Design of Thermoelectric Generator Using BiTe Thermocouples With Automated Data Logger System

Design of Thermoelectric Generator using Bismuth
Telluride Thermocouples with Automated Data

Logger System
by
Jeanne Claude Banta

John Kenneth Almar Carandang
Rotsen P. Cortez
Kenneth Jardiel
An Undergraduate Research Report Submitted to the school of Electrical,
Electronics and Computer Engineering in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering
Mapúa Institute of Technology
September 2012
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement i
Abstract ii
I. Introduction 1
II. Review of Related Literature and Studies 4
Energy Consumption Demand 4
Thermoelectric material on the basis of bismuth telluride Bi2Te3 6
Quality control of thermoelectric material 8
Thermoelectric Merit Performance 9
Theories 10
Figure of Merits 12
Seebeck Effect 13
Voltage generated equation 14
Waste Heat to Electricity 15
Incinerator Temperature 16
Units of Battery Capacity: Ampere Hours 16
Battery Capacity 17
Impact of Charging and Discharging Rate 18
Temperature of Battery 19
Applications of Thermoelectric Generator 20
III. Methodology 23
Overview 23
Procedural Diagram 24
Conceptual Framework 26
Laboratory Setup 27
List of Material 28
Laboratory Set-up and Thermoelectric Generator Design using Bi2Te3 28
Computation Data 29
Series Connection 30
Parallel Connection 31
Series – Parallel Connection 32
Direct Current Charger Circuit Design 33
Automated Data Logger 34
Prototype Construction 39
Procedure 40
Series Testing 40
Parallel Testing 46
Series – Parallel Testing 52
IV. Conclusion 61
V. Recommendation 63
Appendix
References
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: US Energy Consumption 2005 – 2009 5
Figure 2.2: Renewable Energy Consumption in the Nation’s Energy Supply 2009 5
Figure 2.3: Philippine Fossil Fuel Consumption 6
Figure 2.4: Flow of Current in Thermocouple 7
Figure 2.5: Thermoelectric Efficiency 9
Figure 2.6: Temperature Range of Different Thermocouples 9
Figure 2.7: Illustration of Flow of Flow of Current 10
Figure 2.8: Seebeck Effect with Semiconductors 11
Figure 2.9: Thermoelectric couple with a pair of dissimilar elements 12
Figure 2.10: Projected Heat Distribution in a Car Exhaust 21
Figure 2.11: Actual Installation of Thermocouples in an Exhaust 22
Figure 3.1: A typical thermoelectric generator and its equivalent electrical circuit 23
Figure 3.2: Complete Laboratory Set-up 27
Figure 3.3: Theoretical Graph of a Series Connected Thermocouples 31
Figure 3.4: Theoretical Graph of a 2 Series – 6 parallel Connected Thermocouples 32
Figure 3.5: Charging Circuit Schematic Diagram 33

Figure 3.6: Actual PCB of the Automated Data Logger and Charging Circuit 35
Figure 3.7: Complete Set-up of Automated Data Logger and Charging Circuit 36
Figure 3.8: Complete Set-up of Automated Data logger and Charging Circuit Schematic
Diagram 37
Figure 3.9: Complete Set-up of Automated Data logger and Charging Circuit Schematic
Diagram 38
Figure 3.10: System Diagram 39
Figure 3.11: Temperature Difference Graph 41
Figure 3.12: DC Charger Current Graph 42
Figure 3.13: Stored Battery Voltage Graph 43
Figure 3.14: Voltage Regulation Graph 44
Figure 3.15: Series Connection Testing 45
Figure 3.16: Series Connection Sample Computer Output 46
Figure 3.21: Series Parallel Connections of Thermocouples 54

Figure 3.26: Series Parallel Connection Sample Computer Output 58

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This thesis would not be possible without the help and guidance of several individuals who
served important roles in the completion of this study.
First and foremost, to our Almighty God, who have given us the courage and wisdom in able to
portray, develop and finish the study.
To our dear families who have been supportive to guide and encourage us, despite of the
difficulty we have encountered during the pose of the study. Truly, they work as our inspiration.
We would like to express our deep and sincere gratitude to our adviser, Dr. Febus Reidj Cruz,
for patiently helping and leading us throughout our study and for believing in us until the end.
We also like to thank our panels: Engr. Ronald Cabuang, Engr. Jerry Turingan, Prof. Jumelyn
Torres, for the advices and additional information they attested in order to improve this study.
i
ABSTRACT
In this research, an automated data logger is implemented in the thermoelectric generator
that is designed using Bismuth Telluride thermocouple modules. This generator converts waste
heat to electrical energy and store it in an appropriate battery bank by implementing a DC
charger circuit in order to be a useable source of electricity. The automated data logger is used in
order to compute the efficiency of our designed thermoelectric generator. The efficiency based
from the temperature difference of the thermoelectric generator and the proper connection
determines the most appropriate prototype for our thermoelectric generator. The acquisition of
data based from varying the temperature difference and the connections is automated in order for
us to gather data with minimal or almost no human error.
ii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, engineers and scientists have been searching for ways and methods to
find an alternative source of energy because as we presently enjoy living with the advancement
of the world, the demand for energy simultaneously increases with the change of our lifestyle.
With the world‟s fossil fuel nearing its depletion, the cost of electricity has risen to
unprecedented levels due to the limited supply of oil, economic and political factors. To avoid
depletion of fossil fuels and at the same time meeting the accelerating global energy demands;
sustainable renewable resources must be developed. Nowadays, the implementation of renewable
resources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and thermal are encouraged. Also, efficient energy
utilization tends to be a standard practice in all areas of the industrial society because more than
50 % of the generated energy in the world is wasted in heat. According to Korea Energy
Economics Institute, the waste heat occupied 26 percent of the total national energy consumption
of Korea in 2006. Thus, the thermoelectric generation plays a significant role in saving national
energy as well as in reducing carbon dioxide emission by enhancing energy utilization
efficiency. Thermoelectric power generators can convert heat directly into electricity and
therefore can accommodate for some of this loss. The Seebeck effect was discovered in 1821,
demonstrating the possibility of generating a voltage out of a temperature gradient.
Thermocouples that have in Seebeck unit are junction between two different metals that
produces voltage related to a temperature difference.
According to the work of Ahmad Nazri Abd Razak, Nursyarizal Mohd Nor and Taib
Ibrahim of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS entitled „Heat Energy Harvesting for Portable
Power Supply‟, the thermoelectric semiconductor material most often used in thermoelectric
1
generator is an alloy of Bismuth Telluride that has been suitably doped to provide individual
blocks or elements having distinct "N" and "P" characteristics because it provides higher
efficiency than other alloys considering that it is best applied on 75-150 degrees Celsius which is
lower compared to the temperature requirements of other alloys. They also used different alloys
such as Lead Telluride (PbTe), Silicon Germanium (SiGe), and Bismuth-Antimony (Bi-Sb). The
outcome of their paper is that Bismuth Tellurium can produce enough power to charge any type
of mobile phone. Their invention can produce enough power to charge any type of mobile
phones that can be used at any place where heat is available such as solar panel, house heater and
exhaust pipe of motorcycles.
In this research, an additional data logger is implemented in the thermoelectric generator
that is designed using 10 Bismuth Telluride. This generator converts waste heat to electrical
energy and store it in an appropriate battery bank by implementing a DC charger circuit in order
to be a useable source of electricity. The automated data logger is used to compute the efficiency
of our designed thermoelectric generator. It is computed by comparing our data that is
automatically acquired from the performed test and the computed values using the formula of
Seebeck effect. The efficiency based from the temperature difference of the thermoelectric
generator and the proper connections determines the most appropriate prototype for our
thermoelectric generator. The acquisition of data based from varying the temperature difference
and the connections will be automated to gather data with minimal or almost no human error.
This paper highlights the following objectives: (1) To design a thermoelectric generator
using Bi2Te3 thermocouples and to build a laboratory set-up that will measure the efficiency of
2
our designed thermoelectric generator; (2) To implement a DC charger circuit that will suit the
output of our thermoelectric generator and the discharging rate of the battery; and (3) To conduct
our designed system in a fully automated testing and data logger to minimize human error.
As technology develops faster because of modernization of science, there is already an
innovation in our equipment in terms of low power requirement. The study of Seebeck effect
technology and waste heat recovery can be an alternative source of energy to compensate
these small power requirements instead of burning coals which is a non-renewable source of
electricity. This is a contribution to mankind who faces an uprising problem on power
generation. The output of this thesis paper is a source material that can be used as a future
reference for those who would aim to improve the application of thermoelectric generators.
The coverage of this study limits the use and applications of a Thermoelectric Generator
on specific grounds. The data gathered in this paper are only obtained using a series, parallel and
series-parallel connected Bismuth Telluride and is subjected into testing with a temperature
range of 23-150 degrees Celsius. The charger that is implemented in the designed system is
dependent on the output of our designed thermoelectric generator and the battery that is used is a
Lithium-Ion. We will not create a new fully functional generator but instead, we will design an
electrical system that would use an ample number of thermocouples as a converter of waste heat
into electricity and store it in a battery.
3
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND
STUDIES
This chapter presents literature review and studies that are relevant to the subject of
interest in this investigation. The researchers also included a summary of insights gained from
reviewing several materials.
2.1 Energy Consumption Demand
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review of
2009, U.S. energy consumption declined for the second year in a row in 2009, falling 4.8 percent
between 2008 and 2009 to 94.6 quadrillion British Thermal Units (Btus) (Figure 2.1). This
follows a 2.1-percent decline between 2007 and 2008. As a result, total energy consumption in
2009 dropped to its lowest level since 1996. Renewable energy is a more attractive alternative to
electricity generation, as it will also provide a cleaner environment for future generations. In the
world today, there are many great solutions to renewable energy such as solar panels, windmills,
geothermal plants, nuclear power plants and tidal energy, but some are unfeasible, hazardous and
costly. However, renewable energy consumption increased by 5.4 percent in 2009 to 7.8
quadrillion Btus (Figure 2.2). This follows a 9.6-percent increase between 2007 and 2008. These
two increases, coupled with the consecutive year decreases in total energy consumption, boosted
renewable energy's share of total consumption from 6.6 percent in 2007 to 8.2 percent in 2009.
This is renewable energy's greatest share of the U.S. energy pie since 1984 when there were near
record levels of hydropower.
4
Figure 2.1: US Energy Consumption 2005-2009
Figure 2.2 Renewable Energy Consumption in the Nation’s Energy Supply, 2009
5
In the Philippines, the fossil fuel energy consumption (% of total) was 57.04 in 2009,
according to a World Bank report, published in 2010. Figure 2.3 also indicates the previous years
fossil fuel consumptions.
Figure 2.3 Philippine Fossil fuel consumption
2.2 Thermoelectric materials on the basis of bismuth telluride Bi2Te3
Based from the study of Hory and Kusano (2003), „‟Thermoelectric modules are prepared
for the production of electricity through the express transformation of heat keen on electricity;
wherein once heating the thermoelectric module linked to the electric circuit the electricity is
created.‟‟
„More so, a paradigm of this property is the thermoelectric generating modules or TGMs.
Likewise, a thermoelectric system of a given capacity is formed when one or a number of TE
modules together with two heat exchangers of an aerial or liquid type which are connected to hot
and cold areas of the modules through basic thermoelectric blocks.‟‟ (Hory & Kusano, 2003)
6
Figure 2.4 Flow of Current in a Thermocouple
Bismuth telluride crystals abide notable feature. Hory and Kusano explain further that:
„‟If, being prepared in a certain way semiconductor Bi2Te3 crystals (they are also called pellet)
of the n- and р-types of conductivity are alternatively joined sequentially with each other by
metal conductors, and this is placed between two thermally conductive ceramic plates, then you
get a device which is called the thermoelectric cooling module (TCM). When transmitting the
direct electric current through the thermoelectric module the upper junctions of the pellets will
become cool, while the lower – get warmer. As a result one ceramic plate is cooling the
environment, while the opposite plate is the source of heating. But if the direct current is
transmitted through the same device in the opposite direction, then the hot and cold sides shall
change places.‟‟
7
2.2.1 Quality control of thermoelectric materials
„‟Gradually control for thermoelectric materials is extremely necessary in the
mechanizing of thermoelectric generators and also cooling modules. A good quality control of
thermoelectric material rods as well as rods‟ circumvented cut to discs, are all essential to this
part.‟‟ (Anatychuk, Havrylyuk, & Lysko, 2012)
„‟Furthermore, Hartman’s method of measuring thermoelectric parameters could be used
for a quality control of thermoelectric materials. It is needed to put up corrections which are
connected to the thermal conduction of the lead and sound wires, with the thermal emission from
the sample and wires, and also with the Joules heat, emitted in the lead wires whenever the
efficiency of attained precise measurements of the characteristics of thermoelectric efficiency
exists.‟‟ (Anatychuk, Havrylyuk, & Lysko, 2012)
“So far, when calculating the thermoelectric efficiency the registration of the corrections
was not based on the solution of the task of thermal conduction in the system: (The sample – lead
wires). The specialists of the LLC solved this problem in a one-dimensional approximation and
on this basis worked out a method of a more correct way of measuring the thermoelectric
efficiency of the sample.” (Anatychuk, Havrylyuk, & Lysko, 2012)
8
Figure 2.5 Theroelectric efficiency, emf and thermal conduction scheme
1- sample, 2 – current distributing copper plate, 3 –constantan wire, 4 – current copper wire, 5 – sounding
copper wire.
2.3 Thermoelectric Merit Performance
Figure 2.6 illustrates the relative performance or Figure-of-Merit of various materials
over a range of temperatures. It can be seen from this graph that the performance of Bismuth
Telluride peaks within a temperature range that is best suited for most cooling applications.
According to Anatychuck (2012), „‟Bi2Te3 is the best solution for using in this project compared
to other materials because Bi2Te3 will produce more power at lower temperature.‟‟
Figure 2.6 Temperature Range of Different Thermocouples
9
2.3.1 Theories
The most fundamental phenomena in the discussion of thermoelectric effects and devices
is the Seebeck effect (Morelli,1997). Seebeck effect is the conversion of temperature difference
into an electric current. Mathematically, the potential difference V is denoted as,
Figure 2.7 Illustration of Flow of Current
The sign is positive if the electromotive force (emf) tends to drive an electric current
through a wire from the hot junction to the cold junction. In practice, one rarely measures the
absolute Seebeck coefficient because the voltage meter always reads measures the absolute
Seebeck coefficient between wires A and B. The absolute Seebeck coefficient can only be
calculated from the Thomson cooefficient (HoSung Lee, 2010).
10
With modern techniques, thermoelectric “modules” can now be produced using
semiconductors that deliver efficient solid state heat-pumping for both cooling and heating. A
practical thermoelectric Peltier module generally consists of two or more elements of n- and p-
type doped semiconductor material, which are connected electrically in series and thermally in
parallel (Ferrotec, 2009). Many of these units can be used to generate DC power in special
circumstances such as conversion of waste heat into useful electricity. New and often elegant
uses for thermoelectric continue to be developed each day (Tellurex, 2006).
Figure 2.8 Seebeck Effect with
Semiconductors
Figure 2.8 above (Whyte, 2009) illustrates how n- and p-type semiconductors
sandwiched between heat and cooling sources, used to create the Seebeck effect. The heat would
push both the negative and positive charges being carried downward, and create an electric
current moving in a clockwise direction through the semiconductors around the circuit
(Pnakovich, 2009).
11
2.3.2 Figure of Merits
According to the study of Thermal Design which was conducted by HoSung Lee, the
performance of thermoelectric device is measured by a figure of Merit, Z , where the unit is 1/°C
for material:
Figure 2.9 Thermoelectric couple with a pair of dissimilar elements
12
Table 2.1 Figure of Merit for Some Typical Semiconductors (HoSung Lee, 2010)
2.3.3 .Seebeck Effect
According to Razak (2003), „‟Seebeck Effect depicted a thermoelectric phenomenon;
whereas temperature differences between two dissimilar metals in a circuit alter into an electric
current. “The voltages produced by Seebeck effect are small, usually only a few millivolts per
kelvin of temperature difference at the junction. Numerous such devices can be connected in
series to increase the output voltage or in parallel to increase the maximum deliverable current.
13
Large arrays of Seebeck-effect devices can provide useful, small-scale electrical power if a large
temperature difference is maintained across the junctions.” (Razak, 2003)
Razak put forward the utilization of the Seebeck effect, which handed responsible for the
performance of thermocouples; these are used to approximately calculate temperature differences
or to activate electronic switches that can turn large systems on and off. This potential is engaged
in thermoelectric cooling technology. Constantan/chromel and constantan/alumel,
constantan/copper, constantan/iron are the frequently used thermocouple metal combinations
stressed out by Razak.
2.3.4 Voltage generated equation
“The voltage created by this effect is of the order of several microvolts per kelvin
difference. One such combination, copper-constantan, has a Seebeck coefficient of 41 microvolts
per kelvin at room temperature.” (Goldsmid, 2004)
„‟Similarity of knowledge to the study of the Seebeck effect such as from the order of numerous
microvolts per Kelvin difference result to a voltage formation, and particularly with copper-
constantan, every combination exists of a seebeck coefficient of 41 microvolts per Kelvin at
room temperature. Voltage generated equation could now be seen as:
Equation 2.1
SA and SB are the thermopowers of metals A and B as a function of temperature and T1 and T2 are
the temperatures of the two junctions.‟‟ (Goldsmid, et al, 2004)
14
Added to this account is the significance that the Seebeck coefficients are dependent on
the conductors' absolute temperature, material, and molecular structure, due to the fact that they
are non-linear as a function of temperature also.
2.4 Waste heat to electricity
Recent work with some of Seebeck‟s semiconductor couples are found to be about three
(3) percent efficient in converting heat to electricity, which was about state of the art efficiency
of steam engines during Seebeck‟s time (Fairbank,2008).
For the automobile, starting system is the one responsible in turning on the engine. The
starting system of a vehicle consists of a battery, ignition switch, starter motor, pinion gear and
ring gear. When the ignition key is turned to the starting position, a small amount of current
flows from the battery to the solenoid or relay. This activates the solenoid or relay, and closes an
electrical circuit which allows full battery voltage to reach the starter motor. The starter motor
then, rotates the fly-wheel mounted on the rear of the crankshaft. As the crankshaft turns, the
piston moves through their strokes. At the right time for each cylinder, the ignition system
provides the spark to ignite the air fuel mixture. If good combustion takes place, the engine will
now rotate on its own even without the starter motor. After that, the ignition key can return to the
“on” position. From this point on, the engine will continue to run until the ignition key is turned
off (Erjavec, 2010).
15
The electrical power of the engine and the rest of the car come from the car‟s battery. The
battery is important for the operation of the starting system, while the starter is responsible on
rotating the crankshaft, which uses a lot of electricity. This tends to lower the amount of power
in the battery. Therefore, a system is needed to recharge the battery so that the engine can be able
to start again for the next time it will be used (Erjavec, 2010).
2.4.1 Incinerator Temperature
„‟The incinerator chamber will reach temperatures as high as 1,200 degrees
Fahrenheit and burns for an entire hour to fully dispose of waste. Once it's done, the unit takes an
extra 10 to 45 minutes just to cool down. The ash left over from the burning process, for
instance, should be removed after the ash pan is about half an inch deep - otherwise, the heater
coils could burn out too quickly and lead to unnecessary repairs.‟‟ (Anatychuk, Havrylyuk, &
Lysko, 2012)
2.5 Units of Battery Capacity: Ampere Hours
Moreover, the energy stored in a battery, called the battery capacity, is measured in
either watt-hours (Wh), kilowatt-hours (kWh), or ampere-hours (Ahr). The most common
measure of battery capacity is Ah, defined as the number of hours for which a battery can
provide a current equal to the discharge rate at the nominal voltage of the battery.
16
„‟The unit of Ah is commonly used when working with battery systems as the battery
voltage will vary throughout the charging or discharging cycle. The Wh capacity can be
approximated from the Ahr capacity by multiplying the AH capcity by the nominal (or, if
known, time average) battery voltage. A more accurate approach takes into account the variation
of voltage by integrating the AH capcity x V(t) over the the time of the charging cycle. For
example, a 12 volt battery with a capacity of 500 Ah battery allows energy storage of
approximately 100 Ah x 12 V = 1,200 Wh or 1.2 KWh.‟‟ (Hory & Kusano, 2003). However,
because of the large impact from charging rates or temperatures, for practical or accurate
analysis, additional information about the variation of battery capacity are also provided by
battery manufacturers.
2.6 Battery Capacity
Battery Type Capacity (mAh) Typical Drain (mA)
D 12000 200
C 6000 100
AA 2000 50
AAA 1000 10
N 650 10
9 Volt 500 15
6 Volt Lantern 11000 300
Table 2.1 Battery Capacity of Different Battery Types
17
The battery capacity will be better with lower drain currents. To determine the battery
life, divide the capacity by the actual load current to get the hours of life. A circuit that draws 10
mA powered by a 9 volt rectangular battery will operate about 50 hours: 500 mAh /10 mA = 50
hours The cell voltage of alkaline cells steadily drops with usage from 1.54 volts to about 1 volt
when discharged. The voltage is near 1.25 volts at the 50% discharge point. Alkaline cells
exhibit a slightly increased capacity when warmed and the capacity drops significantly at
temperatures below freezing. Mercury and silver oxide batteries have nearly twice the capacity
as alkaline batteries of the same size but the current ratings are significantly lower. Alkaline
batteries also have good shelf life making them ideal for home-made electronic projects.
Rechargeable batteries have less capacity than primary cells as shown in the following chart.
This chart shows the capacity as a percentage of the capacity of an alkaline battery with the same
dimensions.
Battery Type % Capacity
Lead-acid 35
Nickel-cadmium 30
Silver-zinc 85
Table 2.2 % Capacity of Different Battery Types
2.7 Impact of Charging and Discharging Rate
Mathe (2004) scrutinized that:
„‟The charging/discharging rates affect the rated battery capacity. If the battery is being
discharged very quickly (i.e., the discharge current is high), then the amount of energy that can
be extracted from the battery is reduced and the battery capacity is lower. This is due to the fact
18
the necessary components for the reaction to occur do not necessarily have enought time to either
move to their necessary positions. The only a fraction of the total reactants are converted to other
forms, and therefore the energy available is reduced. Alternately, is the battery is discharged at a
very slow rate using a low current, more energy can be extracted from the battery and the battery
capacity is higher. Therefore, the battery of capacity should include the charging/discharging
rate. A common way of specifying battery capacity is to provide the battery capacity as a
function of the time in which it takes to fully disscharge the battery (note that in practice the
battery often cannot be fully discharged). The notation to specify battery capacity in this way is
written as Cx, where x is the time in hours that it takes to discharge the battery. In the above
table, C10 = xxx (also written as C10 = xxx) means that the battery capacity is xxx when the
battery is discharged in 10 hours.‟‟
2.8 Temperature of Battery
The temperature of a battery will also affect the energy that can be extracted from it. At higher
temperatures, the battery capacity is typically higher than at lower temperatures. However,
intentionally elevating battery temperature is not an effective method to increase battery capacity
as this also decreases battery lifetime. (Mathe, 2004)
Equation 2.2
(Mousoulis, et al, 2001)
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2.9 Applications of Thermoelectric Generator
BMW has announced it is working on Turbosteamer and Thermoelectric Generator
(TEG) technologies that aim to make better use of the energy that is lost as heat in combustion
engines and exhausts.
According to BMW, „‟Up to 60 per cent of the energy created by an internal combustion
engine is lost in heat, with half of it going to exhaust heat and the other half going to the cooling
system. BMW‟s EfficientDynamics engineers are working on systems which will capture this
heat energy and turn it into electrical energy.‟‟
Jürgen Ringler (2010) explains that:
„‟The electricity stored from this process will be able to provide power for various external
accessories of the car, putting less strain on the petrol engine and reducing overall fuel
consumption and emission levels. The Turbosteamer is essentially a miniature gas turbine
generator that will use the heat from the exhaust to create steam and in the process, turn a gas
turbine. A heat exchanger recovers heat from the engine exhaust, and this energy is used to heat
a fluid which is under high pressure – this heated fluid then turns into steam, which powers an
expansion turbine that generates electrical energy from the recovered heat.”
As for the weight and likely production forecast, BMW says it should have a
Turbosteamer system up and running ready for production in around 10 years. BMW says the
system would only add around 10 to 15kg to the car‟s weight while providing enough electric
power to run all auxiliaries during highway and country road driving conditions. This would free
up the engine reducing fuel consumption by “up to 10 per cent”.
20
Figure 2.10: Projected Heat Distribution in a Car Exhaust
Meanwhile, BMW is also working on Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) technology
which, similarly, works by converting heat energy into electrical energy. A TEG will convert
heat directly into electricity, similar to the way space probes are powered. NASA developed the
technology, also known as Seebeck Effect, and has been using it for more than 40 years.
TEGs take the principal that an electrical charge can be created between two
thermoelectric semiconducters that have different temperatures. Recent improvements in
materials have increased efficiencies of the technology and opened it up to a range of new
possible applications, such as in the automotive field.
In 2008, BMW released a TEG system integrated into an exhaust system that was capable
of generating 200 watts. BMW says improvements have since been made in increasing overall
efficiency of TEGs and says the company is now reporting power levels of up to 600 watts – or a
bit less than what is required to power a small microwave oven. BMW says 1000 watts is just
around the corner.
21
Figure 2.11: Actual Installation of Thermocouples in an Exhaust
22
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
OVERVIEW
This research was conducted in order to determine the Seebeck effect that was specially
designed to generate electricity. Thermocouples that have Seebeck unit are junction between two
different metals that produces voltage related to a temperature difference. The bigger
temperature difference, the higher voltage can be generated.
Figure 3.1 A typical thermoelectric generator and its electrical equivalent circuit.
The n and p-type legs are electrically connected in series by alternating top and bottom
metal contact pads to form a thermopile. The Seebeck effect in the n-type material creates a flow
of excess electrons from the hot junction to the cold junction. In the p-type material, holes
migrate toward the cold side creating a net current flow which is in the same direction as that of
the n-type material.
23
PROCEDURAL DIAGRAM:
Prototype Design using 10

