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Edible plant foods excluding cereal grains, nuts, seeds, tea leaves, coffee beans, cacao beans, herbs and spices
Fruit Vegetables
Edible parts of plants that contain the seeds and pulpy Edible plant parts including stems and stalks, roots,
surrounding tissue; have a sweet or tart taste; gener- tubers, bulbs, leaves, flowers and fruits; usually includes
ally consumed as breakfast beverages, breakfast and seaweed and sweet corn; may or may not include
lunch side-dishes, snacks or desserts pulses or mushrooms; generally consumed raw or
cooked with a main dish, in a mixed dish, as an appe-
tizer or in a salad
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
Whether mushrooms and seaweed definition of fruit and vegetables that raw or cooked, generally with a main
(foods commonly used as vegetables) has specific conditions relating to dish, in a mixed dish, as an appetizer
are regarded as part of the plant macronutrient content, processing and or in a salad. Vegetables include
kingdom depends on the choice of one serving sizes, but this definition is not edible stems and stalks, roots, tubers,
out of four schemes used to classify practical for use in relation to epidemi- bulbs, leaves, flowers, some fruits,
living organisms into kingdoms. The ological studies. pulses (mature beans and peas), fungi
traditional scheme of two kingdoms The culinary term fruit refers to the (mushrooms, truffles), algae (sea-
(plant and animal) places fungi and edible part of a plant, tree, bush or vine weed) and sweet corn and hominy
algae (sources of food mushrooms that contains the seeds and pulpy (cereal grains used as vegetables).
and seaweed, respectively) in the plant surrounding tissue and has a sweet or The culinary term vegetable excludes
kingdom. In the other three schemes, tart taste. In essence, culinary fruits other cereal grains, nuts, peanuts (a
the fungi and algae are placed either are the subset of botanical fruits that type of pulse) and culinary fruits. The
together in the Protista kingdom or remains after excluding cereal grains distinction as to which botanical fruits
separately in the Protista and fungi (wheat, rye, oats, barley), nuts, seeds are considered to be culinary vegeta-
kingdoms (Stern, 1988). and fruits used as vegetables. Fruits bles depends on cultural use in meal
are used as a breakfast beverage or patterns and the flavours they impart.
Culinary definitions side-dish (for example, orange juice, Botanical fruits used as vegetables
The main culinary groupings for edible berries, grapefruit, melon), lunch (e.g., eggplant, okra, zucchini) tend to
plant materials are fruit, vegetables, side-dish or dessert, snack food be savory in taste, while those used as
cereal grains, nuts, and seeds. (Minor between meals or dinner dessert. Raw fruits are generally sweet (due to a
groupings include herbs or spices and and canned fruits are also used as higher sugar concentration) or tart as
plant parts used to make coffee, tea appetizers, salad ingredients and side- in cranberries, lemons and limes (due
and chocolate). Populations are dishes. to a higher acid content).
accustomed to these culinary group- The culinary term vegetable refers
ings and use them to communicate to edible part(s) of a plant consumed
about plant foods and to distinguish
the types of plant food used in meals.
These culinary groupings are used in
households for meal planning and
preparation, in educational settings
where nutrition professionals commu-
nicate cooking skills and dietary advice
to consumers, in the market place,
where people purchase plant foods for
home use, and in restaurants, where
people order and consume prepared
foods.
The culinary term fruit and vegeta-
J'
bles may be defined as edible plant
foods excluding cereal grains, nuts,
seeds, coffee, tea, cacao and herbs :4
and spices, Dom el etal. (1993b) pro-
vided a similar but more detailed defin-
ition for fruit and vegetables, noting the
.,
exclusion of nuts, seeds, peanuts,
peanut butter, grains and vegetables
when used as grains and the inclusion
of olives, avocados, pickles, coconut
4 . u-.
and products and mixed dishes that
contain any amount of fruit and vege-
table. They also provided a narrow a r MUMA A .
