

island located in southern part

of the Philippines.
• Mount Apo, a dormant volcano
on Mindano, is the country's highest
peak.
GS

IMPORTANT STRAITS
NAME SEPARATES CONNECT
Bering Strait Asia and North America East Siberian Sea with Bering Sea
La Perouse Strait Sakhalin Island and Hokkaido Island Sea of Okhotsk with Sea of Japan.
Tatar Strait Eastern Russia and Sakhalin. Sea of Okhotsk with Sea of Japan
Korea Strait South Korea and Kyushu (Japan) Yellow Sea with Sea of Japan
Formosa Strait Taiwan and China East China Sea with South China Sea
Luzon Strait Taiwan and Luzon (Philippines) South China Sea with Pacific Ocean.
Makassar Strait Borneo (Kalimantan) and Celebes Island Celebes Sea with Java Sea
Sunda Strait Java and Sumatra Java Sea with Indian Ocean.
Notes

4
 www.iasscore.in

Malacca Strait Malaya Peninsula and Sumatra Java Sea with Bay of Bengal
• One of the great
shipping corridors
of the world.
Strait of Jahore Singapore and Malaysia
Strait of Hormuz UAE and Iran Persian Gulf with Gulf of Oman.
Strait of Bosporus Asia and Europe. Black Sea with Sea of Marmara.
Strait of Dardanelles Asia and Europe. Sea of Marmara with Mediterranean Sea.

IMPORTANT MOUNTAINS
The Himalayan Mountain Range • Lies to the north of Indo Gangetic Plain, is an example of mountain

E
range which formed in the same age with same process.
• An example of fold mountain of Alpine orogeny

Karakoram Range
•
•
•
OR
Mount Everest (8,848 m) is the highest peak, actually in Nepal
Lies to the north of the Himalaya.
Godwin Austin (K2) is the highest peak of Karakoram.
SC
Kailash Range • East of Karakoram Range in Tibet.
Kunlunshan Range • Lies to the north of Tibet Plateau and to the south of the desert
basin of Tarim in China.
Tienshan • Lies to the north of Tarim basin.
Great Khingan Mountain • The Tien Shan extends to the north east and reaches the Amur
GS

River under the name of Khingan Mountain.

Altain Mountain • Lies to the north of Tienshan in succession in a more or less east-
Hangay Mountain west direction.
Sayan Mountain
Yablonovy Range, • Lies to the north east of the Altain Range in the eastern Siberia
Stanvoi Range.
Dzhugzur Range
and Kolyama Range
Verkhyoyansk Range • Lies to the east of the lena River separates Central Siberian Plateau
from the eastern Siberian region.
Pegu Yoma • The Irrawaddy and Sittang are divided in their middle course by
this mountain range.
Arakan Ysoma • Running southwards, is the western range of Myanmar.
• A range of the Himalaya which further continues through the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sumatra, Java and other Indonesian
islands.
Notes

5
 www.iasscore.in

THE MOUNTAIN REGIONS TO THE WEST OF THE PAMIR

Hindukush Mountain • Running westwards from the Pamir Knot to the Elburz Mountain in Iran.
Elburz Mountain • Hindukush Mountain joins the Armenian Knot near the Caspian Sea
under the name of Elburz Mountain in Iran.
Sulaiman Range • It proceeds southwards from the Pamir Knot along the border between
Pakistan and Afghanistan.
• The most famous pass across this mountain wall is the Khyber, linking
Pakistan with Afghanistan.
Krithar Range Sulaiman Range takes the name of Kirthar in the south.
Makran Range Kirthar Range turns westward on the Arabian Sea coast and assumes the
name of Makran.
Zagros Running to the northwest of Makran, ultimately ends up in the Armenian
Knot.

E
Pontic Mountain Range Running to the northwest of Armenian Knot in Turkey.
OR
Taurus Mountain Range Running to the southwest of Armenian Knot along the Mediterranean coast
in Turkey.

IMPORTANT PLATEAUS AND BASINS

SC

NAME INFORMATION
Ladakh Plateau (Intermontane • Lies between the Karakoram in the north and the Himalayas in the south.
Plateau)
Tibet Plateau (Intermontane • Enclosed to the south by the Himalayas, to the north by the Kunlun
Plateau) Range is the highest tableland (4,800 m) of Tibet.
GS

• The largest plateau in the world with an average altitude of 4,250 m.

Yunan Plateau • Lies to the southeast of the Tibet Plateau is separated from the fertile
Szechuan basin by the range of mountains.
Takla Makan Desert • An intermontane desert basin lies between the Tienshan in the north and
Plateau and Tarim Basin Kunlun Shan in the south.
• Convective wind 'Karaburan' blows in the arid regions.
Pamir Plateau • Situated to the northwest of the Indian sub-continent.
• Meeting point for the central Asian mountain ranges which make up the
skeleton of the continent
• The highest plateau of the world with an altitude of 4,900 m is also known
as 'roof of the world'
Armenian Plateau • Situated between the Caspian Sea and Black Sea
Notes

6

Iranian Plateau
Mongolian Plateau
Urfan Basin
Alban Plateau
Indo-China Plateau
Shan Plateau
Myanmar.
Deccan Plateau
Baluchistan Plateau
Arabian Plateau
Plateau of Anatolia or Asia
Minor or Turkey
Loess Plateau
Dzungarian Basin
Notes
www.iasscore.in
• Pamir-like plateau from where many mountain ranges spread out, therefore
called the Armenian Knot.
• The central desert plateau of Iran is enclosed by Zagros in the south and
west and Elburz in the north.
• A high plateau between 1,500 and 1,800 m above sea level, is situated
between the Khinghan in the east, Altunshan and Tien Shan in the south,
Altai and Yablonovy in the west.
• Lies to the west of Mongolian Plateau.
• Lies to the north west of Stanvoi Mountain.
• Region of Southeast Asia, extends over Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia,
Thailand and Myanmar.
• Lies between Pegu Yoma and Arkan Yoma in the eastern part of
E
• The Salween River flows through the plateau.
tungsten. OR
• Region important for precious stone (Rubies), silver, lead, and tin and
• Lies to the south of Indo Gangetic plain, between the Eastern Ghats and
Western Ghats.
SC
• North western part of Deccan Plateau is an example of lava Plateau or
Plateau of accumulation.
• A desert plateau (900 m high) situated to the west of Kirthar Range.
• An example of tilted block extending over the entire Arabian Peninsula.
GS
• Enclosed between Pontic Mountain Ranges in the north west and Tauras
in the south west.
• A vast plateau with an average height of 1,200 m, broken by ridges and
volcanic
• The main rivers draining off the plateau are Tigris and Euphrates.
• The Plateau region is surrounded by Great Plain in the east, Qining
Mountains in the south and Ordos Plateau in the north.
• Loess is the wind borne fine dust, deposited beyond the deserts limits
and is the fine loam, rich in lime.
• Shansi and Shensi region of loess plateau is known for its extensive coal
reserves.
• The Hwang Ho flows through loess land.
• Relatively low lying land between the Tien shan and Altai Range in
Mongolia.
7
 www.iasscore.in

• A sort of door between China and Mongolia in the east and Tarim lowland
in the west.
Mesopotamian Plain • Formed by the Tigris and Euphrates River in Iraq.
• One of the major regions where wheat, barley, tobacco and cotton is
grown.
Gobi Desert • Situated to the southeast of Mongolians Plateau and extends into China.
• Aridity due to interior location shows the features of undulating sand sea
as well as barren sheets of rock and stone.

IMPORTANT LAND REGIONS

Manchurian Plain • Formed by the Amur River and its tributaries in the northern part of China
• Important cities Anshan, Shenyag and Fushun of Mukden Triangle are

E
located.
Great Plain of China • Formed by the Hwang-Ho and Yangtze Kiang Rivers in the eastern China.
OR
Turanian Plain • Formed by the two principal Asian rivers, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya
• It is an example of Basin plain which covers the region of Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
West Siberian Plain • It extends over 3,200 km eastwards from the Urals to the Yenisey River
SC

and is one of the largest lowlands in the world.

Tsaidam Basin • Lies between Altun Shan and Kunlunshan and to the north east of Central
Tibetan Plateau
• The major region of oil fields.
GS

Szechuan Basin • Situated to the north of Yunan Plateau is the fertile basin where the Yangtze
Kiang River is joined by three major tributaries known as the Red Basin
because of its coloured sandstone.
• Red basin of Szechuan is the leading rice producing region and is called the
'Rice Bowl of China'.
THE DESERT LANDSCAPE OF SAUDI ARABIA
Rub-al-Khali • Largest continuous sand desert in the southern part of Saudi Arabia
• It is also called 'Empty Quarter'
Al Nafud Desert • Deserts land in the north eastern region of Saudi Arabia
THE DESERT LANDSCAPE OF IRAN
Dasht-I-Kavir • Largest Salt desert of the world situated in the northern Iran.
Dasht-I-Lut • Barren desert of Iran situated in the eastern part of country.
Notes

8
 www.iasscore.in

IMPORTANT LAKES
NAME INFORMATION

Lake Balkal • Located in the southern part of eastern Siberia and to the west of Yablonovy Range
in Russia.