Thermocouples
Purchasing Of Materials
Automated Charging System

and
Data Logger Program
Prototype Construction
Installation and Simulation
Evaluation and Discussion
This study aimed to design an array of thermoelectric device which is efficient in
transforming waste heat to electrical energy efficiently and at the same time, automatically log in
a computer the output of our designed thermoelectric array. In order to accomplish this, the
24
following procedures were made: (1) design the thermoelectric array that utilizes 10
thermocouples that can generate enough DC voltage that can charge a battery; (2) design the
prototype that can capture enough waste heat from a heat accumulator; (3) list and purchase
materials to be used; (5) construct the prototype; (6) program a microcontroller for the charging
system and for the automated data logger that could record data every minute; (7) install and
simulate the whole system; (8) interpret the obtained results for evaluation and recommendation
25
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
START
A
DATA
GATHERING VALIDATION AND
THOROUGH TEST OF
PROTOTYPE
DEVELOPMENT
OF THE DESIGN
INTERPRETATION OF
RESULTS
CANVASSING PRICES
OF
THE MATERIALS THAT CONCLUSIONS AND
WILL BE USED FOR RECOMENDATIONS
THE
CONSTRUCTION OF
PROTOTYPE
END
INITIAL PROTOTYPE
TESTING
NO
IS THE
PROTOTYPE
WORKING?
YES
26
A
The conceptual diagram shows that we gathered the data and performed an experiment in
the initial prototype in order to successfully design an efficient direct conversion of sensible heat
into electricity (See Figure 3.2). The waste heat collected using a designed heat accumulator and
the thermoelectric array is responsible in converting waste heat directly into electrical energy in a
most efficient way. In order for it to be efficient, there should be a maintained high temperature
difference between the cold side and of the hot side of the thermoelectric arrays. All of the waste
heat converted to electrical energy is then regulated and stored in a lithium ion battery. In order
to have minimal errors in our prototype testing, an automated charging circuit and data logger
was also constructed.
Laboratory Setup:
LAPTOP
HEAT SINKS
USB to UART
BURNER
AUTOMATED
CHARGING
CIRCIUT AND THERMOELECTRIC
DATA GENERATOR
LOGGER OUTPUT
BUTANE
Figure 3.2: Complete Laboratory Set-up
27
List of Materials:
• Bismuth Telluride Thermocouples
• Metal Locks
• Burner
• Heat sinks
• Automated Charging Circuit and Data Logger
• Li-Ion Battery
• Laptop
• Butane Canister
3.1 Laboratory Set-up and Thermoelectric Generator Design using Bi2Te3