2
Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables
Cultural differences in culinary vegetables such as turnips and vegetarians and vegans (Venti &
definitions parsnips in the vegetable group. Johnston, 2002), places beans in a
Culinary distinctions as to which plant Potatoes might be grouped with grains protein group and provides separate
parts are used as fruits and vegetables because, like grain products, they are groups for dark green leafy vegetables
(and which are designated as fruits starchy, inexpensive, readily available and dried fruit to encourage use of
and which as vegetables) are based and commonly consumed. The sources of iron and other minerals that
on traditional use and tend to be Swedish food guide has a separate are usually obtained from meat.
imprecise, varying within and between food group for potatoes and other root Foods derived from fruit and veg-
cultures. Information about which vegetables and recommends that root etables such as preserves, jams and
foods serve as fruits and vegetables is vegetables be the foundation for a jollies, sugared fruit pieces used as
generally presented in books on daily inexpensive diet supplemented candies, and sweet cucumber pickles
cookery and in food guides that are with other vegetables that vary from fit into the sweets or sugars group of
developed for consumers by govern- day to day and between seasons. food guides. Food guides do not have
ment public health agencies or by Seven of the guides place pulses in groupings for mixed dishes or desserts
professional nutrition associations. the meat group because of their pro- that contain fruit or vegetables, for
Food guides are used by nutrition edu- tein content; Australia, Germany and condiments or snack foods that are
cators to communicate the types and Sweden put pulses in the vegetable derived from fruit or vegetables, or for
quantities of foods that should be con- group because of their vitamin, mineral herbs and spices.
sumed on a daily basis to meet nutri- and dietary fibre content. The US food
ent needs, prevent deficiency diseases guide places immature pulses in the Summary of definition issues
and lower the risk for diet-related vegetable group and mature pulses in Botanical definitions for fruit and veg-
chronic diseases. the meat, poultry and fish group. The etables are more precise than culinary
A recent comparison of food guides Chinese guide places pulses (primarily definitions. However, culinary defini-
used in Australia, China, Canada, soybeans and soymilk) in the milk and tions are based on cultural uses of
Germany, Korea (Republic of), Mexico, dairy products group. A food guide for foods and are more commonly under-
the Philippines, Portugal, Puerto Rico,
Sweden, the United Kingdom and the
United States (USA) revealed that
despite the cultural differences in
dietary patterns, food groupings
(cereal grains, vegetables, fruit, meat
and meat substitutes, dairy products,
fats and sweets) are generally similar
(Painter et al., 2002). Fruit and vegeta-
bles appear as a sicgle group in six
food guides (Canada, China, Korea,
Portugal, Mexico and the United
Kingdom), but are separate groups in
the other guides. All the guides
separate nuts, seeds and cereal grain
products from fruit and vegetables.
There are differences in the
placement of starchy root and tuber
vegetables and pulses between the
guides. Six of the guides (Australia,
Canada, China, the Philippines, Puerto
Rico and the USA) group potatoes in
the vegetable group. Germany, Korea,
Mexico, Portugal and the United
Kingdom group potatoes in the grain
group, but place other root and tuber
3
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
stood by nutrition researchers and by pulse with various cultural uses small amounts used, but they
participants in epidemiological studies. (e.g., snack food, part of a main may contribute important food
The following botanical and culinary dish, boiled side-dish, peanut butter, components and should not be
issues may affect the grouping of or peanut sauce). Peanuts are usu- ignored in terms of dietary assess-
fruits, vegetables, mixed dishes and ally considered to be nuts and ment.