• Source of the Lena River.

• It is the deepest continental body of water on Earth having a maximum depth of
1,620 m.
Lake Balkash • Located in Kazakhastan.

• North of the Lake is Karaganda coal basin.

Aral Sea • Located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan

E
• Two principal Asian rivers, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya flow through semi arid
depression into the sea.
Lake Van Golu

Lake Turnool
• The largest lake of Turkey
• One of the saltiest lake in the world.OR
• The northernmost extent of East African Rift Valley.
SC
• Located in the Anatolia Peninsula of Turkey.
Lake Asad • Located in Syria
Dead Sea • It is an example of rift valley lake which lies along the West Bank of Jordan.
• One of the deepest points of Asia is the world's lowest lake.
GS

• The Jordan river flows in to the Dead Sea, which has no outlet, and evaporation
balances the inflow.

Sea of Gallilee • Lava flow blocked the Jordan Valley and formed an elongated lake in Israel.

• The lava-blocked lake is linked to the Dead Sea through the Jordan River.
Lake Tonle Sap • Located in the central lowland of Cambodia.

Lake Toba • Situated in the Sumatra (Indonesia)

• An example of crater or caldera lake:

Lop Nor • Salt lake in China, site of numerous nuclear testing.

• Tarim river drains into the lake.

Caspian Sea • The largest lake in the world and five times larger than the Lake Superior.

• It separates Europe from Asia.

Notes

9
 www.iasscore.in

IMPORTANT RIVERS
NAME SOURCE OUTFLOW
NORTH FLOWING RIVERS FROM WEST TO EAST IN RUSSIA
Ob Altai Mountain Gulf of Ob
Tributaries: Irtysh, Tobol
Yenisey Tannuala Mountain Arctic Ocean
Lena Lake Baikal Arctic Ocean
Kolyma Kolyma Range East Siberian Sea.
EAST FLOWING RIVERS FROM NORTH TO SOUTH
Amur Confluence of Shika and Argun Tatar Strait
Tributary: Sungari River. River.
Yalu Korea Bay (Yellow Sea)
• Forms a well defined
border between
E
OR
North Korea and the
Eastern Russia.
Hwang Ho Tibetan Plateau The river's course was diverted away
into the Gulf of Pohai instead of
• The river is best the Yellow Sea.
SC

known for the floods,

also called 'China's
Sorrow'.
• It flows through loess
land, hence it is also
called, the Yellow river.
GS

Yangtse Kiang Tibetan Plateau East China Sea.

• It is the longest river
of Asia.
• It flows through
Szechuan basin
• Shangai and Wuhan,
are the important cities
of China lying along the
river.
Sikiang Eastern Yunan (China) China Sea.
• More than half of the
total silk production in
China comes from the
Yangtse Kiang and
Sikiang deltas.
Notes

10
 www.iasscore.in

• About 75% of the

Chinese live in fertile
river basin of Hwang
Ho, Yangtse Kiang
and Sikang.
SOUTH FLOWING RIVERS
Mekong Tibetan highlands South China Sea
• It flows through China,
Thailand-Laos border,
Cambodia and Vietnam
over 4,160 km to the
South China Sea.
• Longest river in South
East Asia.

E
• In Laos, the Mekong
forms the western

•
Boundary with Thailand.
Phnom Penh and Ho Chi
Minch cities are situated
OR
on the bank of river.
SC
• Mekong valley of south
Vietnam is devoted to
rice cultivation.
• Delta: Arcuate, is
(characterised by funnel
shaped distributaries,
GS

stabled by growth of
mangrove vegetation)
lying in Vietnam.
Chao Phraya Gulf of Thailand
City located: Bangkok
• The principal river of
Thailand
• The river's delta has rich
alluvial soil which is used
almost entirely for rice and
has very high density of
population.
Salween Tibetian highlands Gulf of Martaban
• It flows through China &
Shan Plateau (Myanmar)
over 2,090 km.
Notes

11
 www.iasscore.in

• Longest river of Myanmar.

Irrawaddy North Myanmar Bay of Bengal
Tributary: Chindwin
City located: Mandalay
• Major river of the
country referred to as
the 'Life line of Myanmar'
• Central basin between
Irrawaddy and Chindwin
around Mandalay is very
important for wheat and
cotton cultivation.
• Delta region of Irrawaddy
and Sittang, known as the

E
'Rice Bowl of Myanmar'
Brahmaputra Rises in glacier about 100 km south Bay of Bengal
OR
• Brahmaputra is called east of Mansarovar Lake
Tsang-Po in Tibet and
Dihang in Assam, before
entering in India.
• It enters Bangladesh near
SC

Dhubri.
Ganga
• In the upper course Gangotri Glacier Bay of Bengal
Alaknanda and Bhagirathi
River meet at Devprayag
GS

and form Ganga.

Indus Mansarovar lake Arabian Sea
• One of the world's largest
rivers flows through a
gorge of Kailash Range,
enters Jammu and
Kashmir, and drains into
Arabian Sea through
Attock plains of Pakistan.
Tigris and Eupharates
• These two rivers dominate
Iraq and flow south
eastwards across the
country then drain into
the Persian Gulf via a
combined estuary
Notes

12
 www.iasscore.in

• They meet at Shatt-al-Arab

in Iraq.
Amu Darya and Syr Darya
• The principal rivers of
Central Asia flow to the
Aral Sea through the semi
and depression.
CLIMATE
Asia lies almost entirely in the northern hemisphere and the seasons of all are similar. The seasons of southern
and south-east Asia vary slightly because of the monsoons.
• Northern Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia
- Spring - March, April, May

E
- Summer - June, July, August
- Autumn - September, October, November
- Winter - December, January, February
• Southern Asia, South-East Asia
OR
- Spring - December, January, February
SC
- Summer - March, April, May
- Autumn - June, July, August
- Winter - September, October, November
GS
Notes

13
 Geography www.iasscore.in

EUROPE
Europe is the sixth largest continent in size and the third largest in population. It is bordered by the Mediterranean
Sea to the south, Asia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the West. Europe is a wealthy continent and
is the center of the West and Western Democracy.

E
OR
SC
GS

BASIC DATA
Population: 738,199,000 (Source: 2010 United Nations)
Area: 3,930,000 square miles
Bordering Bodies of Water: Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Bay of Biscay, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Black
Sea.
Highest Point: 1. El'brus in Russia, (5 642 m/18 510 ft); 2. Mont Blanc, France-Italy: 4 807m (15 771 ft).
Largest Lake: Lake Balaton Hungary, largest lake of Central Europe, 592 km2.
Notes

14
 www.iasscore.in

Longest Rivers: 1. Volga (3,690 km (2,293 miles), 2. Danube 2850 km (1770 miles).
Languages of Europe: English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Nordic Languages, East
European languages.
REGIONS
• Scandinavia (Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark);
• The British Isles (the United Kingdom and Ireland);
• Western Europe (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Monaco);
• Southern Europe (Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Italy, Malta, San Marino, and Vatican City);
• Central Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and
Hungary);
• South-Eastern Europe (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania,
Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, and the European part of Turkey);

E
• Eastern Europe (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, the European portion of Russia,
and by convention the Transcaucasian countries of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan).
European Physiography
•
OR
Alps: Located in south-central Europe, they extend for almost 700 miles from the coastline of southern
France (near Monaco) into Switzerland, northern Italy and Austria, then southeast through Slovenia,
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina as the (Dinaric Alps). Ending in Albania on the rugged coastline of the
SC
Adriatic Sea.
The highest point is Mont Blanc at 15,771 ft. (4,807 m)
• Apennines: The source of almost all rivers in Italy including the Arno, Tiber, and Volturno, the Apennines
Mountains (Ital. Appennino) 830 miles (1,350 km) in length, form the backbone of the country, and run
the entire length of the Italian Peninsula, ending on the island of Sicily.
GS

The highest point is Mt. Corno at 9,560 ft. (2,914 m).