Thermocouples
The researchers computed for the voltage that was generated by each thermoelectric
device. A sample computation is shown below. From there, they were also able to compute for
the total voltage that was generated by the designed thermoelectric array that utilizes 10
thermocouples. Also, initial investigation was done here that helped the researchers to decide on
what connection they are going to use for the array. The Thermoelectric device that was used all
throughout this project has a main component, which is Bismuth Telluride. The researchers
chose Bismuth Telluride as main material in their thermoelectric device because it can work at
temperatures as high as 260°C (500F) continuously and intermittently up to 380°C (680F)
without degrading (Holmgren,2008).
28
3.1.1 Computational Data
(Equation 3.1)
Where:
α- Seebeck Coefficient of one couple
N – Total number of couples in one thermoelectric device
Based on TEC1-12706 datasheet, it has 127 total number of couples in one thermoelectric
Module:
For Bismuth Telluride,
p-type n-type
Seebeck Coefficient 270μV/K -270μV/K
Seebeck Coefficient of a single couple (p-type and n-type)
= 540 μV/K
*In -270uV/K, the (-) sign serves as an indication that it is an n-type
From equation 3.1,
α = 0.06858 V/K
29
To compute the voltage in one thermoelectric module, this formula was used:
(Equation 3.2)
Where:
V = voltage
α- seebeck coefficient of one thermoelectric module
ΔT – temperature difference
Assuming a constant temperature difference the voltage output is directly proportional to
the Seebeck coefficient and of the change in temperature difference. Using the designed
thermoelectric generator that utilizes 10 thermocouples, the expected voltage output is computed
as follows:
3.1.2 Series Connection
Theoretically, since the thermoelectric modules are connected in series, total voltage
produced by ten thermoelectric modules will be computed by the equation:
Where:
Vtotal – total voltage produced
V – voltage produced by each Thermoelectric Module
n – number of Thermoelectric Module
(Equation 3.3)
30
10 Series Connected Thermocouples
120
100
Total Output Voltage
80
Voltage VS
60
Temperature
40 Difference for Series
Connected
20 Thermocouples
0
0 50 100 150
Temperature Difference
Figure 3.3: Theoretical Graph of a Series Connected Thermocouples
Referring to Figure 3.3, theoretically, the value that we expected from the output voltage
should be directly proportional with the temperature difference and the number of thermoelectric
modules. However, the equivalent current output of 10 total series connected thermocouples was
the same with the value of a single thermocouple.
3.1.3 Parallel Connection
Thermoelectric modules connected in parallel results in an increase in current while
having an almost constant voltage. Having 10 thermocouple modules connected all in parallel is
not an efficient design because although the current increased in value, the voltage was small
enough to push the current in the charging circuit.
31
(Equation 3.4)
Where:
Vtotal – total voltage produced
V – voltage produced by each Thermoelectric Module
n – number of Thermoelectric Module
3.1.4 Series-Parallel Connection
In a series-paralleled connection, we experimented for the output current and voltage. We
used 5 pairs of series connected thermocouples and paralleled it with each other. The connection
should have an output voltage related to equation 3.5 and it is graphed in figure 3.4.
(Equation 3.5)
4.5
4
3.5
Total Output Voltage
3
2.5
2
Series1
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200
Temperature Difference
Figure 3.4: Theoretical Graph of a 2 Series- 6 Parallel Connected Thermocouples
32
Referring to Figure 3.4, theoretically, the value that we expected from the output voltage
should be directly proportional with the temperature difference and number of thermoelectric
modules. Series-Parallel connected thermocouples should have enough equivalent output
voltage and current in order to charge the Lithium-Ion Battery.
3.2 Direct Current Charger Circuit Design
The researchers needed a charging system that is why they chose a microcontroller,
which was the PIC16F877A to regulate the output of their system before charging the battery.
This also served as a safety feature for their system and for the battery not to be overcharged or
undercharged.
Figure 3.5 Charging Circuit Schematic Diagram
33
In our charger circuit design, we used an inverter (See Figure 3.5) in order to step up the
voltage that is given by the thermoelectric generator. The components of the inverter are: 150µH
Inductor, 10BQ015TR Rectifier and VN10K Oscillator. The capacitors that are connected serves
as the filter of the stepped-up voltage DC output of the inverter. We also used a voltage limiter
which comprises of TIPP112, 2N2222 and TL431. The TIP112 acts as the voltage limiter when
stepped up by the inverter and the 2N222 acts as a part of the limiter that loops or feedbacks the
voltage when it exceeds 4.1V. On the other hand, TL431 dictates that 4.1V is the maximum
tolerable charging voltage for this charging circuit.
3.3 Automated Data Logger
The charging circuit device was also an Automated Data Logger in which it
automatically measures the temperatures of the hot side and the cold side using an LM35
Temperature Sensor, output voltage of the thermocouples in load conditions and no-load
conditions, voltage output of the charging circuit when connected with a load and in no-load
conditions, charging current and load current. The automated data logger logs the data with an
interval of 1 minute and its output was displayed in the LCD of the device and in a computer
using USB to UART and hyper terminal software. This automated data logger is needed in this
study in order to acquire the most accurate data and to eliminate human errors during the
experiment.
34
LM35-HOT SIDE
DC POWER SUPPLY
LM35-COLD SIDE
LM301
DC POWER INVERTER
TRIMMER
RELAY
PIC
LCD DISPLAY
Figure 3.6: Actual PCB of the Automated Data Logger and Charging Circuit
35
USB to UART
Input Source
(Thermocouples)
Thermo
Sensor
(LM35)
PIC Microchip
USB Output
Input Source
(Data Logger)
LCD DISPLAY
Figure 3.7: Complete Set-up of Automatic Data Logger and Charging Circuit
Temperatures for the hot side and of the cold side are being measured by LM35 and it
outputs a certain voltage (mV) equivalent to the PIC Microchip. The DC Charger current and
Output Current was measured by the LM301 because it senses the current that flows through it
and it outputs a certain data in mV equivalent to the PIC Microchip. The Voltage sensor is the
PIC Microchip because it directly measures the voltage that flows through it and the relay is the
one responsible in opening and closing the connection between the thermoelectric generator and
the charging circuit in order to obtain the values for the no-load and loaded voltage values. The
4.0MHz crystal functions as the heart of the PIC Microchip and it also serves as the function
clock of the system. The PIC Microchip serves as the converter for the Analog Input into Digital
output and USB to UART was used in order to obtain the data that was passed by the PIC
Microchip. The hyper terminal Software is used in order for the computer to automatically log all
36
the data in a minute interval. The overall system of the data logger is supplied by a 500mA, 9V
DC power supply and we also installed a regulator in the input source in order to protect the
system from an overvoltage.
Figure 3.8: Complete Set-up of Automatic Data Logger and Charging Circuit Schematic Diagram
37
Figure 3.9: Complete Set-up of Automatic Data Logger and Charging Circuit Schematic Diagram
It should be noted that every 1 minute, the PIC microcontroller gives an output of 5V
which causes the relay to connect the voltage limiter of the charging circuit to the voltage
inverter, LM301 and 2N3684. This flow of current is being read by the LM301 that is why the
value of charging current, load output current and voltage output of thermoelectric generator
when connected in the system is being read by the PIC microcontroller. However, when the
microcontroller is connected but it doesn‟t give an output voltage of 5V to the system, the
voltage inverter, LM301, 2N3684 and LM35 will act in the circuit as floating components and
the PIC microcontroller will only record the battery voltage, DC Charging Voltage and the
Output Voltage of the Thermoelectric Generator when not connected to the system.
Also, based from the complete schematic of charging circuit and the automated data logger
(Figure 3.8), when the microcontroller is not connected, the relay stays at the normally close
38
state. It means that the battery still charges because the entire charging circuit is still functioning
and the data logger circuit acts as a floating circuit in the entire system.
3.3.1 Prototype Construction
In creating the system, the materials used were: the heat accumulator, the thermoelectric
array, the microcontroller for the charging system, and the battery. Basically, the whole system is
designed as shown in Figure 3.10. The material used for the heat accumulator and of the cold
side is a heat sink that is made of aluminum and the heat source is a burner connected to a butane
canister. The data needed for this study is automatically logged into a computer using USB to
UART.
Figure 3.10 System Diagram
39
Procedures
1. Set up the equipments to be used as shown in Figure 3.10
a. Bismuth Telluride Thermoelectric Generator
b. Heat Source – Burner connected to a butane
c. Automatic Data logger and Charging Circuit
2. Test the thermoelectric generator with 10 block units of Bismuth Telluride
thermocouple connected in series, parallel and series-parallel and record the 20
minutes data output of the automated logger.
3. Calculate the expected voltage output of the thermoelectric generator when connected
in series, parallel and series-parallel connection.
4. Record and plot the data depending upon how the thermocouples were connected.
5. Compute for the actual average temperature differences, voltage regulation, DC
Charging Voltage and DC Charging Current.
6. Determine the actual average time needed to fully charge the battery from zero charge
state.
3.3.2 Series Testing

We used a series connection of ten thermocouples because we were careful not to damage
the charging circuit and of the data logger. A Schottky diode was placed in the connection
because of its low forward voltage and fast recovery time. It helps to even out the distribution
output of each thermocouples and thus, increasing the efficiency of our thermoelectric generator.
40
Minute Time 1 2 3
Thermoelectric not connected 0V 4.72V 6.06V
Thermoelectric connected 0V 0.53V 0.61V
Temperature Low Side 70C 66C 63C
Temperature High Side 72C 89C 102C
DC Charger Voltage 0V 3.91V 4.12V
DC Charger Current 0mA 122mA 162mA
Battery Voltage 2.93V 2.93V 2.94V
Load Output (100ohms) 0mA 0mA 0mA
Table 3.1 Experimental Data for Series Connection
Temperature Difference VS Time

(SERIES CONNECTION)
120
Temperature in Degrees Celsius
100
80
60 Temperature Cold
Side
40
Temperature Hot
20 Side
0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (Minute Interval)
Figure 3.11: Temperature Difference Graph
The graph in Figure 3.11 indicates the trend of the hot side and of the cold side of the
thermoelectric generator. In this trial, it only lasted 3 minutes because we observed that the
voltage output of the thermoelectric generator after 3 minutes was already 6.06V and it already
41
exceeded the capability of our PIC microchip which is 5V. Although there was a 4.1V limiter,
the components of the voltage inverter has a tendency to be damaged. On the other hand, the
temperature difference was increasing in value since the hot side was directly in contact with the
flame and the cold side was directly in contact with cubes of ice. Based from the graph, the
largest temperature difference was 39 degrees Celsius and it occurred in the 3 rd minute of the
testing. The average temperature difference after 3 minutes is 21.333 degrees Celsius.
DC Charger Current (mA) VS Time

(SERIES CONNECTION)
200
DC CHARGER CURRENT (mA)
150
100
DC Charger Current VS
50 Time
0
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3.12: DC Charger Current Graph
Based from the graph in Figure 3.12, the largest output of the DC Charging current which
is 162mA occurred in the 3rd minute of the testing. Referring to the temperature difference graph,
we also noticed that the largest output of DC Charging current occurred at the highest
temperature difference between the cold side and the hot side. The connection of the 10
thermocouples is in series that is why we expected a very small value of current. The highest DC
charging current occurred is 162mA at 4.12V.
42
Because of the highest charging voltage of 4.12V, highest DC Charging Current of
162mA and assuming a constant temperature difference of 39 degrees, we were already able to
compute for the time needed to fully charge the 3.7V, 1020mAh Li-Ion battery from zero charge
state:
For Ideal 100% charging efficiency:
For 90% charging efficiency:
Battery Voltage (V) VS Time

(SERIES CONNECTION)
2.942
2.94
Battery Voltage (V)
2.938
2.936
2.934
Battery Voltage
2.932
2.93
2.928
0 1 2 3 4
Time (Minute Inerval)
Figure 3.13: Stored Battery Voltage Graph
43
The Battery Voltage is the stored voltage of the battery from the moment it was charged
by the thermoelectric generator. Based from figure 3.13, we have seen that the voltage that it
stored was directly proportional to the trend of the temperature difference between the hot side
and of the cold side of the thermoelectric generator. After 3 minutes of charging, the Li-Ion
battery stored a total unit of 0.01V.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
(SERIES CONNECTION)
7
6
5
Voltage (V)
4 DC Charger Voltage
3
2 Thermoelectric with
1 No Load
0
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3.14: Voltage Regulation Graph
Figure 3.14 shows the graph of the DC Charger Voltage and of the Thermoelectric
Generator when not connected on a load versus time. The thermoelectric with no load acts as the
VNO-LOAD and the DC Charger Voltage acts as the VLOAD. The computed average voltage
regulation can be computed by getting the average voltage of thermoelectric with no load and
average voltage of DC Charger Voltage and applying the formula of voltage regulation.
44
Average Thermoelectric with No Load = = 5.39 V
Average DC Charger Voltage = = 4.015 V
Average %Voltage Regulation =
We noticed the average voltage regulation exceeds the acceptable value which is 5-10%
VR. However, the voltage regulation was very high in this series connection because the limiter
which is TL431, forces the voltage input to decrease in an acceptable value which is 4.1V.
CUBES
OF ICE
TEMPERATURE COLD SIDE

SENSOR LM35
(COLD SIDE)
TEMPERATURE HOT SIDE

SENSOR LM35
(HOT SIDE)
BURNER
10 THERMOCOUPLES
CONNECTED IN
SERIES
Figure 3.15: Series Connection Testing
45
Figure 3.16: Series Connection Sample Computer Output
3.3.3 Parallel Testing

In parallel testing, we used 10 thermocouples that were connected in parallel. Like in the
series connection, we also used a Schottky diode that is placed in series with the parallel
connection. In this connection, we observed that the current significantly increased in value but it
was not pushed in the charging circuit because of the very low value of voltage that it had
produced.
46
Minute Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Thermoelectric
not connected 0 0.2 0.64 0.77 0.64 0.74 0.74 0.84 0.67 1 0.97 0.91 1.21 1.1 0.91 1 0.91 0.77 0.76 0.64
(V)
Thermoelectric
Connected 0 0.04 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.14 0.18 0.2 0.19 0.21 0.21 0.19 0.2 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.16
(V)
Temperature
Low Side 24 25 32 34 42 46 54 56 65 68 74 79 85 91 93 93 104 105 97 97
(C)
Temperature
High Side 26 31 51 57 61 68 76 81 85 98 103 106 121 123 120 123 131 128 120 116
(C)
DC Charger
Voltage 0 0.27 0.86 1.04 0.86 0.99 1 1.13 0.90 1.34 1.30 1.22 1.62 1.47 1.22 1.34 1.22 1.03 1.03 0.86
(V)
DC Charger
Current 6 35 115 139 116 133 135 151 122 180 174 162 215 192 163 180 162 138 139 116
(mA)
Battery
Voltage 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7
(V)
Load Output
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(No Load)
Table3.2 Experimental Data for Parallel Connection
47
140
120
Temperature in Degrees Celsius
100
80
COLD SIDE
60
HOT SIDE
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
thermoelectric generator. In this trial, it lasted for 20 minutes and the PIC microcontroller
recorded the data needed with an interval of 1 minute. The temperature difference of the system
is almost constant starting from the 4th minute. The hot side is still directly in contact with the
flame and the cold side is directly in contact with cubes of ice. Based from the graph, the largest
temperature difference was 36 degrees Celsius and it occurred in the 13th minute of the testing.
The average temperature difference after 20 minutes is 23.05 degrees Celsius.
48
(PARALLEL CONNECTION)
250
DC CHARGER CURRENT (mA)
200
150
100 DC Charger Current VS

Time
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
was 215mA occurred in the 13th minute of the testing. Referring to the temperature difference
graph, we also noticed that the largest output of DC Charging current occurred at the highest
temperature difference between the cold side and of the hot side. The connection of the 10
thermocouples was in parallel that is why we expected a very high value of current. The average
DC charging current was computed by:
With the value of highest DC Charging Current, we were already able to compute for the
time needed to fully charge the 3.7V, 1020mAh Li-Ion battery from zero charge state assuming
an input DC Charging Voltage of 3.7V.
49
However, the largest DC Charging Voltage was only 1.62V. Based from the laboratory
testing, after 20 minutes of charging, the increase of battery voltage is only 0.02V (See Figure
3.18). This little increase in battery voltage is because the charging voltage was only 43.7838%
of the required charging voltage of the battery.