desserts containing fruits and vegeta- grouped with the high-protein foods. Fruits and vegetables that are part
bles, and foods derived from fruits and Fresh or sweet corn and hominy of mixed dishes (i.e., main dishes
vegetables: are cereal grains, but are generally or desserts) may be overlooked
• Mushrooms (fungi) and seaweed used as vegetables (i.e., side- when assessing total fruit and vege-
(algae) are commonly considered dishes with a dinner meal). Mature table intake. Food guides do not
to be vegetables because of their corn (also known as field corn or have groupings for mixed dishes
culinary use. However, botanically, maize) is generally used as a (meat and vegetable casseroles,
they may or may not be considered cereal grain in the form of corn grits, stews, stir-fries) or desserts that
to be derived from plants, depend- corn meal or corn flour. Corn meal may contain fruits or vegetables
ing on the scheme used to classify and flour are used to make corn- (chocolate-covered raisins, fig bars,
organisms into kingdoms. bread, tortillas and tortilla chips. fruit pies, pumpkin pie, carrot cake).
• In some cultures, potatoes and Although most fruits and vegeta- Some food products derived from
other starchy root and tuber bles are low in fat, several fruit and vegetables may not retain
vegetables (e.g., taro) are sepa- (avocados, coconut, olives) have the nutritive value of the original
rated from other vegetables and higher fat content and varied uses fruit and vegetable and may con-
considered to be a separate group in cuisines. Food guides do not tain added fat or sugar. Food
or part of the grain group. provide sufficient detail to indicate guides usually group jams, jellies,
• Pulses (mature beans and peas) where these foods are grouped. and fruit drinks (lemonade, fruit
may be considered as meat alter- Avocados and olives may be punches) with the sweets or sugars
natives (substitutes) rather than grouped with fruit, vegetables or food group, but it is not clear where
vegetables (or in addition to being fats. Coconut may be grouped with potato crisps, fried potatoes or
vegetables) in some cultures. nuts, fruit (e.g., cut or shredded in pickled fruits or vegetables are
Products derived from soybeans a fruit salad) or vegetables (e.g., grouped.
such as tofu and soy-based meat used in stews mixed with meats
substitutes are often grouped with and other vegetables).
high-protein foods (meat, fish, Herbs (e.g., coriander, parsley) Subgroup classifications for
poultry, eggs, nuts and seeds), include the stems and leaves of
plants, fruit and vegetables
rather than with vegetables. plants, and some vegetables
Soymilk is usually classified in the (e.g., garlic and chili peppers) are
milk group, with the assumption used as spices or garnishes. Subgroup classifications for plants,
that it is fortified with calcium. Herbs and spices are not included fruits and vegetables according to their
• Peanuts (groundnuts) are a type of in food guides, mainly due to the content of food components can be
7
Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables
useful for epidemiological studies. pulses). Food composition data and Botanical families
Because most fruit and vegetables databases are beginning to be Botanical classification of plants is
have low calorie, fat, saturated fat and developed for other bioactive compo- based on the physiological character-
sodium content and are devoid of nents such as glucosinolates, indoles istics of plant development, organiza-
cholesterol, the classifications may and isothiocyanates in cruciferous tion and structure. The 11 levels of
focus more on vitamins, minerals and vegetables (Fahey et al., 2001); botanical classification are kingdom,
other bioactive components. Such flavonols, flavones and other division, class, subclass, order, family,
classification is complicated by the flavonoids (Herfog et al., 1992, 1993b; genus, species, variety, cultivar and
large number of food components in Häkkinen et al., 1999; Peterson & strain. As an example, the 11 classifi-
fruit and vegetables, and by the facts Dwyer, 2000; Sampson et al., 2002); cation terms for the Gray zucchini
that not all the components have yet flavonoids and phenolic acids in fruit summer squash are, respectively,