• Atlantic Highlands: Formed million of years ago during the Caledonian mountain-building periods as
western lands were (forced) or pushed against the Scandinavian Shield. Significant mountain ranges here
include the Kjolen in Norway and Sweden, and the Pennines that stretch through the central United
Kingdom.
• Balkan Mountains: These mountain extend from Yugoslavia across Bulgaria. Additional ranges run through
Albania, Greece and Macedonia. Its most famous mountain is Mt. Olympus, the highest and most awe-
inspiring peak in all of Greece. In ancient times it was the mythical home of Zeus, and was declared the
first national park in Greece in 1939. It stands at 9,568 ft. (2,918 m).
• Carpathian Mountains: This mountain system located in eastern Europe is the source of the Dniester,
Tisza and Vistula Rivers. They form the natural border between Slovakia and southern Poland, and then
extend southward through Ukraine and into Romania. There are major subdivisions, and the highest point
is Mt. Gerlachovkain in northern Slovakia, standing at 8,711 ft. (2,655 m).
• Caucasus Mountains: Stretching from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, these volcanic mountains have
many peaks above 15,000 ft. (4,572 m). The highest point (and the highest point in Europe) is located
here; Mt. Elbrus at 18,506 ft. (5,642 m).
Notes

15
 www.iasscore.in

• Great Hungarian Plain: Located in southeastern Europe, and surrounded by mountains, the land features
several small forests and large patches of grassland. It averages only 100 meters above sea level and often
suffers from dry conditions, thus relying on winter snow run-off from the Alps and Carpathian Mountains.
• Kjolen Mountains: This jagged mountain system runs along the border of eastern Norway and western
Sweden. The highest point is Mt. Kebnekaise, standing at 6,965 ft. (2,123 m).
• Massif Central: This mountainous plateau of southeastern France is the source of the Allier, Creuse and
Loire. It's about 32,189 sq. miles (85, 001 sq. km) in size, and the highest point is Puy de Sancy at 6,186
ft. (1,885 m).
• Mesata: The central plateau, or Mesata, covers nearly half of the entire country of Spain. This high
plateau averages about 2,300 ft. (700 m) in the north, and 2,000 ft. (600 m) in the south. It's surrounded
by a series of mountain ranges including the Cantabrian, Sierra De Gata and Sierra Guadarrama in the
north and central, and the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada in the south. These mountains separate the
Meseta from the Costa Verde, the Ebro valley, the Mediterranean and the valleys of Andalucia.
• North European Plain: The fertile North European Plain slopes to the north-northeast from the Alps,
extending to the Baltic Sea, and on into Denmark and southern Finland, Norway and Sweden. It continues
east for almost 2,500 miles (4000 km), on into the Russian Federation. The land is largely flat with smaller

E
areas of hills, including the Central Russian Uplands. Farming is prevalent and agricultural communities
dot the landscape.
OR
• Pyrenees: These mountains form the natural border between France and Spain and extend for about 270
miles from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea. The highest point is Pico de Aneto at 11,168
ft. (3,404 m)
• Scandinavian Shield: An ancient area of rocky earth peppered with granite rock that was literally ground
down by receding glacial ice sheets. It's a rolling area of land covered with thousands of lakes (mostly
SC

small), linked by rivers.

• Ural Mountains: The Urals are 1,640 miles (2,640 km) in length and extend from the northern-edge of
the Russian Federation down through Kazakhstan. They form a natural border between Asia and Europe.
The highest point is Mt. Narodnaya at 6,214 ft. (1,894 m).
IMPORTANT RIVERS
GS

River Originate Flows through Drains

DANUBE Black Forest region of Across central Europe and the Black Sea
Germany countries of Austria, Hungary,
Croatia and Yugoslavia. It then
forms the border between
Romania and Bulgaria, turning
north across Romania
DNIEPER Southwestern part of the Belarus, Ukraine Black Sea
Russian Federation
DON South of Moscow Russia Sea of Azov
ELBE Rising in the Czech Republic Czech Republic, Germany North Sea near
Cuxhaven
PO Italy's longest river begins in Italy Adriatic Sea
the upper reaches of the
Alps
Notes

16
 www.iasscore.in

RHINE Mountains of southeastern Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Noth Sea

Switzerland Austria, Germany, France,
Netherlands
RHONE Swiss Alps Switzerland, France Mediterranean Sea

VOLGA Valdai Hills, Tver Oblast Russia Caspian Sea

E
OR
SC
GS
Notes

17
 www.iasscore.in

IMPORTANT STRAITS
• The English Channel (between England and France) is 34km wide and the world's busiest international
seaway.
• The North Channel between Scotland and Northern Ireland is 36km wide.
• The Strait of Gibraltar at the entrance to the Mediterranean (between Spain and Morocco) is 14.3km
wide and 300-900m deep.
• The Bosporus (Istanbul, between Asia and Europe) is 704m wide at its narrowest point.
• The Dardanelles in northwestern Turkey are 61km long but 1.2 to 6km wide and 55-82m deep.
• The Strait of Messina is 3.1km wide between mainland Italy and the island of Sicily.
• The Strait of Bonifacio between the Mediterranean islands of Sardinia (Italy) and Corsica (France) is
11km wide.
• The Euripus Strait between mainland Greece and the island of Euboea (150km in length) is only 38
metres wide at its narrowest point!

E
CLIMATE
OR
The climate of Europe varies from subtropical to polar. The Mediterranean climate of the south is dry and
warm. The western and northwestern parts have a mild, generally humid climate, influenced by the North
Atlantic Drift. In central and eastern Europe the climate is of the humid continental-type with cool summers.
In the northeast subarctic and tundra climates are found. All of Europe is subject to the moderating influence
of prevailing westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean and, consequently, its climates are found at higher
latitudes than similar climates on other continents.
SC

Of all of Europe's advantages, none stand out as much as Europe's mild and temperate climate. At first glance
it would appear to be a harsh and cold climate, due to its northerly position on the globe. The reasons for
Europe's mild climate are due to two factors:
1. Prevailing westerly winds and
GS

2. The North Atlantic Drift ocean current.

Europe's northerly location places it in the prevailing westerly wind belt. This brings mild maritime air from
the Atlantic modifying the winters and summers (Africa's dry land mass lies just across the Mediterranean).
These prevailing winds also prevent bitterly cold arctic air from penetrating into the continent instead they
sweep into Russia, which does experience bitterly cold winters. Only occasionally, due to changes in jet stream
currents, does arctic air penetrate all the way to the Mediterranean. Instead of continental polar air masses,
Europe is dominated by cool maritime air from the Atlantic.
Adding to the moderate climate, ocean temperatures are warmer than what would be expected at this location.
This is due to the North Atlantic Drift. This is a warm water ocean current, an extension of the Gulf Stream,
that originates in the tropical Atlantic, Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. As the current moves past
Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, it moves northeastward towards the British Isles, Scandinavia, and even into
the Arctic Ocean where the port of Murmansk (This Russia port remains open in the winter, albeit with ice
breaker help, despite being located above the Arctic Circle.).
Notes

18
 Geography www.iasscore.in

AFRICA
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² (11.7
million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20.4 % of its
total land area.
AFRICA FACTS FILE
Area: about 30 244 000 km2 (11 700 000 mi2) including its adjacent islands it covers about 20 percent of
Earth's total land area.
Population: 1.2 billion (2016).

E
Highest Point: Mount Kilimanjaro - 5895 m (19340 ft) in Tanzania.

Longest river: Nile (6695 km.).

Largest Urban Area: Cairo, Egypt (15.6 million people)
OR
Largest Lake: Lake Victoria or Victoria Nyanza; (68 870 sq. km.)

Largest Watershed: Congo River (4 million square kilometers/1.55 million square miles)
SC
Most Renewable Electricity Produced: Lesotho (100%, hydropower)
Population Density: 87 people per square kilometer
Africa is located in all four hemispheres: Eastern, Northern, Western, and Southern.
Africa's absolute location affects its climate. The continent is in the tropical and sub-tropical zones.
GS

East Africa is located at the boundary between tectonic plates. This affects the development of the East
African topography
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
1. The Sahara Desert is the massive but largely empty region in North Africa that contains the world's
second largest desert (after Antarctica).
2. The Maghreb is a region of northwest Africa encompassing the coastlands and Atlas Mountains of
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
3. The Sahel region covers a belt of grasslands south of the Sahara stretching from Senegal to Sudan.
4. The Sudan region lies just below the Sahel but is slightly more humid and arable.
5. The Horn of Africa is a peninsula in East Africa lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. It
encompasses Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti.
6. Sub-Saharan Africa is the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara.
7. The Guinea region is distinguished from the neighboring Sudan region by its rainforests and runs along
the Atlantic coast from Guinea to Nigeria.
Notes

19
 www.iasscore.in

8. The Congo is the rainforest region

9. Great Rift Valley.

E
OR
SC

THE MOUNTAINS OF AFRICA

Atlas Mountains • Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. • The Atlas Mountains were formed by
GS

converging African and Eurasian tectonic

plates.

• The mountains contain a wealth of minerals,

including phosphate rock, iron, zinc, copper,
and antimony.