1.705
1.7
Voltage (V)
1.695
1.69
Battery Voltage VS
1.685
Time
1.68
1.675
0 5 10 15 20 25
50
Voltage Regulation
2
1.5
Voltage (V)
1 Thermoelectric Not
Connected
0.5 DC Charger Voltage
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Average Thermoelectric with No Load = = 0.8116V
Average DC Charger Voltage =
51
We noticed that the average voltage regulation is negative in value. It is because the
voltage inverter increased the value of the no load in order for the charging voltage to enter the
battery. However, in parallel connection, the maximum voltage acquired was only 1.62V.
Figure 3.20: Parallel Connection Sample Computer Output
3.3.4 SERIES PARALLEL TESTING

This designed thermoelectric generator was in series-parallel connection in which 2
thermocouples and a Schottky diode were connected in series. The 5 pairs were connected in
parallel with each other and were connected to the input terminals of the charging circuit. In this
connection, we observed that we had obtained a fairly high value of voltage and current.
52
Minute Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Thermoelectric
not connected 0.14 0.71 2.29 2.43 2.43 2.57 2.86 3.86 4.14 5.00 5.00 3.43 5.57 3.14 2.43 2.00 1.57 2.86 3.43 4.43
(V)
Thermoelectric
0 0.38 0.44 0.43 0.45 0.5 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.49 0.47 0.44 0.45 0.44 0.47 0.5
connected (V)
Temperature
25 25 34 39 43 48 53 56 63 68 73 78 63 75 73 70 68 58 62 66
Low Side (C)
Temperature
26 30 50 56 60 66 73 83 92 103 108 102 102 97 90 84 79 78 86 97
High Side (C)
DC Charger
0.47 0.84 2.49 2.64 2.72 2.88 3.20 4.01 4.03 4.12 4.11 3.75 4.12 3.44 2.70 2.26 1.84 3.15 3.75 3.98
Voltage (V)
DC Charger
0 66 105 113 153 160 181 187 192 194 174 170 176 154 144 137 140 153 167 168
Current (mA)
Battery
1.4 1.41 1.65 1.67 1.71 1.73 1.74 1.81 1.82 1.85 1.86 1.95 1.97 2.08 2.11 2.17 2.25 2.26 2.3 2.93
Voltage (V)
Load Output
(10 ohms) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(mA)
Table3.3 Experimental Data for Series Parallel Connection
53
5 Parallel 2 Series Connected Thermocouple
Connected
Thermocouples
2 Series Connected
Thermocouple
2 Series
Connected
Thermocouple
2 Series
Connected
Thermocouple
2 Series Connected
Thermocouple
5 Parallel
Connected
Thermocouples Figure 3.21: Series Parallel Connection of Thermocouples
120
100
Temperatre in Degrees Celsius
80
60
COLD SIDE
HOT SIDE
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time in Minutes Interval
54
thermoelectric generator. In this trial, it lasted for 20 minutes and the PIC microcontroller
recorded the data needed with an interval of 1 minute. The temperature difference of the system
is almost constant starting from the 3rd minute. The hot side was still directly in contact with the
flame and the cold side was directly in contact with cubes of ice. Based from the graph, the
largest temperature difference is 39 degrees Celsius and it occurred in the 13th minute of the
testing. The average temperature difference after 20 minutes is 21.1 degrees Celsius.

(SERIES-PARALLEL CONNECTION)
250
200
150
DC Charger Current
100 (mA) VS Time
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
is 194mA occurred in the 10th minute of the testing. Referring to the temperature difference
graph, we also noticed that the largest output of DC Charging current occurred at one of the
highest temperature difference between the cold side and of the hot side. The connection of the
10 thermocouples was in series-parallel that is why we expected a fair value of charging voltage
and current.
55
Because of the highest charging voltage of 4.12V, highest DC Charging Current of
194mA and assuming a constant temperature difference of 39 degrees, we were already able
compute for the time needed to fully charge the 3.7V, 1020mAh Li-Ion battery from zero charge
state:
The battery voltage increased from 1.4V starting voltage into 2.93V after charging the
battery for 20 minutes (See Figure 3.24). The battery increased by 1.53V because there is enough
charging voltage that would push the charging current into the battery.
56
3.5
3
2.5
Voltage (V)
2
1.5 Battery Voltage VS
1 Time
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage Regulation
6
5
Voltage (V)
4
3 Thermoelectric Not
Connected
2
DC Charger Voltage
1
0
0 10 20 30
57
Average Thermoelectric Voltage with No Load = = 3.0145V
Average DC Charger Voltage =
We noticed that the average voltage regulation is negative in value. It is because the
voltage inverter increased the value of no load in order for the charging voltage to enter the
battery. However, as seen from the voltage difference graph the voltage limiter functions
between the 9th to 13th minute of charging in order to decrease the charging voltage.
Figure 3.26: Series-Parallel Connection Sample Computer Output
58
Table 3.4: Summary Table for Thermoelectric Voltage not connected (Volts)
Minute Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Series
0 4.72 6.06 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Connection (V)
Parallel
0 0.2 0.64 0.77 0.64 0.74 0.74 0.84 0.67 1 0.97 0.91 1.21 1.1 0.91 1 0.91 0.77 0.76 0.64
Connection (V)
Series Parallel
0.14 0.71 2.29 2.43 2.43 2.57 2.86 3.86 4.14 5 5 3.43 5.57 3.14 2.43 2 1.57 2.86 3.43 4.43
Connection (V)
Table 3.5: Summary Table for DC Charger Voltage (Volts)

Minute Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Series
0 3.91 4.12 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Connection (V)
Parallel
0 0.27 0.86 1.04 0.86 0.99 1 1.13 0.9 1.34 1.3 1.22 1.62 1.47 1.22 1.34 1.22 1.03 1.03 0.86
Connection (V)
Series Parallel
0.47 0.84 2.49 2.64 2.72 2.88 3.2 4.01 4.03 4.12 4.11 3.75 4.12 3.44 2.7 2.26 1.84 3.15 3.75 3.98
Connection (V)
59
Table 3.6: Summary Table for DC Charger Current (milliamps)
Minute Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Series
0 122 162 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Connection (mA)
Parallel
6 35 115 139 116 133 135 151 122 180 174 162 215 192 163 180 162 138 139 116
Connection (mA)
Series Parallel
0 66 105 113 153 160 181 187 192 194 174 170 176 154 144 137 140 153 167 168
Connection (mA)
Table 3.7: Summary Table for Battery Voltage (Volts)

Minute Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Series
2.93 2.93 2.94 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Connection (V)
Parallel
1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7
Connection (V)
Series Parallel
1.4 1.41 1.65 1.67 1.71 1.73 1.74 1.81 1.82 1.85 1.86 1.95 1.97 2.08 2.11 2.17 2.25 2.26 2.3 2.93
Connection (V)
60
CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION
Connecting the thermoelectric array in series made the battery capable of
charging. However, it has a very low current resulting to a very low increase in battery
voltage. This is validated when we acquired a value of 6.06V and 162mA after the 3 rd
minute of our data acquisition with a temperature difference of 39 degrees Celsius. For a
thermoelectric array connected in parallel, the output current of 10 thermoelectric
modules is high; however, the voltage output of a single thermocouple is higher
compared to 10 parallel connected thermocouples. With a very low voltage and high
current, the battery is not capable of charging even if the paralleled connection is
connected in series with Schottky diode. This conclusion for the paralleled connection is
validated with the highest value of 1.62V for voltage and 215mA for the output current.
The connection with 5 parallel that comprises 2 series each gives the optimum output
current and voltage that will suit the charging capability of 3.7V. This is validated by the
highest gathered data for series-parallel connection which is 4.12V and 194mA.
The charging circuit comprises of the voltage inverter and of a voltage limiter.
The designed charging circuit is capable of stepping up the input voltage from the
thermoelectric generator and limiting the output by 4.1V. These specifications are used in
order to protect the 3.7 Li-Ion battery.
61
The automated data logger is programmed using a PIC microchip and Proton
Basic software. LM35 is used for measuring the temperature, LM301 for current and
2N3684 for amplifying the output signal voltage. It is capable of giving an output in a
computer using a USB to UART connection.
62
CHAPTER V
RECOMMENDATIONS
Waste heat recovery system using thermoelectric modules with automated data logger is
a potential alternative source of energy or electricity, though the device used in this study still
needs improvement to be more efficient. Since installation will be done in using heat source, the
use of thermoelectric modules with higher operating temperature is recommended to produce
higher output without damaging the components of thermoelectric modules. These
thermoelectric modules must be flatly attached to the heat sink for it to experience hot and cold
temperature evenly.
The researchers endorse this instrument to be used in any kind of devices that emits waste
heat such as oven, stove and etc. However, the thermoelectric module itself should not overdue
the capacity of heat that a certain device produces.
Nevertheless, these recommendations are intended for the betterment of the design and to
solve more problems which includes the monitoring and controlling of household or an industry
structure. Several needs and requirements of the consumers will be met if the said
recommendations are considered for the development of the design.
63
Appendices
Appendix A
Figure A.1 Arduino Schematic Diagram
Figure A.2 Automated Charging Circuit & Data Logger for
Thermoelectric Generator PCB Design

Appendix B
Source Code for the Design
Device = 16F877A
XTAL = 4
LCD_DTPIN = PORTB.0
LCD_RSPIN = PORTD.6
LCD_ENPIN = PORTD.7
LCD_INTERFACE = 4
LCD_LINES = 2
LCD_TYPE = 0
Declare ADIN_RES 10
Declare ADIN_TAD 2 'CLK options are 0, 1, 2, 3 (0-2
are based on internal cycles)
Declare ADIN_STIME 100
Symbol txdata_t = PORTB.7 '' output

Symbol rxdata_t = PORTB.6 '' input
Symbol txdata = PORTB.5 '' output
Symbol rxdata = PORTB.4 '' input
Symbol contr = PORTC.0 '' output
Dim day As Byte ' Define day variable

Dim hour As Byte ' Define hour variable
Dim dhour As Byte ' Define display hour variable
Dim minute As Byte ' Define minute variable
Dim second As Byte ' Define second variable
Dim ticks As Byte ' Define pieces of seconds variable
Dim update As Byte ' Define variable to indicate update of LCD
Dim sec As Byte ' sec for time dela
Dim temp_h As Word 'adc 0

Dim temp_l As Word 'adc 1
Dim thermo_v As Word 'adc 2
Dim therco_v As Word 'adc 2 connected
Dim dctodc_v As Word 'adc 4
Dim battl_v As Word 'adc 5
Dim charge_c As Word 'adc 6
Dim load_c As Word 'adc 7
Dim temp_h_ As Byte

Dim temp_l_ As Byte
Dim thermo_v_ As Byte
Dim therco_v_ As Byte
Dim dctodc_v_ As Byte
Dim battl_v_ As Byte
Dim charge_c_ As Byte
Dim load_c_ As Byte
Dim update_log As Byte
Dim minutes As DWord '''''' 4294967295 minutes

Dim sample As Byte
Dim samples As Word
Dim i As Word
Dim temp As Word
Clear '''''' clear all ram
DelayMS 1000
On_Interrupt tickint
OPTION_REG = $55 ' Set TMR0 configuration and enable PORTB

pullups
INTCON = $a0 ' Enable TMR0 interrupts
ADCON1= %10000001 ' Ref+ RA3 a0,a1,a2,a4,a5 e0,e1,e2
analog right justified
TRISA = %11111111 ' all input
TRISB = %01000000 '
TRISC = %00000000 ' all output
PORTB = 0
PORTC = 0
DelayMS 1000
minutes = 0
txdata_t = 1 '' tx true
update_log = 1
Print $fe, 1 ' Clear screen

Print At 1,1, " THERMOGEN "
Print At 2,1, " Data Logger "
' SerOut txdata_t,84, [13,10, " Thermo Electric Generator Data Logger",13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [13,10, " MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
",13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " SCHOOL OF EE-ECE-CpE ",13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [13,10, " FINAL THESIS PROTOTYPE",13,10]

SerOut txdata_t,84, [ "THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR USING BISMUTH
TELLURIDE THERMOCOUPLES",13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [13,10, " BANTA, JEAN CLAUDE ",13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " CARANDANG, JOHN KENNETH ALMAR L.
",13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " CORTEZ, ROTSEN P.",13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " JARDIEL, KENNETH ALDRINE ",13,10,13,10]
GoSub tdelay1
Main:
If update_log = 1 Then
update_log = 0 '' reset
GoSub disp_3 '' getting new data
GoSub get_all_data
GoSub convert
GoSub disp_1
GoSub disp_2
GoSub send2hyper
EndIf
GoSub disp_1
GoSub disp_2
GoTo Main
get_all_data:
High contr ''' disconnect thermo & batteri

GoSub tdelay1
GoSub get_thermo_v
GoSub get_battl_v
GoSub get_dctodc_v
Low contr ''' connect thermo & baterri
GoSub tdelay1
GoSub get_temp_h
GoSub get_temp_l
GoSub get_therco_v
GoSub get_charge_c
GoSub get_load_c
Return
get_temp_l:
sample = 0
For sample = 1 To 100
ADIn 0,temp_l
samples = samples + temp_l
DelayMS 20
Next
temp_l = samples/100
samples = 0
Return
get_temp_h:
sample = 0
ADIn 1,temp_h
samples = samples + temp_h
DelayMS 20
Next
temp_h = samples/100
samples = 0
Return
get_thermo_v:
sample = 0
ADIn 2,thermo_v
samples = samples + thermo_v
DelayMS 20
Next
thermo_v = samples/100
samples = 0
Return
get_therco_v:
sample = 0
ADIn 2,therco_v
samples = samples + therco_v
DelayMS 20
Next
therco_v = samples/100
samples = 0
Return
get_dctodc_v:
sample = 0
ADIn 4,dctodc_v
samples = samples + dctodc_v
DelayMS 20
Next
dctodc_v = samples/100
samples = 0
Return
get_battl_v:
sample = 0
ADIn 5,battl_v
samples = samples + battl_v
DelayMS 20
Next
battl_v = samples/100
samples = 0
Return
get_charge_c:
sample = 0
ADIn 6,charge_c
samples = samples + charge_c
DelayMS 20
Next
charge_c = samples/100
samples = 0
Return
get_load_c:
sample = 0
ADIn 7,load_c
samples = samples + load_c
DelayMS 20
Next
load_c = samples/100
samples = 0
Return
convert:
' temp_h_ = temp_h / 10
' temp_l_ = temp_l / 10
temp_h_ = temp_h / 1
temp_l_ = temp_l / 1
thermo_v_ = thermo_v / 100

therco_v_ = therco_v / 100
dctodc_v_ = dctodc_v / 100
battl_v_ = battl_v / 100
' charge_c_ = charge_c / 100