Ruwenzori Mountains
Mount Cameroon
Mount Kilimanjaro
Notes
• Between Uganda and the
Democratic Republic of the
Congo
• Active volcano in western
Cameroon near the Gulf of
Guinea
• Volcano in East Africa.
• Margherita Peak (5,109-m) summit of Mount
Stanley, is the highest point in the range and
the third highest peak in Africa.
• Recognized as a biological diversity 'hotspot'
due to the variety of endemic plant species
and endangered fauna.
• Kilimanjaro National Park is a World Heritage
Site, and together with Kilimanjaro Forest
Reserve, is renowned for its natural beauty
and biodiversity

20
 www.iasscore.in

OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF AFRICA

Great Rift Valley
• Great Rift Valley a geological fault system stretching about 6,400 km from the valley of the Jordan River
in south western Asia to the Zambezi River in Mozambique. It is the longest fault system in the world.
• Elevations range from about 400 m below sea level in the Dead Sea to more than 1,800 m above sea
level in southern Kenya.
• South of Ethiopia the Great Rift Valley divides into an eastern and a western branch. The eastern branch,
which runs through Kenya and Tanzania, has many volcanoes and several shallow lakes.
• The western branch, which runs along the Democratic Republic of the Congo's eastern frontier, is marked
by a chain of large, deep lakes and has few volcanoes. The branches converge at Lake Nyasa, in southeastern
Africa, and continue south as one system to central Mozambique.
• The deep rift valleys of the Eastern Highlands hold a great series of lakes. This equatorial lake system

E
includes Lakes Turkana, Albert, Tanganyika, and Nyasa (Malawi).
• Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa and the third largest in the world, is, however, not part of this
system.
Victoria Falls OR
The waterfall is in southern Africa on the Zambezi River, on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe.
SC
The fall is higher and wider than Niagara Falls measuring 1,600 m across and drop about 107 m in some parts.
Cape of Good Hope
• It is southern end of Cape Peninsula in southwestern Africa.
• It is 48 km south of Cape Town (South Africa) and 160 km northwest of Cape Agulhas.
GS

• The Cape of Good Hope for centuries was a landmark indicating to navigators that they were at the
meeting of the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
Cape Agulhas
• It is in South Africa and is southernmost point of Africa.
• It lies where the Atlantic and Indian oceans meet and is 160 km southeast of the Cape of Good Hope.
• The name Agulhas (Portuguese for "needles") refers to the jagged reefs and sunken rocks around the cape,
on which many ships have been lost.
Sinai Peninsula
• An area of Asia that forms a land bridge to Africa.
• It is part of Egypt.
The Sahara Desert
• Sahara, the vast desert of northern Africa, and the world's largest arid region. It occupies much of the
broad northern half of Africa and covers 9,000,000 km2.
Notes

21
 www.iasscore.in

• Northern boundaries of Sahara desert are the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea and stretches
upto 17° north of the Equator for 1,900 km.
• From the Red Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west it stretches more than 5,600 km.
• It is a low plateau with an uplifted center that has several mountainous areas. Elevations over much of
the Sahara average only 300 to 450 m above sea level.
• Except for the Nile and the Niger, which flow along the desert margins, there are no permanent rivers.
• Central Sahara is dominated by mountainous like Ahaggar (in Algeria), and Tibesti (in Chad). These
rugged and barren highlands of volcanic origin have been eroded by wind and water into many strangely
shaped peaks.
• The extinct volcano of Emi Koussi, in the Tibesti, reaching 3,415 m, is the Sahara's highest point.
Kalahari Desert
• It is an arid region in southern Africa comprising parts of Botswana, South Africa, and Namibia covering
an area of 310,000 km2.

E
• The northeastern part of the Kalahari receives the most rain up to 500 mm annually. Rainfall declines
toward the southeast, where some areas receive virtually no rain. Summer daytime temperatures often
reach more than 100° F (38° C.).
OR
Libyan Desert
• It is a part of the Sahara covering 1,300,000 km2 in Libya, Egypt, and Sudan.
• Elevations generally vary from 150- 900 m. In the northeast, in Egypt, the Qattara Depression drops to
SC

133 m below sea level-one of the lowest points in Africa.

• The Libyan Desert is extremely dry; it often receives no rain for several years at a time.
Namib Desert
• An arid coastal region in Namibia extending about 1,600 km from Angola in the north to South Africa
in the south.
GS

• It is 130 km wide and lies between a high inland plateau and the Atlantic Ocean.
• The weather is generally cool because of westerly winds moving inland from cold offshore water; morning
fog is common.
• Annual rainfall is less than 1 inch (25 mm).
• Two rivers, the Orange and the Kunene, cross the desert on its extreme northern and southern edges.
• Diamonds are mined in the alluvial sands along the coast. Except for a few mining towns and ports, the
area is virtually uninhabited.
DRAINAGE IN AFRICA
River Originate Drains Flows through
Nile River Confluence of Blue Nile Mediterranean Sea Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt,Uganda,
(originates at Lake T'ana Congo-Kinshasa, Kenya, Tanzania,
in Ethiopia) and White Rwanda, Burundi, South Sudan,
Nile (originates at Lake Eritrea
Victoria)
Notes

22
 www.iasscore.in

Congo River Atlantic Ocean Angola, Burundi, Cameroon,

Central African Republic,Congo-Kinshasa,
Gabon,Congo-Brazzaville,
Rwanda,Tanzania, Zambia
Niger River Guinea Highlands Atlantic Ocean Mali, Nigeria, Benin, Niger and
Guinea
Zambezi River Zambezi Source National Indian Ocean Zambia, Angola, Namibia,
Forest Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique
Orange River Maloti Mountains Alexander Bay, Lesotho, South Africa, Namibia
Atlantic Ocean
Limpopo River Marico and Crocodile Indian Ocean South Africa, Botswana,
Zimbabwe, Mozambique
DIVISION OF AFRICA

E
1. North Africa lies north of the Sahara and runs along the Eastern coast.

OR
SC
GS
Notes

23
 www.iasscore.in

2. West Africa is the portion roughly west of 10° east longitude, excluding Northern Africa and the Maghreb.
3. East Africa stretches from the Red Sea and the Horn of Africa to Mozambique, including Madagascar but
excluding the southern and northern edges of the continent.

4. Central Africa is the large mass at the center of Africa, which either does not fall squarely into any other
region or only partially does so.

5. Southern Africa consists of the portion generally south of 10° latitude and the great rainforests of Congo.
NORTH-WEST AFRICA

• Comprises of Morocco, N. Algeria and Tunisia Called Barbary States.

• The relief and climate of this region make it unique.

• The chain of mountains is Atlas Mountains.

• The Chief agriculture product is vine followed by tobacco. Pastoral activity is also important.

E
• The Sahel is one of the most important regions in the world for the production of Olives.
NORTH EAST AFRICA
OR
Egypt
• Nile river is the most important geographical feature.
• The Western deserts, comprising ¾ of the total areas of Egypt. The eastern desert occupies the comparatively
SC

long and narrow region lying between the Nile valley and the Red sea.

• Cotton is the most important agricultural product of Egypt. Maize sugarcane, vegetables and rice are
grown.

• Cairo is the chief town and capital of Egypt, Alexandria the chief harbor and leading commercial center.
GS

Sudan
• The largest country of Africa (in area)

• Over 80% inhabitants derive their income from the farming.

• Cotton is the most important agricultural product followed by peanuts, sesames seeds and gum
• Khartoum is the capital, Omdurman is another town.

The Sahara Desert

• Meaning "wilderness" extending 1600 km in north-south and 4800 east-west across the entire continent
from Atlantic Ocean to Red sea.
• Djanet Oasis in Southern Algaria is considered as the most beautiful Oasis in the world.

• A1 Aziziya is the hottest place in the world lying 40 km south of Tripoli (Libya).

• Chad lake is highly functioning size varies between 1000 km2 to 25000km2.
Notes

24
 www.iasscore.in

WEST AFRICA
Guinea Republic
• It is very important in bauxite production: it is viewed that half of the world's bauxite is stored here. 60%
of the country exchequer comes from the export of bauxite.
Ivory Coast
• It is one of the most prosperous countries in west Africa- Coffee, Cocoa, Banana and rubbers are main
agricultural Products.
Ghana
• Formerly named Gold coast one of the leading exporters of manganese in the world
• One of the leading producer of cocoa in the world.
Nigeria

E
• It is the largest country of Africa in population
•
•
Palm oil, peanuts and Cocoa are chief products.
Laos is the capital and chief sea port.
Sierra Leone
OR
• Diamond is major export item.
SC
• Freetown is the capital and most beautiful port of Africa.
EAST AFRICA
Comprises the countries of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania along-with Rwanda and Burundi.
Uganda
GS

• Lake Victoria is in this country.

• Ruwenzori range which is the highest non-volcanic peak of Africa (5119m) the mountain is also called
"mountain of moon".
Kenya
• Lies between 4° N and 4° S of equator.
• It has been named after famous peak Mount Kenya.
• Major export items are coffee tea, maize, wheat, sugar; sisal and cotton are chief products.
Tanzania
• Africa's highest peak Mt. Kilimanjaro lies here.
• It is largest producer of sisal in the world. Cotton, Coffee, tea tobacco are also gown.
• Zanzibar and Pemba are known as islands of cloves. They are the largest producer of clove in the world.
• Zanzibar is also and important port.
Notes

25
 www.iasscore.in

CENTRAL AFRICA
• It lies in the northeast of lake Tanganyika, Batusti (Tutsi) and Batula (Tutu) are two major ethnic groups.
Twa is the third major ethnic group.
• Coffee is by far the most important export item, followed by cotton and tobacco.
Zambia
• It is a land locked country and is one of the largest producer of copper.
• The Zambezi and the Kafue are the chief river basins.
Malawi
• Formerly known as Nyasa land,
• It is a landlocked country.
Mozambique

E
• It has a long coastline facing the Indian ocean-crossed by Zambezi and the Limpopo river.
• Limpopo river was once called "The valley that trembles" because of the herd of elephants in the region.
OR
• Sugarcane, cotton, copra, sisal, and cashew nuts are the chief agricultural products.
HORN OF AFRICA
• It the term denote that horn shaped part of Africa surrounded by Red Sea and Gulf of Aden in the East,
SC

Indian Ocean in South and Sudan in West

• It consists of Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea and Djibouti.
• Formed mostly of volcanic rocks and some portion are characterized by the fault scrap.
• Ethiopian economy is agrarian 90% of the total area is cultivated. Coffee is the must important commercial
output
GS

SOUTHERN AFRICA
Comprises most the regions lying between latitude 17° as 35° S.
The Countries are South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland.
The Republic of South Africa
• The cape region is the Mediterranean region with mild-moist winters and hot dry summers.
• The Namib is the arid coastal strip between the plateau of South west Africa and the Atlantic. It is a true
desert.
• Veldt is the tropical Savana region south of the equatorial rainforest in Africa- the region lies on the highest
ground in South Africa.
• Kalahari desert lies in the western and north western part.
• Kimberley is a noted famous diamond mining center lies in the northern part
• Cope town is a port and center of country's legislature.
Notes

26
 www.iasscore.in

• Johannesburg is famous for gold.

• Pretoria is the capital of South Africa.
• Krunger is a National Park, a large wild game preserve, is also located In the Transvaal.
• Natal is located on the eastern; lies under the highest part of the Drakensburg Escarpment. Most of the
Indian population lives in this state.
Namibia
• Capital city of Namibia is Windhoek.
• The country is rich in diamond mineral. Copper, lead and Zinc are also mined.
Botswana
• It is a land locked country. The country has a very rough topography.
• Majority of the people work in South African mines.

E
Swaziland
• Gold, coal, asbestos and iron ore are mined.
• Sugarcane and fruits are chief farm products.
OR
THE AFRICAN ISLANDS
The Azores
SC
• Forms part of Portugal.
• It lies in the Atlantic between 25º- 30º W longitude and 36º-39º N latitude
• The island is of volcanic origin.
The Modiras
GS

• It is between 33º- 34º N latitude

• It is volcanic in origin
• It has Mediterranean type of climate.
The Canary Islands
• Forms part of Spain.
• It lies 50 miles away from the African coast, between 27º-29º N latitude
• The Islands comprise seven inhabited and six uninhabited islands
The Cape Verde Islands
Group of 10 inhabitated and 4 unihabited islands lies between 14-17º N
Harmattan is the prevailing wind.
Madagascar
It is the fifth longest islands of the world after green land, New Guinea, Bosnia and Baffin Islands.
It is separated from Mozambique by the Channel of the Dame.
Notes

27
 Geography www.iasscore.in

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

AUSTRALIA

The 7,686,850 km² Australian landmass is on the Indo-Australian Plate and is surrounded by the Indian,
Southern and Pacific oceans, and separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with total of 25,760 km
of coastline.

Facts about Australia:

• The land area of Australia is about 3 million square miles (7,773,000 km2). It is similar in size to the
United States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii.

E
• More than one-third of the country lies within the Tropics and overall it extends from 10° S latitude to
nearly 45ºS latitude.
OR
• The Foveaux Strait flows between Stewart Island and South Island.

• A portion of the south Pacific known as the Tasman Sea separates Australia and New Zealand.

• Mawson is Australia’s oldest Antarctic station, established in 1954 and named after Antarctic explorer and
geologist Sir Douglas Mawson.
SC

• Australia is currently moving north east at a rate of 73 millimetres per year. Geoscience Australia
monitors regional earthquake risk by measuring the movement of tectonic plates. The Australian continent
is part of the Indian-Australian tectonic plate, which is slowly moving, carrying the continent with it.

• Tasmania is separated from mainland Australia by Bass Strait and is the smallest state in Australia.
GS

• Western Australia is the largest state in area. The east of the state is mostly desert while on the west, the
state is bound by 12, 889 kilometres of the world’s most pristine coastline.

• Located just off the coast of southern Queensland, Fraser Island is the largest sand island in the world.

• South Australia is known as the ‘Festival State’, with more than 500 festivals taking place there every year.

• Mt. Kosciusko (7,328 feet, or 2,234 m), in the southeastern corner of the continent, is the highest point
in Australia.

• New South Wales is Australia’s oldest and most populous state. Its capital, Sydney, is the nation’s largest
city.

• Hot summers and mild winters characterize the temperature patterns of Australia. The location straddling
the Tropic of Capricorn assures much intense sunshine for the entire continent, especially during the high
sun period.
Notes

28
 www.iasscore.in

E
OR
SC

Physiographic regions of Australia

The three major physiographic regions of Australia are:
GS

A. The Great Dividing Range

• The Eastern Highlands region of Australia is the highest part of Australia, being a series of hills,
mountains and plateaux. This area is also known as the Great Dividing Range.
• These ranges include the New England Plateau, the Australian Alps, the Snowy Mountains (which
are considered to be a part of the Australian Alps), the Blue Mountains and the Grampian Mountains.
• These landforms were made due to uplifting, folding and volcanic processes in the Earth’s crust.
• Australia’s tallest mountain is Mount Kosciuszko, which is found in New South Wales in the Australian
Alps.
• Mount Kosciuszko stands at 2228 metres (m), which is less than half the height of the tallest
mountain found in Europe.
B. The Central Lowlands
• The Central Lowlands are very dry because rainfall is blocked by the Eastern Highlands.
• The Central Lowlands region consists of a series of basins, low-lying land, lakes, and old lakebeds.
Most of the land lies below 500 feet (153 m) elevation.
Notes

29
 www.iasscore.in

• The surface of Lake Eyre is the lowest point in the region, at about 40 feet (12 m) below sea level.
The region contains two large basins: the largest is the Great Artesian Basin, the other is the Murray
Basin.
• The Simpson Desert, which extends for 170 000 square kilometres (km2), is in the Central Lowlands.
This desert is famous for its large red sand dunes and salt pans, which are intermittent (occasionally
appearing) lakes that only have water in them when it rains. When there is no rain, however, the salt
pans dry up, leaving behind white salts.
• The Central Lowlands have few tall mountains, but Flinders Range is located about 1100 km north
of Adelaide and extends for 800 km. Its tallest peak, St. Mary Peak, is 1171 m tall.
C. The Western plateau
• The Western Plateau is also home to many deserts. Due to cold water currents off the coast of
Western Australia, this region is very dry.
• Some of the deserts in this region include the Gibson, Tanami, Canning, Great Sandy and Great

E
Victoria Deserts.
Desert State/Territory
OR
Great Victoria Desert Western Australia, South Australia
Great Sandy Desert Western Australia
Tanami Desert Western Australia, Northern Territory
SC

Simpson Desert Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia

Gibson Desert Western Australia
Little Sandy Desert Western Australia
Strzelecki Desert South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales
GS

Sturt Stony Desert South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales

Tirari Desert South Australia
Pedirka Desert South Australia
The Great Barrier Reef
• The world’s largest coral reef system is the Great Barrier Reef
• The Great Barrier Reef is home to a large number of species
• The Great Barrier Reef is a system of 2900 smaller reefs, 618 continental islands and 300 cays
• The reef is built on a foundation of coral
• Scientists believe the Great Barrier Reef has existed for over 18 million years
• There are many organisms living in the coral reefs
• Damage to one part of the coral reef ecosystem can cause damage to other parts of the reef
Notes

30
 www.iasscore.in

Climate
Australia is considered to be one of the driest continents on earth. However, because of its insular position
and lack of natural features such as high mountain ranges, there are generally no extremes of climate. Climate
varies because of the size of the continent.

The temperature ranges from 23°-26°C above the Tropic of Capricorn to 38°C in the arid plateaus and deserts
of the interior. The southern areas are more temperate, although subject to wide variations such as high rainfall,
great heat and irregular flooding and drought.
El Nino usually occurs in summer. Cold currents flow up the Peruvian coast from Antartica and are warmed
by equatorial currents circulating across the Pacific from Australia. Warmed winds blowing across the current’s
surface pick up moisture and deposit it on the Peruvian coast. The warm winds proceed across the central
Pacific and in turn deposit rain on eastern Australia.

Every three to eight years the equatorial current is exceedingly strong and noticably warmer off the coast of
Peru, resulting in strong winds bringing heavy rains and floods. At this time, waters off Australia become

E
noticably cooler and winds weaken and are turned towards the Pacific, reducing the rain-bearing clouds across
eastern Australia, resulting in drought.

OR
La Nina is the opposite phenomenon, which results in abnormally strong winds over the western Pacific blowing
across unusually warm currents off the east coast of Australia, resulting in flooding rains.
Rivers
SC
Australia’s major rivers flow through the Central Lowlands region.