' load_c_ = load_c / 100
charge_c_ = charge_c / 1
load_c_ = load_c / 1
Return
disp_1:
Print At 1,1, "TH:",Dec thermo_v_,".",DEC2 thermo_v,"/Con:",Dec
therco_v_,".",DEC2 therco_v
' Print At 2,1, "Tl:",Dec temp_l_,".",DEC1 temp_l," Th:",Dec temp_h_,".",DEC1
temp_h
Print At 2,1, "Tl:",Dec temp_l_," Th:",Dec temp_h_
GoSub tdelay2
Return
disp_2:
Print At 1,1, "Dv:",Dec dctodc_v_,".",DEC2 dctodc_v," Bv:",Dec battl_v_,".",DEC2
battl_v
' Print At 2,1, "Cc:",Dec charge_c_,".",DEC2 charge_c," Lc:",Dec load_c_,".",DEC2
load_c
Print At 2,1, "Cc:",Dec charge_c_," Lc:",Dec load_c_
GoSub tdelay2
Return
disp_3:
Print At 1,1, "T/min:", DEC10 minutes
Print At 2,1, "Getting NEW Data"
GoSub tdelay1
Return
send2hyper:
SerOut txdata_t,84, [13,10]
DelayMS 10
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " Minute Time : ",DEC10 minutes,13,10]
DelayMS 10 '' N9600
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " Thermonot_V : ",Dec thermo_v_,".",DEC2 thermo_v,"
V",13,10] '' 84 = T9600
DelayMS 10
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " Thermocon_V : ",Dec therco_v_,".",DEC2 therco_v,"
V",13,10] '' 16468 = N9600
DelayMS 10
' SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " Temperature_L: ",Dec temp_l_,".",DEC1 temp_l,13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " Temperature_L: ",Dec temp_l_," C",13,10]
DelayMS 10
' SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " Temperature_H: ",Dec temp_h_,".",DEC1 temp_h,13,10]
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " Temperature_H: ",Dec temp_h_," C",13,10]
DelayMS 10
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " DC charger_V : ",Dec dctodc_v_,".",DEC2 dctodc_v,"
V",13,10]
DelayMS 10
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " DC charger_C : ",Dec charge_c_," mA",13,10]
DelayMS 10
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " Battery_V : ",Dec battl_v_,".",DEC2 battl_v," V",13,10]
DelayMS 10
SerOut txdata_t,84, [ " load output_C: ",Dec load_c_," mA",13,10]
DelayMS 10
Return
''''' TIME DELAY
tdelay1: For i = 1 To 100

DelayMS 10 ' 10ms at a time so no interrupts are lost
Next i
Return

Next i
Return

Next i
Return
tickint: ticks = ticks + 1 ' Count pieces of seconds

If ticks < 61 Then tiexit '' 61 ticks per second (16.384ms per tick)
' One second elasped - update time
ticks = 0
If sec <> 0 Then sec = sec - 1 '' Tdelay seconds
second = second + 1
If second >= 60 Then
minutes = minutes + 1 '''''''''''''''''''''''''''

update_log = 1 '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
second = 0
minute = minute + 1
If minute >= 60 Then
minute = 0
hour = hour + 1
If hour >= 24 Then
hour = 0
day = day + 1
If day >= 7 Then
day = 0
EndIf
EndIf
EndIf
EndIf
update = 1 ' Set to update LCD
tiexit:
INTCON.2 = 0 ' Reset timer interrupt flag
Context Restore
End
Appendix C
Data Sheets
2N5457FS DATA SHEET
2N5457 / 5458 / 5459 / MMBF5457 / 5458 / 5459
2N5457 MMBF5457
2N5458 MMBF5458
2N5459 MMBF5459
S
G TO-92
SD SOT-23 D NOTE: Source & Drain
Mark: 6D / 61S / 6L are interchangeable
N-Channel General Purpose Amplifier

This device is a low level audio amplifier and switching transistors,
and can be used for analog switching applications. Sourced from
Process 55.
Absolute Maximum Ratings* TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted
Symbol Parameter Value Units

VDG Drain-Gate Voltage 25 V
VGS Gate-Source Voltage - 25 V
IGF Forward Gate Current 10 mA
TJ, Tstg Operating and Storage Junction Temperature Range -55 to +150 C
*These ratings are limiting values above which the serviceability of any semiconductor device may be impaired.
NOTES:
1) These ratings are based on a maximum junction temperature of 150 degrees C.
2) These are steady state limits. The factory should be consulted on applications involving pulsed or low duty cycle operations.
Thermal Characteristics TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted
Symbol Characteristic Max Units

2N5457-5459 *MMBF5457-5459
PD Total Device Dissipation 625 350 mW
Derate above 25C 5.0 2.8 mW/C
RJC Thermal Resistance, Junction to Case 125 C/W
RJA Thermal Resistance, Junction to Ambient 357 556 C/W
*Device mounted on FR-4 PCB 1.6" X 1.6" X 0.06."
1997 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation

N-Channel General Purpose Amplifier
(continued)
Electrical Characteristics TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted
Symbol Parameter Test Conditions Min Typ Max Units
OFF CHARACTERISTICS
V(BR)GSS Gate-Source Breakdown Voltage IG = 10 A, VDS = 0 - 25 V
IGSS Gate Reverse Current VGS = -15 V, VDS = 0 - 1.0 nA
VGS = -15 V, VDS = 0, TA = 100C - 200 nA
VGS(off) Gate-Source Cutoff Voltage VDS = 15 V, ID = 10 nA 5457 - 0.5 - 6.0 V
5458 - 1.0 - 7.0 V
5459 - 2.0 - 8.0 V
VGS Gate-Source Voltage VDS = 15 V, ID = 100 A 5457 - 2.5 V
VDS = 15 V, ID = 200 A 5458 - 3.5 V
VDS = 15 V, ID = 400 A 5459 - 4.5 V
ON CHARACTERISTICS
IDSS Zero-Gate Voltage Drain Current* VDS = 15 V, VGS = 0 5457 1.0 3.0 5.0 mA
5458 2.0 6.0 9.0 mA
5459 4.0 9.0 16 mA
SMALL SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS

gfs Forward Transfer Conductance* VDS = 15 V, VGS = 0, f = 1.0 kHz
5457 1000 5000 mhos
5458 1500 5500 mhos
5459 2000 6000 mhos
gos Output Conductance* VDS = 15 V, VGS = 0, f = 1.0 kHz 10 50 mhos
Ciss Input Capacitance VDS = 15 V, VGS = 0, f = 1.0 MHz 4.5 7.0 pF
Crss Reverse Transfer Capacitance VDS = 15 V, VGS = 0, f = 1.0 MHz 1.5 3.0 pF
NF Noise Figure VDS = 15 V, VGS = 0, f = 1.0 kHz, 3.0 dB
RG = 1.0 megohm, BW = 1.0 Hz
*Pulse Test: Pulse Width 300 ms, Duty Cycle 2%
Typical Characteristics
HC49SDLF -Resistance Weld SMD Crystal
DATA SHEET
Resistance Weld SMD Crystal
Model: HC49SDLF RoHS Compliant / Pb Free
http://www.foxonline.com/need_a_sample.htm
FEATURES OPTIONS
• Stock Standard (see page 2)• Tolerances to 10 PPM
• Fundamental to 40 MHz• Stabilities to 5 PPM
• Tape and Reel (1,000 pcs. STD) • Temperatures to -55ºC ~ +125ºC
• 3.2mm Height Max (HC49SSDLF) 10.3 Max
4.5 Max
• PART NUMBER Learn More - Internet Required

3.8 Max
Part Number Model Number Frequency Range (MHz)
278LF-Frequency-xxxxx HC49SDLF 3.200 ~ 80.000
• STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS1
PARAMETERS MAX (unless otherwise noted) 13.9 Max
Frequency Range 3.200 ~ 80.000 MHz
Frequency Tolerance @ 25ºC ±50 PPM 1,3 11.7 Max
Frequency Stability, ref @ 25ºC ±50 PPM 1
Temperature Range
5.0 Max
Operating(TOPR)
Storage(TSTG) -20ºC ~ +70ºC 2
0.75±0.35
Shunt Capacitance (Co) -40ºC ~ +125ºC
Load Capacitance(CL) 7pF
10 pF ~ Series
(Customer Specified) Recommended
100uW HC49SD Solder Pad Layout
Drive Level ±3 PPM 15.0±0.1
Aging per year 260ºC / 10 Seconds
Maximum Soldering Temp / Time 1 2.0±0.1
Moisture Sensitivity Level (MSL) Sn/Ag/Cu
Termination Finish: 4.0±0.1
1Other tolerances, stabilities available. Consult Fox Customer Service for specific requirements.
2Operating temperature ranges to -55ºC ~ +125ºC available.
3Crystal has a ±30ppm tolerance specification for all standard part numbers. These part numbers
are listed on page 2 of this datasheet. All dimensions are in millimeters.
TERMINATION FINISH: Sn/3.0Ag/0.5Cu
Note: Dimensional drawing is for reference to critical specifications defined by size measure¬ments.
Certain non-critical visual attributes, such as side castellations, etc. may vary.
All specifications subject to change without notice.
Frequency Range
(MHz)
Operating Mode Max ESR Ω
3.200 ~ 3.500 Fundamental 300
3.500+ ~ 4.000 Fundamental 200
4.000+ ~ 5.000 Fundamental 150
5.000+ ~ 6.000 Fundamental 120
6.000+ ~ 7.000 Fundamental 100
7.000+ ~ 9.000 Fundamental 80
9.000+ ~ 13.000 Fundamental 60
13.000+ ~ 20.000 Fundamental 40
20.000+ ~ 40.000 Fundamental 30
27.000 ~ 70.000 3rd OT 100
70.000+ ~ 80.000 3rd OT 80
Model: HC49SDLF RoHS Compliant / Pb Free
• FOX STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

PARAMETER HC49SDLF
Frequency Tolerance @ 25°C ±30PPM
Frequency Stability ±50PPM
Operating Temperature Range -20°C ~ +70°C
• HC49SDLF Standard Crystals

Frequency CL HC49SDLF Part Number ESR W Max
3.579545 18pF FOXSDLF/036S 200
3.686400 20pF FOXSDLF/0368-20 200
4.000000 20pF FOXSDLF/040 150
4.194304 12pF FOXSDLF/041 150
4.915200 20pF FOXSDLF/049-20 150
6.000000 20pF FOXSDLF/060-20 120
7.372800 20pF FOXSDLF/073-20 80
8.000000 20pF FOXSDLF/080-20 80
8.192000 20pF FOXSDLF/081-20 80
10.000000 20pF FOXSDLF/100-20 60
11.059200 20pF FOXSDLF/115-20 60
12.000000 20pF FOXSDLF/120-20 60
12.288000 20pF FOXSDLF/128-20 60
14.318180 20pF FOXSDLF/143-20 40
14.745600 20pF FOXSDLF/147-20 40
16.000000 20pF FOXSDLF/160-20 40
20.000000 20pF FOXSDLF/200-20 30
22.118400 20pF FOXSDLF/221-20 30
24.000000 20pF FOXSDLF/240F-20 (Fundamental) 30
• TAPE SPECIFICATIONS (millimeters) • REEL SPECIFICATIONS (millimeters)

GIJKLHMBCDEF STD Reel QTY MODELMODELA
HC49SDLF 2.0 ∅13 ∅21 ∅80 ∅330 25.5 2.01,000HC49SDLF ∅1.5 4.0 12.0 11.5 24.0 4.8
VN10KLS DATA SHEET
VN0610L, VN10KLS, VN2222L
Vishay Siliconix
N-Channel 60-V (D-S) MOSFETs with Zener Gate
PRODUCT SUMMARY
Part Number V(BR)DSS Min (V) rDS(on) Max (W) VGS(th) (V) ID (A)
VN0610L 5 @ VGS = 10 V 0.8 to 2.5 0.27
VN10KLS 60 5 @ VGS = 10 V 0.8 to 2.5 0.31
VN2222L 7.5 @ VGS = 10 V 0.6 to 2.5 0.23
FEATURES BENEFITS APPLICATIONS

D Zener Diode Input Protected D Extra ESD Protection D Drivers: Relays, Solenoids, Lamps, Hammers, Displays,
D Low On-Resistance: 3 W D Low Offset Voltage Memories, Transistors, etc.
D Ultralow Threshold: 1.2 V D Low-Voltage Operation D Battery Operated Systems
D Low Input Capacitance: 38 pF D High-Speed, Easily Driven D Solid-State Relays
D Low Input and Output Leakage D Low Error Voltage D Inductive Load Drivers
Device Marking
TO-226AA Front View TO-92S
(TO-92)
VN0610L
Device Marking
“S” VN Front View
S 1 0610L S 1
xxyy VN10KLS
“S” VN
G 2 VN2222L G 2 10KLS
xxyy
“S” VN
2222L
xxyy “S” = Siliconix Logo
D D xxyy = Date Code
3 3
“S” = Siliconix Logo

Top View xxyy = Date Code Top View
VN0610L VN10KLS
VN2222L
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS (TA = 25_C UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED)
VN2222L
Parameter Symbol VN0610L VN10KLS Unit
Drain-Source Voltage VDS 60 60
V
Gate-Source Voltage VGS 15/–0.3 15/–0.3
TA= 25_C 0.27 0.31

Continuous Drain Current (TJ = 150_C)_ ID
TA= 100_C 0.17 0.20 A
Pulsed Drain Current a IDM 1 1.0
TA= 25_C 0.8 0.9

Power Dissipation PD W
TA= 100_C 0.32 0.4
Thermal Resistance, Junction-to-Ambient RthJA 156 139 _C/W
Operating Junction and Storage Temperature Range TJ, Tstg –55 to 150 _C
Notes
a. Pulse width limited by maximum junction temperature.
Vishay Siliconix
SPECIFICATIONS (TA = 25_C UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED)
Limits
VN0610L
VN10KLS VN2222L
Parameter Symbol Test Conditions Typa Min Max Min Max Unit
Static
Drain-Source Breakdown Voltage V(BR)DSS VGS = 0 V, ID = 100 mA 120 60 60

V
Gate-Threshold Voltage VGS(th) VDS = VGS, ID = 1 mA 1.2 0.8 2.5 0.6 2.5
Gate-Body Leakage IGSS VDS = 0 V, VGS = 15 V 1 100 100 nA
VDS = 48 V, VGS = 0 V 10 10
Zero Gate Voltage Drain Current IDSS mAm
TJ = 125_C 500 500
On-State Drain Currentb ID(on) VDS = 10 V, VGS = 10 V 1 0.75 0.75 A
VGS = 5 V, ID = 0.2 A 4 7.5 7.5
Drain-Source On-Resistanceb rDS(on) VGS = 10 V, ID = 0.5 A 3 5 7.5 W
TJ = 125_C 5.6 9 13.5
Forward Transconductanceb gfs VDS = 10 V, ID = 0.5 A 300 100 100

mS
Common Source Output Conductanceb gos VDS = 7.5 V, ID = 0.05 A 0.2
Dynamic
Input Capacitance Ciss 38 60 60
Output Capacitance Coss VDS = 25 V, VGS = 0 V, f = 1 MHz 16 25 25 pF
Reverse Transfer Capacitance Crss 2 5 5
Switchingc
Turn-On Time tON VDD = 15 V, RL = 23 W 7 10 10

ID ^ 0.6 A, VGEN = 10 V ns
Turn-Off Time tOFF RG = 25 W 9 10 10
Notes
a. For DESIGN AID ONLY, not subject to production testing. VNDP06
b. Pulse test: PW v300 ms duty cycle v2%.
c. Switching time is essentially independent of operating temperature.
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Vishay Siliconix
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS (TA = 25_C UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED)
Ohmic Region Characteristics Output Characteristics for Low Gate Drive