River Originate Drains Region covered

Murray River Australian Alps Southern Ocean New South Wales,
Victoria,South Australia
After the Nile and Amazon
GS

rivers, Murray ranks third

among the world's longest
navigable rivers.
Darling River Confluence of Barwon Confluence with Murray New South Wales
and Culgoa Rivers near River near Wentworth
Brewarrina
Murrumbidgee River Peppercorn Hill Confluence with Murray New South Wales,
River near Boundary Australian Capital Territory
Bend
Lachlan River Great Dividing Range Murrumbidgee River New South Wales
Warrego River Mount Ka Ka Mundi, Darling River Queensland, New South
Carnarvon Range Wales
Paroo River Mariala National Park Confluence with the Queensland,New South
Darling River in wetter Wales
seasons
Notes

31
 www.iasscore.in

NEW ZEALAND
In New Zealand, about four-fifths of south Island and one-fifth of North Island contain mountain landforms.
Most of the remainder of North Island consists of steep hills and dissected plateaus. Plains are not prominent
features of either island.
The mountains of the Southern Alps of south Island are the highest of Australasia. The tallest peak, Mount
Cook, and numerous other mountains in the range exceed 10,000 feet.
The highest point of North Island is Mount Ruapehu, which reaches 9,175 feet (2,797m).
Most of New Zealand receives between 40 and 80 inches (100-200 cm) of precipitation annually, with little
seasonal variation. The west coast of South Island is the wettest part of the country. The prevailing westerly
winds push moist Pacific air onto the southern Alps, and the resulting uplift caused by the mountains produces
precipitation that totals more than 120 inches (300 cm) a year.
The temperature patterns of New Zealand are cooler than those for Australia and, as with precipitation, there
are fewer extremes. New Zealand has no hot regions like Australia’s deserts, but the higher island mountains
get much colder than anywhere in Australia.

E
OR
SC
GS

Summers in New Zealand are relatively short and cool, but the winters in the inhabited areas are mild.
The natural vegetation on New Zealand is about half temperate rainforest and half grassland. The forest
includes such trees as conifers, beech, and tree ferns, as well as lianas (vines) and epiphytes. Areas of scrub
vegetation are found between the forests and the grasslands.
Notes

32
 www.iasscore.in

The 10 longest rivers and most important rivers of New Zealand

• Waikato River - 425 km, it is the longest river of New Zealand.
• Clutha River or Matau River - 322 km
• Whanganui River - 290 km
• Taieri River - 288 km
• Rangitikei River - 241 km
• Mataura River - 240 km
• Waiau River, Southland - 217 km
• Clarence River - 209 km
• Waitaki River - 209 km

E
• Oreti River - 203 km
Lakes of the New Zealand
Name  
Lake Taupo
Region  
Waikato
OR
Important Features
Largest lake in New Zealand and the North Island, largest
freshwater lake in Oceania
SC
Lake Te Anau Southland Largest lake in the South Island
Lake Wakatipu Otago
Lake Wanaka Otago
Lake Ellesmere Canterbury
GS

Te Whanga Lagoon Chatham Island Largest lake in the Chatham Islands

Lake Manapouri Southland
Lake Hawea Otago
Lake Tekapo Canterbury
Lake Pukaki Canterbury
Notes

33
 Geography www.iasscore.in

OCEANIA
Oceania is a region centered on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean.
The following list contains the countries and territories that are classified as part of Oceania by UNESCO;
other countries are sometimes considered part of Oceania (see Other Interpretations below).
Australia
• Australia – Commonwealth Realm
• Norfolk Island – External territory of Australia
Melanesia

E
• East Timor – Republic
• Fiji – Republic
OR
• New Caledonia – Collectivity of France
• Papua New Guinea – Commonwealth Realm
• Solomon Islands – Commonwealth Realm
SC

• Vanuatu – Republic
Micronesia
• Guam – Organized, unincorporated territory of the United States
• Kiribati – Republic
GS

• Marshall Islands – Republic in free association with the United States

• Federated States of Micronesia – Republic in free association with the United States
• Nauru – Republic
• Northern Mariana Islands – Organized, unincorporated commonwealth in political union with the United
States
• Palau – Republic in free association with the United States
• Wake Island – Unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United States
Polynesia
• American Samoa – Unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United States
• Cook Islands – Self-governing state in free association with New Zealand
• French Polynesia – “Overseas country” of France
• Niue – Self-governing state in free association with New Zealand
Notes

34
 www.iasscore.in

• New Zealand – Commonwealth Realm

• Pitcairn – Overseas territory of the United Kingdom
• Samoa – Constitutional monarchy under Malietoa Tanumafili II
• Tokelau – Semi-autonomous territory of New Zealand
• Tonga – Absolute monarchy under King Taufa’ahau Tupou V
• Tuvalu – Commonwealth Realm
• Wallis and Futuna Islands – Overseas collectivity of France

E
OR
SC
GS

These territories, also located in Oceania, are not sovereign nations but former colonies of European, North
American and Oceanian countries and still under control of France, the United Kingdom, the United
States, Australia and New Zealand.
Notes

35
 www.iasscore.in

It covers following territories.

Territory Notes
New Caledonia (France) A special collectivity of France.
French Polynesia (France) An overseas territory of France.
Guam (United States) An insular area of the United States.
Northern Mariana Islands (United States) An insular area of the United States.
Wallis and Futuna (France) An overseas territory of France.
Niue (New Zealand) Associated state of New Zealand.
Cook Islands (New Zealand) Associated state of New Zealand.
American Samoa (United States) An insular area of the United States.
Christmas Island (Australia) An external territory of Australia.

E
Norfolk Island (Australia) An external territory of Australia.
OR
Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) An external territory of Australia.
Tokelau (New Zealand) A dependent territory of New Zealand.
Pitcairn Islands (United Kingdom) An overseas territory of the United Kingdom.
The climate of Oceania’s islands is tropical or subtropical, and ranges from humid to seasonally dry. Wetter
SC

parts of the islands are covered by tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, while the drier parts of the
islands, including the leeward sides of the islands and many of the low coral islands, are covered by tropical
and subtropical dry broadleaf forests and tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands. Hawaii’s
high volcanoes, Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, are home to some rare tropical montane grasslands and shrublands.
The overwhelming majority of people in the Pacific (not including Australia and New Zealand) work in the
primary sector. Many nations are still quintessentially agricultural; for example, 80 percent of the population
GS

of Vanuatu and 70 percent of the population of Fiji work in agriculture. The main produce from the Pacific is
copra or coconut, but timber, beef, palm oil, cocoa, sugar, and ginger are also commonly grown across the tropics
of the Pacific. Old growth logging is exploited on larger islands, including the Solomons and Papua New Guinea.
Fishing provides a major industry for many of the smaller nations in the Pacific, and the sale of fishing licenses
can bring considerable income. However, many fishing areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely Japan.
Natural resources, such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold, are mined across the west of the region, in the Solomon
Islands and Australia. The manufacturing of clothing is a major industry in some parts of the Pacific,
especially Fiji, although this is decreasing. Very little of the economy is in the area of investing and banking,
save in the larger countries of Australia and New Zealand.
Recently, tourism has become a large source of income for many in the Pacific; tourists come from Australia,
New Zealand, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Fiji currently draws almost half a million
tourists each year; more than a quarter from Australia. This contributes US$300 million to Fiji’s economy.
Aside from tourism, many places in the Pacific still rely on foreign aid for development. In the Solomon
Islands, 50 percent of government spending is paid for by international donors; namely Australia, New Zealand,
the European Union, Japan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan).
Notes

36
 www.iasscore.in

• Land Area: 8,923,000 square kilometres (3,445,190 square miles)

• Highest Peak: Indonesia's Carstensz Pyramid (or Puncak Jaya) peaks at 4884 metres (16,024 feet)
above sea level
• Largest Lake: Lake Murray, in Papua New Guinea.
• Longest River: The Murray River is 2,508 kilometres (1,558 miles) long.
• Countries: Fifteen independent nations plus many different islands governed by other countries, like
the Pitcairn Islands where the UK's Prime Minster is in charge, and France's tropical paradise of Tahiti.
• Smallest Country (by land area and population): Nauru is an island nation located north east of
Australia - it's the world's smallest republic or self-governing place.
• Biggest Country (by land area and population): Australia of course!
• Languages: 28 official languages but English is the most widely spoken and understood.

E
OR
SC
GS
Notes

37
 Geography www.iasscore.in

NORTH AMERICA
North America is the third largest continent in the world. It is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean in the east,
Gulf of Mexico in the south, the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Arctic Ocean in the north. To the north,
it is separated from the eastern most tip of Siberia by the Bering Strait.
SALIENT FACTS
• Two of the world’s largest countries in area, i.e. the USA and Canada are present in this continent.
• North America mainly includes three countries: the USA, Canada and Mexico.
• Central America: Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.
• Its greatest extent, north to south 7400km and east to west 5700 Km.

E
• It was discovered by Columbus in 1492.
OR
• It is bounded by the Arctic, Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans in the north, east-and west respectively, while
in south, it connected With South America through the Isthmus of Panama.-
• Culturally, it is divided into the Anglo America (Canada and U.S.A.) and Latin America (south of U.S.A.)
including Mexico and Central American Countries.
North America can also be divided into four great regions:
SC

1. Great Plains: stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic;
2. The geologically young, mountainous west: including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California
and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast;
3. The varied eastern region: including the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain of the Atlantic Seaboard,
GS

and the Florida peninsula.