50 1.0
6V
VGS = 2.0 V
5V
40 0.8
VGS = 10 V
ID – Drain 1.9 V
Current (mA) ID – Drain
30 Current0.6
(A)
1.8 V 4V
20 1.6 V 0.4
1.5 V 3V
10 1.4 V 0.2
1.2 V 2V
0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 0 1 2 3 4 5
VDS – Drain-to-Source Voltage (V) VDS – Drain-to-Source Voltage (V)
Transfer Characteristics On-Resistance vs. Gate-to-Source Voltage

0.5 7
VDS = 15 V
6
0.4
TJ = –55_C rDS(on) – On-
Resistance 5( 
ID – Drain 25_C
Current0.3
(A)
4 250 mA
125_C
3 500 mA
0.2
ID = 50 mA
2
0.1
1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 4 8 12 16 20
VGS – Gate-Source Voltage (V) VGS – Gate-Source Voltage (V)
Normalized On-Resistance
On-Resistance vs. Drain Current vs. Junction Temperature
5 2.25
rDS(on) – Drain- VGS = 10 V
Source On-
rDS(on) – Drain- 2.00
Resistance ( 
Source On-4

Resistance ( 

1.75
VGS = 10 V
3
1.50 ID = 0.5 A
0.1 A
1.25
2
1.00
1
0.75
0 0.50
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 –50 –10 30 70 110 150
ID – Drain Current (A) TJ – Junction Temperature (_C)
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Vishay Siliconix
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS (TA = 25_C UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED)
Threshold Region Capacitance

10 100
VGS = 0 V
f = 1 MHz
80
ID – Drain
Current (mA)
1 C – Capacitance
TJ = 150_C (pF)
60
0_C
100_C Ciss
40
0.1 25_C
Coss
20
Crss
–55_C
0.01 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 0 10 20 30 40 50
VGS – Gate-to-Source Voltage (V) VDS – Drain-to-Source Voltage (V)
Gate Charge Load Condition Effects on Switching

15.0 100
ID = 0.5 A VDD = 15 V
RL = 25 W
12.5 VGS = 0 to 10 V
VGS – Gate-to-
Source Voltage VDS = 30 V
(V) t – Switching
10.0
Time (ns)
7.5 10 td(off)
tf
5.0
48 V td(on)
2.5
tr
0 1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0.1 0.5 1.0
Qg – Total Gate Charge (pC) ID – Drain Current (A)
Normalized Effective Transient Thermal Impedance, Junction-to-Ambient (TO-226AA)

1
Duty Cycle = 0.5
Normalized
0.2
Effective Transient
Thermal
Impedance 0.1 Notes:
0.05 PDM
0.1
0.02
t1
t2
1. Duty Cycle, D = t1
t2
0.01 2. Per Unit Base = RthJA = 156_C/W
3. TJM – TA = PDMZthJA(t)
Single Pulse
0.01
0.1 1 10 100 1K 10 K
t1 – Square Wave Pulse Duration (sec)

Absolute Maximum Ratings (Note 10) TO-92 and TO-220 Package,
(Soldering, 10 seconds)260˚C
If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required, SO Package (Note 12)
please contact the National Semiconductor Sales Office/ Vapor Phase (60 seconds)215˚C
Distributors for availability and specifications. Infrared (15 seconds)220˚C
ESD Susceptibility (Note 11)2500V
Supply Voltage +35V to −0.2V Specified Operating Temperature Range: TMIN to T MAX
Output Voltage +6V to −1.0V (Note 2)
Output Current 10 mA LM35, LM35A−55˚C to +150˚C
Storage Temp.; LM35C, LM35CA−40˚C to +110˚C
TO-46 Package, LM35D0˚C to +100˚C
TO-92 Package,
SO-8 Package, −60˚C to +180˚C
TO-220 Package, −60˚C to +150˚C
Lead Temp.: −65˚C to +150˚C
TO-46 Package, −65˚C to +150˚C
(Soldering, 10 seconds)
300˚C
Electrical Characteristics
(Notes 1, 6)
LM35A LM35CA
Parameter Conditions Tested Design Tested Design Units
Typical Limit Limit Typical Limit Limit (Max.)
(Note 4) (Note 5) (Note 4) (Note 5)
Accuracy T A =+25˚C ± 0.2 ± 0.5 ± 0.2 ± 0.5 ˚C
(Note 7) T A =−10˚C
± 0.3 ± 0.3 ± 1.0 ˚C
± 0.4 ± 0.4
T A =TMAX ± 0.4 ± 1.0 ± 0.4 ± 1.0 ˚C
T A =TMIN ± 0.18 ± 1.0 ± 0.15 ± 1.5 ˚C
Nonlinearity T MINAMAX ± 0.35 ± 0.3 ˚C
(Note 8)
Sensor Gain T MINAMAX +10.0 +9.9, +10.0 +9.9, mV/˚C
(Average Slope) +10.1 +10.1
Load Regulation T A =+25˚C ± 0.4 ± 1.0 ± 0.4 ± 1.0 mV/mA
(Note 3) 0≤ILmA T MINAMAX ± 0.5 ± 3.0 ± 0.5 ± 3.0 mV/mA
± 0.01 ± 0.01
Line Regulation T A =+25˚C ± 0.02 ± 0.05 ± 0.02 ± 0.05 mV/V
(Note 3) 4V≤V S ± 0.1 ± 0.1 mV/V
Quiescent Current V S =+5V, +25˚C 56 67 56 67 µA
(Note 9) V S =+5V 105 131 91 114 µA
V S =+30V, +25˚C 56.2 68 56.2 68 µA
V S =+30V 105.5 133 91.5 116 µA
Change of 4V≤VS+25˚C 0.2 1.0 0.2 1.0 µA
Quiescent Current 4V≤V S 0.5 2.0 0.5 2.0 µA
(Note 3)
Temperature +0.39 +0.5 +0.39 +0.5 µA/˚C
Coefficient of
Quiescent Current
Minimum Temperature In circuit of +1.5 +2.0 +1.5 +2.0 ˚C
for Rated Accuracy Figure 1, IL =0
Long Term Stability T J =TMAX, for ± 0.08 ± 0.08 ˚C
1000 hours
LM35
Electrical Characteristics
(Notes 1, 6)
LM35 LM35C, LM35D
Parameter Conditions Tested Design Tested Design Units
Typical Limit Limit Typical Limit Limit (Max.)
(Note 4) (Note 5) (Note 4) (Note 5)
Accuracy, T A =+25˚C ± 0.4 ± 1.0 ± 0.4 ± 1.0 ˚C
LM35, LM35C T A =−10˚C
± 0.5 ± 0.5 ± 1.5 ˚C
± 0.8 ± 0.8 ± 1.5
(Note 7) T A =TMAX ± 0.8 ± 1.5 ± 0.8 ˚C
± 2.0
T A =TMIN ± 1.5 ± 0.6 ˚C
± 0.9
Accuracy, LM35D T A =+25˚C ± 1.5 ˚C
± 0.9
(Note 7)
TA =TMAX ± 0.2 ± 2.0 ˚C
TA =TMIN
± 2.0 ˚C
± 0.5
Nonlinearity T MINAMAX ± 0.3 ± 0.5 ˚C
(Note 8)
Sensor Gain T MINAMAX +10.0 +9.8, +10.0 +9.8, mV/˚C
(Average Slope) +10.2 +10.2
Load Regulation T A =+25˚C ± 0.4 ± 2.0 ± 0.4 ± 2.0 mV/mA
(Note 3) 0≤ILmA T MINAMAX ± 0.5 ± 5.0 ± 0.5 ± 5.0 mV/mA
± 0.01 ± 0.01
Line Regulation T A =+25˚C ± 0.02 ± 0.1 ± 0.02 ± 0.1 mV/V
(Note 3) 4V≤V S ± 0.2 ± 0.2 mV/V
Quiescent Current V S =+5V, +25˚C 56 80 56 80 µA
(Note 9) V S =+5V 105 158 91 138 µA
V S =+30V, +25˚C 56.2 82 56.2 82 µA
V S =+30V 105.5 161 91.5 141 µA
Change of 4V≤VS+25˚C 0.2 2.0 0.2 2.0 µA
Quiescent Current 4V≤V S 0.5 3.0 0.5 3.0 µA
(Note 3)
Temperature +0.39 +0.7 +0.39 +0.7 µA/˚C
Coefficient of
Quiescent Current
Minimum Temperature In circuit of +1.5 +2.0 +1.5 +2.0 ˚C
for Rated Accuracy Figure 1, IL =0
Long Term Stability T J =TMAX, for ± 0.08 ± 0.08 ˚C
1000 hours
Note 1: Unless otherwise noted, these specifications apply: −55˚C≤T Jfor the LM35 and LM35A; −40˚≤T Jfor the LM35C and LM35CA; and
0˚≤TJfor the LM35D. VS =+5Vdc and ILOAD =50 µA, in the circuit of Figure 2. These specifications also apply from +2˚C to TMAX in the circuit of Figure 1.
Specifications in boldface apply over the full rated temperature range.
Note 2: Thermal resistance of the TO-46 package is 400˚C/W, junction to ambient, and 24˚C/W junction to case. Thermal resistance of the TO-92 package is
180˚C/W junction to ambient. Thermal resistance of the small outline molded package is 220˚C/W junction to ambient. Thermal resistance of the TO-220 package
is 90˚C/W junction to ambient. For additional thermal resistance information see table in the Applications section.
Note 3: Regulation is measured at constant junction temperature, using pulse testing with a low duty cycle. Changes in output due to heating effects can be
computed by multiplying the internal dissipation by the thermal resistance.
Note 4: Tested Limits are guaranteed and 100% tested in production.

Note 5: Design Limits are guaranteed (but not 100% production tested) over the indicated temperature and supply voltage ranges. These limits are not used to
calculate outgoing quality levels.
Note 6: Specifications in boldface apply over the full rated temperature range.
Note 7: Accuracy is defined as the error between the output voltage and 10mv/˚C times the device’s case temperature, at specified conditions of voltage, current,
and temperature (expressed in ˚C).
Note 8: Nonlinearity is defined as the deviation of the output-voltage-versus-temperature curve from the best-fit straight line, over the device’s rated temperature
range.
Note 9: Quiescent current is defined in the circuit of Figure 1.

Note 10: Absolute Maximum Ratings indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may occur. DC and AC electrical specifications do not apply when operating
the device beyond its rated operating conditions. See Note 1.
Note 11: Human body model, 100 pF discharged through a 1.5 kΩ resistor.
Note 12: See AN-450 “Surface Mounting Methods and Their Effect on Product Reliability” or the section titled “Surface Mount” found in a current National
Semiconductor Linear Data Book for other methods of soldering surface mount devices.
www.national.com
LM35
Typical Performance Characteristics
Thermal Resistance Thermal Time Constant Thermal Response
Junction to Air in Still Air
DS005516-26
DS005516-25 DS005516-27
Thermal Response in Minimum Supply Quiescent Current

Stirred Oil Bath Voltage vs. Temperature vs. Temperature
(In Circuit of Figure 1.)
DS005516-29
DS005516-28
DS005516-30
Quiescent Current Accuracy vs. Temperature Accuracy vs. Temperature

vs. Temperature (Guaranteed) (Guaranteed)
(In Circuit of Figure 2.)
DS005516-33
DS005516-32
DS005516-31
LM35
Typical Performance Characteristics (Continued)
Noise Voltage Start-Up Response
DS005516-34 DS005516-35
Applications The TO-46 metal package can also be soldered to a metal

surface or pipe without damage. Of course, in that case the
The LM35 can be applied easily in the same way as other V− terminal of the circuit will be grounded to that metal.
integrated-circuit temperature sensors. It can be glued or Alternatively, the LM35 can be mounted inside a sealed-end
cemented to a surface and its temperature will be within metal tube, and can then be dipped into a bath or screwed
about 0.01˚C of the surface temperature. into a threaded hole in a tank. As with any IC, the LM35 and
This presumes that the ambient air temperature is almost the accompanying wiring and circuits must be kept insulated and
same as the surface temperature; if the air temperature were dry, to avoid leakage and corrosion. This is especially true if
much higher or lower than the surface temperature, the the circuit may operate at cold temperatures where conden-
actual temperature of the LM35 die would be at an interme- sation can occur. Printed-circuit coatings and varnishes such
diate temperature between the surface temperature and the as Humiseal and epoxy paints or dips are often used to
air temperature. This is expecially true for the TO-92 plastic insure that moisture cannot corrode the LM35 or its connec-
package, where the copper leads are the principal thermal tions.
path to carry heat into the device, so its temperature might These devices are sometimes soldered to a small
be closer to the air temperature than to the surface tempera- light-weight heat fin, to decrease the thermal time constant
ture. and speed up the response in slowly-moving air. On the
To minimize this problem, be sure that the wiring to the other hand, a small thermal mass may be added to the
LM35, as it leaves the device, is held at the same tempera- sensor, to give the steadiest reading despite small deviations
ture as the surface of interest. The easiest way to do this is in the air temperature.
to cover up these wires with a bead of epoxy which will
insure that the leads and wires are all at the same tempera-
ture as the surface, and that the LM35 die’s temperature will
not be affected by the air temperature.
Temperature Rise of LM35 Due To Self-heating (Thermal Resistance,θJA)

TO-46, TO-46*, TO-92, TO-92**, SO-8 SO-8** TO-220
no heat small heat fin no heat small heat fin no heat small heat fin no heat
sink sink sink sink
Still air 400˚C/W 100˚C/W 180˚C/W 140˚C/W 220˚C/W 110˚C/W 90˚C/W
Moving air 100˚C/W 40˚C/W 90˚C/W 70˚C/W 105˚C/W 90˚C/W 26˚C/W
Still oil 100˚C/W 40˚C/W 90˚C/W 70˚C/W
Stirred oil 50˚C/W 30˚C/W 45˚C/W 40˚C/W
(Clamped to metal,
Infinite heat sink) (24˚C/W) (55˚C/W)
*Wakefield type 201, or 1" disc of 0.020" sheet brass, soldered to case, or similar.
**TO-92 and SO-8 packages glued and leads soldered to 1" square of 1/16" printed circuit board with 2 oz. foil or similar.
Typical Applications LM35
DS005516-19
FIGURE 3. LM35 with Decoupling from Capacitive Load
DS005516-6
FIGURE 6. Two-Wire Remote Temperature Sensor

(Output Referred to Ground)
DS005516-20
FIGURE 4. LM35 with R-C Damper
CAPACITIVE LOADS
Like most micropower circuits, the LM35 has a limited ability
to drive heavy capacitive loads. The LM35 by itself is able to
drive 50 pf without special precautions. If heavier loads are
anticipated, it is easy to isolate or decouple the load with a
resistor; see Figure 3. Or you can improve the tolerance of
capacitance with a series R-C damper from output to
ground; see Figure 4.
When the LM35 is applied with a 200Ω load resistor as
shown in Figure 5, Figure 6 or Figure 8 it is relatively immune
to wiring capacitance because the capacitance forms a by- DS005516-7
pass from ground to input, not on the output. However, as
with any linear circuit connected to wires in a hostile envi- FIGURE 7. Temperature Sensor, Single Supply, −55˚ to
ronment, its performance can be affected adversely by in- +150˚C
tense electromagnetic sources such as relays, radio trans-
mitters, motors with arcing brushes, SCR transients, etc, as
its wiring can act as a receiving antenna and its internal
junctions can act as rectifiers. For best results in such cases,
a bypass capacitor from V IN to ground and a series R-C
damper such as 75Ω in series with 0.2 or 1 µF from output to
ground are often useful. These are shown in Figure 13,
Figure 14, and Figure 16.
DS005516-8