4. Mexico and its long plateaus and cordilleras fall largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal
plain does extend south along the Gulf.
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION
• The Western Cordilleras
The Western Cordilleras are young fold mountain ranges spread from Alaska to Mexico. It consist of the
Rocky Mountain range in the east, the Sierra Nevada range at the center of the continent, the Coastal range
in the west and the Alaskan range in the north. The highest peak of North America is Mount Mickinely.
The plateaus surrounded by mountain ranges are the Columbia plateau, the Colorado plateau and Mexican
plateau. The Great Basin also lies in the Western Cordilleras.
The plateau of Colorado lies to its south. There are many gorges in the Colorado plateau, and many of them
are almost 1,800 metres deep.Very deep gorges with wall-like sides are called canyons.The Canyon of Colorado
in the largest canyon in the world. This area consists of the Appalachian Mountains and their extension to
Labrador and New Foundland.
Notes

38
 www.iasscore.in

• The Great Central Plains

The Great Central Plains are located between the Western Cordilleras and the Eastern Highlands, the Great
Central Plains show a variety of physical features.
The North American Great Central Plains also contain the hot and dry deserts of Arizona and Mexico towards
the south and also the famous Niagara falls.

The Crater Lake is a spectacular mountain lake located in the Cascade Mountains of the United States of
America. Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States and the seventh deepest in the world. It is known
to terrify visitors with its oppressive stillness.

These plains also host the five big lakes of North America- The Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huran,
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. These provide the plains with an ample supply of fresh water. The Great Central
Plains contain the vast and flat Mississippi river basin in its central and southern parts.
• The Eastern Highlands

E
The Eastern Highlands include the Appalachian ranges and the Labrador plateau. To east of the  Appalachian

are separated by the St. Lawrence Valley.

CLIMATE OF NORTH AMERICA
OR
The Piedmont and the Atlantic coastal plains are located. The Appalachian ranges and the Labrador Plateau

The climate is divided as:

SC
• Tundra type of climate: This type of climate prevails in northern parts of Canda and Greeenland. Winters
are long and very cold while summers are cool and short. Blizzards, severe cold winds blow  during winter.
• Cool Temperate Interior type of climate: This type of climate prevails to the south of Tundra region.
Where,  tempearture is below freezing point in winter and summers are warm.The annual precipitation is
low with a maximum in summer.
GS

• Laurentian type of climate: Laurentian type of climate  is around the valley of river St.Lawrence.Here
winters are cold due to Cold Labrador current and summers are warm due to the Gulf stream current.

• West European type of climate: This type of climate is along the north western coast. Due to the warm
pacific drift the sea and rivers are free from freezing
• Continental interior type of climate: This type of climate is experienced by the central central parts of
USA. Here, winters cold Summers are quite hot. The rainfall is  uncertain and often drought like conditions
prevail.
• Warm Temperate East margin type of climate: This type of climate is found in Eastern USA. Summers
are hot and humid while winters are cool and relatively dry in this region.

• The Mediterranean type of climate: This type of climate is found along the west coast of California.
Here, summers are hot and dry but winters are mild and wet.
• The Hot Desert type of climate: This type of climate is found in southern California, Arizona and
northern parts of  Mexico. Summers are very hot and dry. Days are quite hot but nights become very cold.
This is extreme type of climate.
Notes

39
 www.iasscore.in

• The Mountainous type of climate: The Mountainous type of climate is found in the Rocky Mountains,
which is controlled by the altitude.

IMPORTANT RIVERS OF NORTH AMERICA

River Originate Drains Flows through

Colorado River La Poudre Pass, rocky Gulf of California United States, Mexico
Mountains

Missouri River Rocky Mountains of Mississippi River United States

western Montana

Mississippi River Emerging from Lake Gulf of Mexico United States

Itasca in Minnesota

Ohio River Emerging from Mississippi River United States

Pennsylvania

Mackenzie River Great Slave Lake

EArctic Ocean Canada

OR
Columbia River Columbia Lake Pacific Ocean United States, Canada

Hudson River Adirondack Mountains United States

Saint Lawrence River Lake Ontario Gulf of St. Canada, United States
Lawrence/ Atlantic
SC

Ocean

GREAT LAKES

• The Great Lakes — Superior, Huron, Michigan, Ontario and Erie — make up the largest body of fresh
water on Earth, accounting for one-fifth of the freshwater surface on the planet
GS

• The lakes are on the U.S.-Canadian border, touching Ontario in Canada and Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York in the United States. 

• Lake Superior has the largest volume of all the Great Lakes. It is the coldest and deepest and because
it has a cooler climate and poor soil conditions it is the least polluted.

• Lake Michigan is the second largest of the Great Lakes. It is located completely within the United States.
It is the only one of the Great Lakes to be completely within one country.

• Lake Huron, by volume, is the third largest of the Great Lakes. Lake Huron also includes Georgian Bay.
Lake Huron is popular with cottagers because it has shallow sandy beaches and rocky beaches suitable for
swimming, boating, fishing, and other water activities.

• Lake Erie is the smallest Great Lake in terms of volume, but the fourth largest in area.

• The largest salt mine in the world is the Goderich Mine which runs partially under Lake Huron.
Notes

40
 www.iasscore.in

IMPORTANT SEAS, BAYS AND GULFS

Name Location and Related Information Part of Ocean
Beaufort Sea North of Canada Arctic Ocean
Gulf of Boothia Between Boothia Peninsula and Baffin Island, Arctic Ocean
North of Canada
Baffin Bay Between Greenland and Baffin Island Atlantic Ocean
Hudson Bay North of Canada Atlantic Ocean
James Bay North of Canada Atlantic Ocean
Labrador sea East of Labrador, Canada Atlantic Ocean
Gulf of St. Lawrence Northeast of USA Atlantic Ocean

E
• St. Lawrence River drains
Bay of Fundy

Chesapeake Bay.
Between Halifax and Boston
• Site of highest tidal range. OR
North of Cape Hatteras (Longest offshore bar
Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean
in the world)
SC
Gulf of Mexico East of Central America Atlantic Ocean
• Mississippi River drains.
Gulf of Campeche East of Mexico Gulf of Mexico,
Atlantic Ocean
Gulf of Darien Between Panama City and South America Caribbean Sea,
GS

Atlantic Ocean
Caribbean Sea East of Central America. Atlantic Ocean
Gulf of Panama West of Costa Rica Pacific Ocean
Coronado Bay Pacific Ocean
Gulf of California Between Lower California and western Mexico Pacific Ocean
• Colorado river drains.
Gulf of Alaska Southwest of Alaska, Pacific Ocean
Bering Sea West of Alaska Pacific Ocean
Notes

41
 www.iasscore.in

IMPORTANT ISLANDS
Name Location and Related Information Part of Ocean
Ellesmere Island, Queen North of Canada Arctic Ocean
Elizabeth islands, Parry Islands,
Banks Island, Victoria Island
(Third largest island of the
Arctic Ocean), Prince of
Wales Island
Baffin Island (Second largest Representative example of ice cap, a type of Arctic Ocean
island of the Arctic Ocean) continental glacier, may serrated granitic ridges.
Southampton Island, North to South in Hudson Bay
Coats Island, Mancel Island,
Ottawa Island, Belcher Island

E
Anticostal Island Gulf St. Lawrence. Atlantic Ocean
Cape Breton Island Novascotia Atlantic Ocean
OR
• Region known for coal fields.
Florida Keys Many small islands of coral origin, situated to the Atlantic Ocean
south of Miami between Cuba and Miami
• Region of sponges harvesting which support a
SC

thriving sponge industry.