(Output Referred to Ground)
DS005516-5

(Grounded Sensor)
DS005516-9
FIGURE 9. 4-To-20 mA Current Source (0˚C to +100˚C)

LM35
Typical Applications (Continued)
DS005516-11
FIGURE 11. Centigrade Thermometer (Analog Meter)
DS005516-10
FIGURE 10. Fahrenheit Thermometer
DS005516-12
FIGURE 12. Fahrenheit ThermometerExpanded Scale

Thermometer
(50˚ to 80˚ Fahrenheit, for Example Shown)
DS005516-13
FIGURE 13. Temperature To Digital Converter (Serial Output) (+128˚C Full Scale)
DS005516-14
FIGURE 14. Temperature To Digital Converter (Parallel TRI-STATE™ Outputs for

Standard Data Bus to µP Interface) (128˚C Full Scale)
Typical Applications LM35
DS005516-16
* =1% or 2% film resistor

Trim RB for VB =3.075V
Trim RC for VC =1.955V
Trim RA for VA =0.075V + 100mV/˚C x Tambient
Example, VA =2.275V at 22˚C
FIGURE 15. Bar-Graph Temperature Display (Dot Mode)
DS005516-15
FIGURE 16. LM35 With Voltage-To-Frequency Converter And Isolated Output

(2˚C to +150˚C; 20 Hz to 1500 Hz)
LM35
Block Diagram
DS005516-23
Physical Dimensions inches (millimeters) unless otherwise noted
LM35
TO-46 Metal Can Package (H)

Order Number LM35H, LM35AH, LM35CH,
LM35CAH, or LM35DH
NS Package Number H03H
SO-8 Molded Small Outline Package (M)

Order Number LM35DM
NS Package Number M08A
PIC16F87XA
Data Sheet
PIC16F87XA
28/40/44-Pin Enhanced Flash Microcontrollers
Devices Included in this Data Sheet: Analog Features:

• PIC16F873A • PIC16F876A • 10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital
• PIC16F874A • PIC16F877A Converter (A/D)
• Brown-out Reset (BOR)
• Analog Comparator module with:
High-Performance RISC CPU: - Two analog comparators
- Programmable on-chip voltage reference
• Only 35 single-word instructions to learn (VREF) module
• All single-cycle instructions except for program - Programmable input multiplexing from device
branches, which are two-cycle inputs and internal voltage reference
• Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input - Comparator outputs are externally accessible
DC – 200 ns instruction cycle
• Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory,
Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM),
Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory
• Pinout compatible to other 28-pin or 40/44-pin Special Microcontroller Features:
PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX microcontrollers
• 100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash
program memory typical
• 1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM
memory typical
Peripheral Features: • Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years
• Self-reprogrammable under software control
• Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler • In-Circuit Serial Programming™ (ICSP™)
• Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, via two pins
can be incremented during Sleep via external • Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming
crystal/clock • Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC
• Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period oscillator for reliable operation
register, prescaler and postscaler • Programmable code protection
• Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules • Power saving Sleep mode
- Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns • Selectable oscillator options
- Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns • In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins
- PWM max. resolution is 10-bit
• Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™
(Master mode) and I2C™ (Master/Slave)
• Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver
Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address
detection
• Parallel Slave Port (PSP) – 8 bits wide with CMOS Technology:
external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-pin only)
• Brown-out detection circuitry for • Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM
Brown-out Reset (BOR) technology
• Fully static design
• Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V)
• Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges
• Low-power consumption
MSSP
Data
EEPROM10-bitCCPTimers
Device
# Single Word SRAM (Bytes) I/O A/D (ch) (PWM)Master USART 8/16-bit Comparators
BytesSPIInstructions (Bytes)I2C
PIC16F873A 7.2K 4096 192 128 22 5 2 Yes Yes Yes 2/1 2

PIC16F87XA
Pin Diagrams
28-Pin PDIP, SOIC, SSOP
MCLR/VPP 1 28 RB7/PGD
RA0/AN0 2 27 RB6/PGC
RA1/AN1 3 26 RB5
RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF 4 25 RB4
RA3/AN3/VREF+ 5 PIC16F87324 RB3/PGM
6 23 RB2
RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT
7 A/876A 22 RB1
RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT
VSS 8 21 RB0/INT
OSC1/CLKI 9 20 VDD
OSC2/CLKO 10 19 VSS
RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI 11 18 RC7/RX/DT
RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 12 17 RC6/TX/CK
RC2/CCP1 13 16 RC5/SDO
RC3/SCK/SCL 14 15 RC4/SDI/SDA
RA1/AN1RA0/AN0MCLR/VPPRB7/P
GDRB6/PGCRB5RB4
28-Pin QFN
28272625242322
RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF 1 21 RB3/PGM
RA3/AN3/VREF+ 2 20 RB2
RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT 3 19 RB1
RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT 4 PIC16F873A 18 RB0/INT
VSS 5 17
OSC1/CLKI 6 PIC16F876A 16
VDD
VSS
OSC2/CLKO 7 15 RC7/RX/DT
891011121314
RC0/T1OSO/T1CKIRC1/T1OSI/CCP
2RC2/CCP1RC3/SCK/SCLRC4/SDI/
RC6/TX/CKRC5/SDORC4/SDI/SDARD3/PSP3
SDARC5/SDORC6/TX/CK
44-Pin QFN RD2/PSP2RD1/PSP1RD0/PSP0RC3/SCK/SCLR
C2/CCP1RC1/T1OSI/CCP2RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI
4443424140393837363534
RC7/RX/DT 1 33 OSC2/CLKO
RD4/PSP4 2 32 OSC1/CLKI
RD5/PSP5 3 31 VSS
RD6/PSP6 4 30 VSS
RD7/PSP7 5 29 VDD
VSS 6 PIC16F874A 28 VDD
RE2/CS/AN7
VDD
VDD
7
8
PIC16F877A 27
RE1/WR/AN6
26
RB0/INT 9 25 RE0/RD/AN5
RB1 10 24 RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT
RB2 11 23 RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT
1213141516171819202122
RB3/PGMNCRB4RB5RB6/PGCRB7/PGDMCL
R/VPPRA0/AN0RA1/AN1RA2/AN2/VREF-
/CVREFRA3/AN3/VREF+
PIC16F87XA
Pin Diagrams (Continued)
40-Pin PDIP
MCLR/VPP 1 40 RB7/PGD
RA0/AN0 2 39 RB6/PGC
RA1/AN1 3 38 RB5
RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF 4 37 RB4
RA3/AN3/VREF+ 5 36 RB3/PGM
RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT 6 35 RB2
RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT 7 34 RB1
RE0/RD/AN5 8 33 RB0/INT
RE1/WR/AN6 9 PIC16F874
32 VDD
RE2/CS/AN7 10 A/877A
31 VSS
VDD 11 30 RD7/PSP7
VSS 12 29 RD6/PSP6
OSC1/CLKI 13 28 RD5/PSP5
OSC2/CLKO 14 27 RD4/PSP4
RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI 15 26 RC7/RX/DT
RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 16 25 RC6/TX/CK
RC2/CCP1 17 24 RC5/SDO RA3/AN3/VREF+RA2/AN2/VREF-
RC3/SCK/SCL 18 23 RC4/SDI/SDA /CVREFRA1/AN1RA0/AN0MCLR/VPPNCR
RD0/PSP0 19 22 RD3/PSP3 B7/PGDRB6/PGCRB5RB4NC
RD1/PSP1 20 21 RD2/PSP2
44-Pin PLCC
6543214443424140
RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT 39 RB3/PGM
7
RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT 38 RB2
8
RE0/RD/AN5 37 RB1
9
RE1/WR/AN6 36 RB0/INT
10
RE2/CS/AN7 35
VDD
11 PIC16F874A 34
VDD
12 VSS
VSS
13
PIC16F877A 33 RD7/PSP7
OSC1/CLKI 32 RD6/PSP6
14
OSC2/CLKO 31 RD5/PSP5
15
RC0/T1OSO/T1CK1 30 RD4/PSP4
16
NC 9 RC7/RX/DT
17
18192021222324252627282
RC6/TX/CKRC5/SDORC4/SDI/SDARD3/PSP3
RD2/PSP2RD1/PSP1RD0/PSP0RC3/SCK/SCLR
C2/CCP1RC1/T1OSI/CCP2NC
RC1/T1OSI/CCP2RC2/CCP1RC3/SCK/SCL
RD0/PSP0RD1/PSP1RD2/PSP2RD3/PSP3RC
4/SDI/SDARC5/SDORC6/TX/CKNC
44-Pin TQFP
4443424140393837363534
RC7/RX/DT 1 33 NC
RD4/PSP4 2 32 RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI
RD5/PSP5 3 31 OSC2/CLKO
RD6/PSP6 4 30 OSC1/CLKI
RD7/PSP7 5 29 VSS
VSS 6 PIC16F874A 28 VDD
VDD 7 PIC16F877A 27 RE2/CS/AN7
RB0/INT 8 26 RE1/WR/AN6
RB1 9 25 RE0/RD/AN5
RB2 10 24 RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT
RB3/PGM 11 23 RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT
1213141516171819202122
NCNCRB4RB5RB6/PGCRB7/PGDMCLR/VPP
RA0/AN0RA1/AN1RA2/AN2/VREF-
/CVREFRA3/AN3/VREF+
PIC16F87XA
This document contains device specific information
about the following devices:
• PIC16F873A
• PIC16F874A
• PIC16F876A
The available features are summarized in Table 1-1.
• PIC16F877A DEVICE OVERVIEW Block diagrams of the PIC16F873A/876A and
PIC16F874A/877A devices are provided in Figure 1-1
PIC16F873A/876A devices are available only in 28-pin and Figure 1-2, respectively. The pinouts for these
packages, while PIC16F874A/877A devices are avail- device families are listed in Table 1-2 and Table 1-3.
able in 40-pin and 44-pin packages. All devices in the
PIC16F87XA family share common architecture with Additional information may be found in the PICmicro®
the following differences: Mid-Range Reference Manual (DS33023), which may
be obtained from your local Microchip Sales Represen-
• The PIC16F873A and PIC16F874A have one-half tative or downloaded from the Microchip web site. The
of the total on-chip memory of the PIC16F876A Reference Manual should be considered a complemen-
and PIC16F877A tary document to this data sheet and is highly recom-
• The 28-pin devices have three I/O ports, while the mended reading for a better understanding of the device
40/44-pin devices have five architecture and operation of the peripheral modules.
• The 28-pin devices have fourteen interrupts, while
the 40/44-pin devices have fifteen
• The 28-pin devices have five A/D input channels,
while the 40/44-pin devices have eight
• The Parallel Slave Port is implemented only on
the 40/44-pin devices
TABLE 1-1: PIC16F87XA DEVICE FEATURES

Key Features PIC16F873A PIC16F874A PIC16F876A PIC16F877A
Operating Frequency DC – 20 MHz DC – 20 MHz DC – 20 MHz DC – 20 MHz
Resets (and Delays) POR, BOR POR, BOR POR, BOR POR, BOR
(PWRT, OST) (PWRT, OST) (PWRT, OST) (PWRT, OST)
Flash Program Memory 4K 4K 8K 8K
(14-bit words)
Data Memory (bytes) 192 192 368 368
EEPROM Data Memory (bytes) 128 128 256 256
Interrupts 14 15 14 15
I/O Ports Ports A, B, C Ports A, B, C, D, E Ports A, B, C Ports A, B, C, D, E
Timers 3 3 3 3
Capture/Compare/PWM modules 2 2 2 2
Serial Communications MSSP, USART MSSP, USART MSSP, USART MSSP, USART
Parallel Communications — PSP — PSP
10-bit Analog-to-Digital Module 5 input channels 8 input channels 5 input channels 8 input channels
Analog Comparators 2 2 2 2
Instruction Set 35 Instructions 35 Instructions 35 Instructions 35 Instructions
Packages 28-pin PDIP 40-pin PDIP 28-pin PDIP 40-pin PDIP
28-pin SOIC 44-pin PLCC 28-pin SOIC 44-pin PLCC
28-pin SSOP 44-pin TQFP 28-pin SSOP 44-pin TQFP
28-pin QFN 44-pin QFN 28-pin QFN 44-pin QFN
PIC16F87XA
DC AND AC CHARACTERISTICS GRAPHS AND TABLES
Note: The graphs and tables provided following this note are a statistical summary based on a limited number of
samples and are provided for informational purposes only. The performance characteristics listed herein
are not tested or guaranteed. In some graphs or tables, the data presented may be outside the specified
operating range (e.g., outside specified power supply range) and therefore, outside the warranted range.
“Typical” represents the mean of the distribution at 25°C. “Maximum” or “minimum” represents (mean + 3σ) or (mean – 3σ)
respectively, where is a standard deviation, over the whole temperature range.
TYPICAL IDD vs. FOSC OVER VDD (HS MODE)

7
Typical:statistical mean @ 25°C

Maximum: mean + 3σ (-40°C to +125°C)
6
Minimum: mean – 3σ (-40°C to +125°C)
5.5V
5 5.0V
4.5V
4
IDD (mA)
4.0V
3 3.5V
3.0V
2
2.5V
2.0V
0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
FOSC (MHz)
MAXIMUM IDD vs. FOSC OVER VDD (HS MODE)

8

7
5.5V
6
5.0V
4.5V
5
IDD (mA) 4.0V
4
3.5V
3.0V
3
2.5V
2 2.0V
0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
FOSC (MHz)
2003 Microchip Technology Inc.

PIC16F87XA
TYPICAL IDD vs. FOSC OVER VDD (XT MODE)
1.8

1.6
5.5V
1.4
5.0V
1.2 4.5V
4.0V
IDD 1.0
(mA)
3.5V
0.8
3.0V
2.5V
0.6
2.0V
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
FOSC (MHz)
MAXIMUM IDD vs. FOSC OVER VDD (XT MODE)
2.5

2.0
5.5V
5.0V
1.5
4.5V
IDD (mA)
4.0V
3.5V
1.0
3.0V
2.5V
2.0V
0.5
0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
FOSC (MHz)

PIC16F87XA
TYPICAL IDD vs. FOSC OVER VDD (LP MODE)
70

60 Minimum: mean – 3σ (-40°C to +125°C)
5.5V
50 5.0V
4.5V
40
IDD (uA) 4.0V
3.5V
30
3.0V
2.5V
20
2.0V
10
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FOSC (kHz)
MAXIMUM IDD vs. FOSC OVER VDD (LP MODE)
120
Typical:statistical mean @ 25°C 5.5V

100
5.0V
4.5V
80
4.0V
IDD (uA)
60 3.5V
3.0V
2.5V
40
2.0V
20
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FOSC (kHz)

PIC16F87XA
AVERAGE FOSC vs. VDD FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF R (RC MODE, C = 20 pF, +25°C)
4.5
Operation above 4 MHz is not recommended

4.0
5.1 kOhm
3.5
3.0
Freq2.5
(MHz)
10 kOhm
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
100 kOhm
0.0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)
AVERAGE FOSC vs. VDD FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF R

(RC MODE, C = 100 pF, +25°C)
2.5
2.0
3.3 kOhm
1.5
Freq (MHz) 5.1 kOhm
1.0
10 kOhm
0.5
100 kOhm
0.0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)

PIC16F87XA
AVERAGE FOSC vs. VDD FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF R
(RC MODE, C = 300 pF, +25°C)
0.9
0.8
3.3 kOhm
0.7
0.6
5.1 kOhm
Freq0.5
(MHz)
0.4
10 kOhm
0.3
0.2
0.1
100 kOhm
0.0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)
IPD vs. VDD, -40°C TO +125°C (SLEEP MODE, ALL PERIPHERALS DISABLED)
100
Max (125°C)
10
Max (85°C)
IPD (uA)
0.1
0.01
Typ (25°C) Typical:statistical mean @ 25°C

0.001
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)

PIC16F87XA
TYPICAL AND MAXIMUM TMR1 vs. VDD OVER TEMPERATURE (-10°C TO +70°C,
TIMER1 WITH OSCILLATOR, XTAL = 32 kHz, C1 AND C2 = 47 pF)
14

12
Max (+70°C)Max (70C)

10
8
IPD (uA)(µA)
Typ (+25°C)Typ (25C)
0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)
TYPICAL AND MAXIMUM WDT vs. VDD OVER TEMPERATURE (WDT ENABLED)
100

Max (+125°C)
10
Max (+85°C)
IPD (uA)
Typ (+25°C)
0.1
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)

PIC16F87XA
BOR vs. VDD OVER TEMPERATURE
1,000
Max (125°C)
Typ (25°C)
Device in
Indeterminant Sleep
State
Device in
Reset
IDD (A)
100
Note: Device current in Reset

depends on oscillator mode, Max (125°C)
frequency and circuit.
Typical: statistical mean @ 25°C

Typ (25°C)
10
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)
TYPICAL, MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM WDT PERIOD vs. VDD (-40°C TO +125°C)
50
45
40
35
Max
(125°C)
WDT30 Period
(ms)
25
Typ
(25°C)
20
Min
15 (-40°C)
10
0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)

PIC16F87XA
FIGURE 18-15: AVERAGE WDT PERIOD vs. VDD OVER TEMPERATURE (-40°C TO +125°C)
50
45
40
125°C
35
85°C
WDT30 Period
(ms)
25°C
25
20
-40°C
15
10
0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)
FIGURE 18-16: TYPICAL, MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VOH vs. IOH (VDD = 5V, -40°C TO +125°C)
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
Max
3.5
Typ (25°C)
VOH3.0
(V)
2.5
Min
2.0

1.5 Maximum: mean + 3σ (-40°C to +125°C)
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
IOH (-mA)

PIC16F87XA
FIGURE 18-17: TYPICAL, MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VOH vs. IOH (VDD = 3V, -40°C TO +125°C)
3.5

2.5
Max
2.0
VOH (V)
Typ (25°C)
1.5
Min
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
IOH (-mA)
TYPICAL, MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VOL vs. IOL (VDD = 5V, -40°C TO +125°C)
1.0
0.9
Max (125°C)
0.7
0.6 Max (85°C)
VOL (V)
0.5
Typ (25°C)
0.4
0.3
Min (-40°C)
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
IOL (-mA)

PIC16F87XA
TYPICAL, MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VOL vs. IOL (VDD = 3V, -40°C TO +125°C)
3.0
Max (125°C)
2.5 Typical: statistical mean @ 25°C

2.0
VOL (V)
1.5
Max (85°C)
1.0
Typ (25°C)
0.5
Min (-40°C)
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
IOL (-mA)
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VIN vs. VDD (TTL INPUT, -40°C TO +125°C)
1.5
1.4
1.3
VTH Max (-40°C)
1.2
1.1
VTH Typ (25°C)
VIN (V)
1.0
0.9 VTH Min (125°C)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)

MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VIN vs. VDD (ST INPUT, -40°C TO +125°C)
PIC16F87XA
4.0

3.5
VIH Max (125°C)

3.0
2.5
VIH Min (-40°C)

VIN (V)
2.0
VIL Max (-40°C)
1.5
1.0 VIL Min (125°C)
0.5
0.0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VIN vs. VDD (I2C INPUT, -40°C TO +125°C)
3.5
VIH Max
2.5
2.0
VIL MaxVIL Max
VIN (V)
VIH Min
1.5
1.0
VIL Min
0.5
0.0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
VDD (V)

PIC16F87XA
APPENDIX A: REVISION HISTORY APPENDIX B: DEVICE
DIFFERENCES
Revision A (November 2001)
The differences between the devices in this data sheet
Original data sheet for PIC16F87XA devices. The are listed in Table B-1.
devices presented are enhanced versions of the
PIC16F87X microcontrollers discussed in the
“PIC16F87X Data Sheet” (DS30292).
Revision B (October 2003)

This revision includes the DC and AC Characteristics
Graphs and Tables. The Electrical Specifications in
Section 17.0 “Electrical Characteristics” have been
updated and there have been minor corrections to the
data sheet text.
TABLE B-1: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DEVICES IN THE PIC16F87XA FAMILY

PIC16F873A PIC16F874A PIC16F876A PIC16F877A
Flash Program Memory 4K 4K 8K 8K

(14-bit words)
Data Memory (bytes) 192 192 368 368
EEPROM Data Memory (bytes) 128 128 256 256
Interrupts 14 15 14 15
I/O Ports Ports A, B, C Ports A, B, C, D, E Ports A, B, C Ports A, B, C, D, E
Serial Communications MSSP, USART MSSP, USART MSSP, USART MSSP, USART
Parallel Slave Port No Yes No Yes
10-bit Analog-to-Digital Module 5 input channels 8 input channels 5 input channels 8 input channels
Packages 28-pin PDIP 40-pin PDIP 28-pin PDIP 40-pin PDIP
28-pin SOIC 44-pin PLCC 28-pin SOIC 44-pin PLCC
28-pin SSOP 44-pin TQFP 28-pin SSOP 44-pin TQFP
28-pin QFN 44-pin QFN 28-pin QFN 44-pin QFN

PIC16F87XA
APPENDIX C: CONVERSION
CONSIDERATIONS
Considerations for converting from previous versions
of devices to the ones listed in this data sheet are listed
in Table C-1.
TABLE C-1: CONVERSION CONSIDERATIONS

Characteristic PIC16C7X PIC16F87X PIC16F87XA
Pins 28/40 28/40 28/40
Timers 3 3 3
Interrupts 11 or 12 13 or 14 14 or 15
Communication PSP, USART, SSP PSP, USART, SSP PSP, USART, SSP
(SPI, I2C Slave) (SPI, I2C Master/Slave) (SPI, I2C Master/Slave)
Frequency 20 MHz 20 MHz 20 MHz
Voltage 2.5V-5.5V 2.2V-5.5V 2.0V-5.5V
A/D 8-bit, 10-bit, 10-bit,
4 conversion clock selects 4 conversion clock selects 7 conversion clock selects
CCP 2 2 2
Comparator — — 2
Comparator Voltage — — Yes
Reference
Program Memory 4K, 8K EPROM 4K, 8K Flash 4K, 8K Flash
(Erase/Write on (Erase/Write on
single-word) four-word blocks)
RAM 192, 368 bytes 192, 368 bytes 192, 368 bytes
EEPROM Data None 128, 256 bytes 128, 256 bytes
Code Protection On/Off Segmented, starting at end On/Off
of program memory
Program Memory — On/Off Segmented, starting at
Write Protection beginning of
program memory
Other  In-Circuit Debugger, In-Circuit Debugger,

Low-Voltage Programming Low-Voltage Programming

Appendix D
GHANT CHART
Appendix D
BILL OF MATERIALS
BILL OF MATERIALS
MATERIALS COST(PESO)
THERMOELECTRIC DEVICE 9600
CHARGING AND AUTOMATED DATA 12530

RECORDER
MICROCONTROLLER
RESISTOR
TRANSISTOR
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC
HEATSINK
DIODE
RELAYS
CONNECTING WIRES
ALLIGATOR CLIP
LED
PRINTED CIRCUITBOARD
CRYSTAL
USB TO URT
LCD DISPLAY 215

ALUMINUM PLATE 460
RECHARGEABLE BATTERY 150
ADAPTOR 250
THERMAL PASTE 460
ELECTRICAL TAPE 50
SOLDERING IRON 210
BUTANE 60
BURNER 1500
TRANSPORTATION 1700
GASOLINE 1500
PARKING 200
TOTAL 27,185
LITHIUM ION BATTERIES: INDIVIDUAL DATA SHEET CGA103450A
CGA103450A: Prismatic Model Discharge Characteristics
To ensure safety, the referenced Li-ion cell is not sold as a

bare cell. Li-ion cells must be integrated with the
appropriate safety circuitry via an authorized Panasonic Charge Characteristics
Li-ion pack assembler.
Specifications
*1 After a fresh battery has been charged at constant

voltage/constant current (4.2 V, 1200 mA (max), 2
hours, 20°C), the average of the capacity (ending
voltage of 3 V at 20°C) that is discharged at a Cycle Life Characteristics
standard current (370 mA).
*2 Dimensions of a fresh battery
JANUARY 2007
This information is generally descriptive only and is not intended to make or imply any representation, guarantee or warranty with respect to any cells and batteries.
Cell and battery designs/specifications are subject to modification without notice. Contact Panasonic for the latest information.
Reference:
[1] D.M. Goldsmid, H. J. (2005). CRC Handbook of Thermoelectrics. CRC Press.
[2] Ferdorov, V. E. (2011). Progress and modern tendency in thermoelectrical materials

science. 2011 IEEE Nanotechnology Materials and Devices Conference , 65-68.
[3] Han, H. S., Kim, Y. H., Young, K. S., Um, S., & Min, H. J. (n.d.). Performance
Measurement and Analysis of a Thermoelectric Power Generator.
[4] Hun Sik Han, Y. H. (n.d.). Performance Measurement and Analysis of Thermoelectric
Power Generator.
[5] Mathe, K., & Odry, P. (2011). Thermopile Battery, Thermoelectric Generator as the Only
Possible Alternative for Future. 3rd IEEE International Symposium on Exploitation of
Renewable Energy Source , 67-69.
[6] Mousoulis, C., Yoon, C. K., Chitnis, G., & B., Z. (2012). THERMOELECTRIC
ENERGY SCAVENGING WITH TEMPERATURE. 1285-1288 .
[7] Ramadas, Y. K., & Chandrakasan, A. P. (2011). A Battery- Less Thermoelectric Energy
Harvesting Interface Circuit with 35mV Startup Voltage. Solid-State Circuits , 334.
[8] Razak, A. N., Nor, N. M., & Ibrahim, T. (2011). Heat Energy Harvesting for Portable
Power Supply . The 5th International Power Engineering and Optimization Conference ,
436-439.
[9] Spira, G., & Corry, T. M. (n.d.). Thermoelectric Generator Design, Performance, and
Application. IRE TRANSACTIONS ON MILITARY ELECTRONICS , 34-40.
[10] Tian, Y., Vasic, D., & Lefebvre, S. (2012). Application of thermoelectricity to IGBT for
temperature regulation and energy harvesting. 211-216.
[11] Udalgama, C. J. (2010). Electrical Energy Generation From Body Heat. IEEE ICSET .
[12] Yang, T., Xiao, J., Zhao, W., & Qinjie, Z. (2011). Structural Optimization of Two-stage
Thermoelectric Generator for Wide Temperature Range Application.
[13] Zhou, S., Sammaki, B. G., White, B., & Borgesen, B. (2012). A Multiscale Modeling of
Thermoelectric Generators for Conversion Efficiency Optimization. 13th IEEE ITHERM
Conference , 985.

Design of Thermoelectric Generator Using BiTe Thermocouples With Automated Data Logger System

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Design of Thermoelectric Generator using Bismuth

Telluride Thermocouples with Automated Data

Jeanne Claude Banta

An Undergraduate Research Report Submitted to the school of Electrical,

Electronics and Computer Engineering in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering

Mapúa Institute of Technology

II. Review of Related Literature and Studies 4

Energy Consumption Demand 4

Thermoelectric material on the basis of bismuth telluride Bi2Te3 6

Quality control of thermoelectric material 8

Thermoelectric Merit Performance 9

Voltage generated equation 14

Waste Heat to Electricity 15

Units of Battery Capacity: Ampere Hours 16

Impact of Charging and Discharging Rate 18

Applications of Thermoelectric Generator 20

Laboratory Set-up and Thermoelectric Generator Design using Bi2Te3 28

Series – Parallel Connection 32

Direct Current Charger Circuit Design 33

Automated Data Logger 34

Series – Parallel Testing 52

Figure 2.1: US Energy Consumption 2005 – 2009 5

Figure 2.3: Philippine Fossil Fuel Consumption 6

Figure 2.4: Flow of Current in Thermocouple 7

Figure 2.5: Thermoelectric Efficiency 9

Figure 2.6: Temperature Range of Different Thermocouples 9

Figure 2.7: Illustration of Flow of Flow of Current 10

Figure 2.8: Seebeck Effect with Semiconductors 11

Figure 2.9: Thermoelectric couple with a pair of dissimilar elements 12

Figure 2.10: Projected Heat Distribution in a Car Exhaust 21

Figure 2.11: Actual Installation of Thermocouples in an Exhaust 22

Figure 3.2: Complete Laboratory Set-up 27

Figure 3.3: Theoretical Graph of a Series Connected Thermocouples 31

Figure 3.4: Theoretical Graph of a 2 Series – 6 parallel Connected Thermocouples 32

Figure 3.5: Charging Circuit Schematic Diagram 33

Figure 3.10: System Diagram 39

Figure 3.11: Temperature Difference Graph 41

Figure 3.12: DC Charger Current Graph 42

Figure 3.13: Stored Battery Voltage Graph 43

Figure 3.14: Voltage Regulation Graph 44

Figure 3.15: Series Connection Testing 45

Figure 3.16: Series Connection Sample Computer Output 46

Figure 3.17: Temperature Difference Graph 48

Figure 3.18: DC Charger Current Graph 49

Figure 3.19: Stored Battery Voltage Graph 50

Figure 3.20: Voltage Regulation Graph 51

Figure 3.21: Series Parallel Connections of Thermocouples 54

Figure 3.23: DC Charger Current Graph 55

Figure 3.24: Stored Battery Voltage Graph 57

Figure 3.25: Voltage Regulation Graph 57

Figure 3.26: Series Parallel Connection Sample Computer Output 58

served important roles in the completion of this study.

portray, develop and finish the study.

In this research, an automated data logger is implemented in the thermoelectric generator

heat to electrical energy and store it in an appropriate battery bank by implementing a DC

us to gather data with minimal or almost no human error.

sustainable renewable resources must be developed. Nowadays, the implementation of renewable

energy as well as in reducing carbon dioxide emission by enhancing energy utilization

demonstrating the possibility of generating a voltage out of a temperature gradient.

produces voltage related to a temperature difference.

exhaust pipe of motorcycles.

In this research, an additional data logger is implemented in the thermoelectric generator