Bahama Island Coral Island, SE of Florida Atlantic Ocean
Calcos Island (U.K.) SE of Bahama Island
Vancouver Island West of Canada, Pacific Ocean
GS

Queen Charlotte Island N. of Vancouver Island Pacific Ocean

Alexander Archipelago West of Canada Pacific Ocean
(A group of island that lie in
close proximity.)
Kodiak Island Gulf of Alaska Pacific Ocean
St. Lawrence Island, Nonvak Bering Sea. Pacific Ocean
Island
Aleutian Island Extend south-southwest for 1800 km from Pacific Ocean
Alaska Peninsula
Hawaiian Island Lie in the northern limits of the tropics in the
North Pacific Ocean.
• Consist of 8 main, 15 small-uninhabited island.
• Island's Capital Honolulu is known as
"The cross roads of the Pacific."
Notes

42
 Geography www.iasscore.in

SOUTH AMERICA
South America, the fourth-largest continent, extends from the Gulf of Darién in the northwest to
the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego in the south. 
SALIENT FACTS
• It is also known as ‘Continent of Birds’.
• South America is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean in the east, the Pacific Ocean in the west and the
Caribbean Sea in the north-
• The Andes Mountains, which lies parallel to the western side of the continent, forms the largest mountain

E
chain in the world.
• The Amazon River occupies a large depression in the Earth’s Crust, formed by the uplift of the Andes.
•

•
evergreen forests are known as ‘Selvas’. OR
The Amazon Basin in the largest area of the tropical evergreen forests in the world. These tropical

Amazon and its tributaries, Parana, Orinoco and Sao Francisco, are the main rivers of South America.
• The immense Brazilian Shield underlies more than one-third of South America. It is pitted with numerous
SC
volcanic intrusions and a large basaltic plateau exists between the Parana River and the Atlantic Ocean.
• It includes the Easter Islands, the Falkland Islands, the Galapagos Islands and the Tierra del Fuego.
• Tropical conditions are found across over half of South America, when both rainfall and temperatures are
high, hot humid rainforest prevail.
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION
GS

South America can be divided into three physical regions: mountains and highlands, river basins, and coastal
plains. 
Mountains & Highlands
South America’s primary mountain system, the Andes, is also the world’s longest. The range covers about
8,850 kilometers (5,500 miles). Situated on the far western edge of the continent, the Andes stretch from the
southern tip to the northernmost coast of South America. There are hundreds of peaks more than 4,500 meters
(15,000 feet) tall, many of which are volcanic. 
The highest peak in the Andes, Aconcagua, stands at 6,962 meters (22,841 feet) and straddles the Argentina-
Chile border. Aconcagua is the tallest mountain outside Asia. 
High plateaus are also a feature of the Andes. The altiplano of Peru and Bolivia, for example, has an elevation
of about 3,700 meters (12,300 feet). The Patagonia region of Argentina and Chile consists of lower-elevation
plateaus and rugged glaciers.
Outside the Andes, South America has two principal highland areas: the Brazilian Highlands and the Guiana
Highlands. Located south of the Amazon River in Brazil, the Brazilian Highlands are made up of low
mountains and plateaus that rise to an average elevation of 1,006 meters (3,300 feet). The Guiana Highlands
Notes

43
 www.iasscore.in

are located between the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers. The heavily forested plateau of the Guiana Highlands
covers southern Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, northern Brazil, and a portion of southeastern Colombia. 
River Basins
South America has three important river basins: the Amazon, Orinoco, and Paraguay/Paraná.
The Amazon River basin has an area of almost 7 million square kilometers (2.7 million square miles), making
it the largest watershed in the world. The basin, which covers most of northern South America, is fed by
tributaries from the glaciers of the Andes. Every second, the Amazon River empties 209,000 cubic meters
(7,381,000 cubic feet) of freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean.
The Amazon River is the life force of the equally vast Amazon rain forest, which makes up about half of
the rain forest of the entire planet. This tropical biome has as many as 100 different tree species on a single
acre, including the rubber tree, silk cotton tree, and Brazil nut tree. Other important plant species include palms,
ferns, and ropelike vines known as lianas that network throughout the rain forest’s dense canopy. 
The Orinoco River flows north of the Amazon. The Orinoco flows in a giant arc for more than 2,736 kilometers
(1,700miles), originating in the Guiana Highlands of northern Brazil and discharging in the Atlantic Ocean in

E
Venezuela. The Orinoco River basin covers an area of about 948,000 square kilometers (366,000 square miles)
and encompasses approximately 80 percent of Venezuela and 25 percent of Colombia.
OR
A vast savanna or grassland region, known as the Llanos, is the primary biome of the Orinoco River basin. The
Llanos is primarily made up of grasses. Swamp grasses, sedges, and bunchgrass are found in wet, low-lying
areas. Carpet grass is found in the higher and drier elevations. 
Like most grassland biomes, the Llanos is the perfect habitat for many bird species, including the scarlet ibis,
SC

bellbird, and umbrellabird. Important river species include the piranha, electric eel, and the Orinoco crocodile,
which can reach a length of more than 6 meters (20 feet).
The Paraguay/Paraná River basin covers almost 2.8 million square kilometers (1,081,000 square miles), which
is much of southeastern Brazil and Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. The Paraná River includes
Iguazu Falls, a massive series of waterfalls that extend for 2.7 kilometers (1.7 miles). 
Along with the Uruguay River, the Paraná River empties into the Rio de la Plata estuary between Argentina
GS

and Uruguay. The Rio de la Plata is the most populated region of both countries. The capital cities of Buenos
Aires, Argentina, and Montevideo, Uruguay, practically face each other across the estuary.
The Paraguay/Paraná River basin supplies water to the plains biome, or Pampas, of South America. The
Pampas have rich, fertile soil and predictable rainfall patterns. They are the most important grazing and cropland
areas on the continent. 
Coastal Plains
A coastal plain is an area of low, flat land next to a seacoast. South American coastal plains are found on the
northeastern coast of Brazil, on the Atlantic Ocean, and the western, Pacific coast of Peru and Chile. The
coastal plains of northeastern Brazil are extremely dry. The Brazilian Highlands act as a wedge that pushes
moist sea winds away from the coastal plains. 
The western coastal plains are also extremely dry. They are trapped between the cold Peru Current to the west
and the Andes Mountains to the east. The Peru Current brings cold water to the Pacific coast of Peru and
Chile. This cold surface water results in thermal inversion: cold air at sea level and stable, warmer air higher
up. Thermal inversion produces a thick layer of clouds at low altitudes. These low-lying clouds blanket much
of the Pacific coast of South America. They do not allow precipitation to form. 
Notes

44
 www.iasscore.in

The Atacama Desert is part of the western coastal plain. The Atacama is considered the driest region in the
world. The average rainfall is about 1 millimeter (0.04 inches) a year, and some parts of the Atacama have
never had rain in recorded history. 
CLIMATE OF SOUTH AMERICA
The Climate of South America influenced by the geographical location. Away from the equator to the north
and south, there is a greater contrast in temperature between summer and winter in the tropical region. Winters
are cooler and summers are less hot.
The Equatorial region: The Highlands of Brazil and Guiana receives moderate annual rainfall and summer is
the rainy season. The Equatorial region receives high rainfall throughout the year. There is no dry season in
the Equatorial region.
Pampas: In the Pampas lowlands of South America winters are cooler and summers are less hot. Rainfall is
moderate and is maximum in summer. The rain-shadow region of the Andes ranges is the Plateau of Patagonia.

E
It is a temperate desert and gets a low rainfall.
Chile: The southernmost region of Chile has marine or oceanic type of climate. This region receives high

only.
OR
rainfall throughout the year. Central Chile region has warm summers and mild winters with rainfall in winter

Atacama desert: The Atacama desert  has the hot desert type of climate, which  is found in the Northern Chile
and Southern Peru. The Andes mountains region climate changes according to height above the sealevel. The
lower slopes have tropical climate, the middle slopes have temperate conditions and above 6000 metres
SC
permanent cover of snow.
IMPORTANT RIVERS
Rivers Originate Drains Pass through
Amazon River Andes Mountains Atlantic Ocean Peru, Colombia, Brazil,
GS

Ecuador
Orinoco River Parima Mountains Atlantic Ocean Colombia, Venezuela
Parana River Paranaíba River Rio de la Plata, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay
Atlantic Ocean
Uruguay River Starts in the Serra do Mar Rio de la Plata, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay
in Brazil, where the Canoas Atlantic Ocean
River and the Pelotas
River are joined
Madeira River Confluence of Beni and Amazon River Bolivia, Brazil
Mamoré, Near Guayaramerín

DESERTS OF SOUTH AMERICA

• La Guajira Desert – a desert in northern Colombia,
• Patagonian Desert – the largest desert by area in the Americas, located in Argentina and Chile,
• Atacama – a desert in Chile and Peru, the driest place on Earth,
Notes

45
 www.iasscore.in

• Sechura Desert – a desert located along a portion of the northwestern coast in Peru, South America,
• Monte Desert – in Argentina, a smaller desert above the Patagonian
• Peruvian Desert- in Peru and Chile
PAMPAS
The Pampas of South America are a grassland biome. They are flat, fertile plains that covers an area of
300,000 sq. miles or 777,000 square kilometers, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Andes Mountains. It is found
primarily in Argentina and extends into Uruguay.
The word Pampas comes from the Guarani Indian word for level plain. The Argentinean Pampas are the home
of the ‘Gaucho’, the original South American cowboy. The pampas is located just below Buenos Aires,
between 34° and 30° south latitude, and 57° and 63° west latitude.
The average temperature in the Pampas is 18° C. The pampas has a ‘high sun’ or dry season in the summer,
which in the Southern Hemisphere is in December. The wind blows most of the time. The climate in the
pampas is humid and warm.

E
There are many kinds of animal and plant life in the Pampas. Native plants and animals on the Pampas have
made adaptations to living in a windy grassland. There are not very many trees because fires frequently occur
OR
in the pampas. The fires do not kill the grasses, which regenerate from their root crowns, but destroy the trees,
which have shallow root systems. The exception is the Ombu, which has made adaptations to protect itself
from fires.
The humid Pampas ecosystem is one of the richest grazing areas in the world. Because of its temperate
climate and rich, deep soil, most of the Pampas has been cultivated and turned into croplands.
SC
GS
Notes

46