been identified and that not all fruits juices (Spanos & Wrolstad, 1992); Plant, Spermatophyta, Angiospermae,
and vegetables have been analysed to flavonoids and carotenoids in citrus Dicotyledonae, Cucurbitales, Cucurbi-
determine the level of the components fruits (Ranganna et al., 1983); caro- taceac, Cucurbita, Pepe L., Melopepo
that have been identified. Some com- tenoids (Mangels et al., 1993); Alef., Zucchini, and Gray (Yamaguchi,
ponents (dietary fibre, potassium, plant isoflavones (Coward et al., 1993; 1983). Botanical classification is useful
sterols) are present in most fruit and Wang & Murphy, 1994; USDA, 1999a); for biologists to establish plant origins
vegetables, while others (vitamin C, isoflavones, coumesterol and lignans and relationships and to help identify
carotenoids, folacin (folie acid), iron, (Boker et al., 2002); phytoestrogens plants across different cultures
zinc, magnesium, calcium, flavonoids) (Reinli & Block, 1996; Pillow et al., and languages; it is also useful for
occur mainly in specific fruits and 1999); and lemonoid glucosides in cit- horticulturists because plants within a
vegetables. For many of the food rus juices (Fong et al., 1989). family may have similar climatic
components, the published data have Several subgroup classifications requirements, economic uses, and
not yet been aggregated and summa- for plants, fruits, and vegetables are disease and insect controls. The
rized and therefore have not been considered below, to assess how they usefulness of botanical classification in
incorporated into food composition relate to the presence of nutrients and dietary assessment is less clear,
databases. bioactive food components. The sub- because foods derived from the same
Table 1 lists selected vitamins and groups include botanical families and botanical family may or may not con-
other bioactive components and their growing conditions for classifying tain similar levels of bioactive food
fruit and vegetable sources. Current plants and botanical fruit development components.
food composition databases provide terms for classifying fruit. Fruit and The plant kingdom (using the
information about fruit and vegetable vegetable subgroups used for report- traditional two-kingdom scheme) has
sources of 13-carotene (dark green ing food supply and consumption data four divisions, of which three
leafy vegetables, deep yellow and are presented, as are subgroups (Thallophyta, Pteridophyfa and
orange fruits and vegetables), vitamin based on edible parts, colour and pro- Spermatophyta) contain foods con-
C (citrus fruits, dark green leafy cessing and preparation. sumed by humans (Encyclopedia
vegetables, cantaloupe) and folacin Britannica, 1974). Most human foods
(dark green leafy vegetables, oranges, are within the Spermatophyta (seed
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
Vitamins Zeaxanthin:
Folacin: Orange, persimmon; collards, corn, kale, lettuce, pumpkin,
Avocado, orange; asparagus, black bean, black-eyed pea, red pepper, spinach, tangerine, turnip greens
Brussels sprout, chickpea, chives, endive, green pea, kidney Flavonoidsb:
bean, lentil, mustard greens, navy bean, okra, pinto bean, soy- Anthocyan ins:
bean, spinach, turnip greens Apple, blackberry, blackcurrant, blueberry, cherry,
chokecherry, cranberry, elderberry, nectarine, peach,
Vitamin C: plum, raspberry, pomegranate, red grape, red/green pear,
Blackberry, blueberry, cantaloupe, cranberry, elderberry, grape- strawberry; asparagus, carrot, red cabbage, red
fruit, kiwi fruit, lemon, lime, mango, orange, papaya, peach, rasp- onion, redbean; red wine
berry, strawberry, tangerine; broccoli, Brussels sprout, cabbage, Flavanols:
cauliflower, kale, kohlrabi, spinach, sweet red/green pepper, Apple, apricot, nectarine, peach, pear, red grape, strawberry;
green bean
tomato
Catechins: Apple, blackberry, cranberry, elderberry,
red-purple grape
Other bioactive components Epicatechin: Apple, red-purple grape
Allyl sulfides: Proanthocyanidins: Apple, blueberry, cranberry, red-
Allicin: purple grape, strawberry
Chives, garlic, leek, onion, shallot Flavanones:
Grapefruit, lemon, orange; tomato
Hesperidin: Grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange,
Capsaicin:
tangerine
Chili pepper
Naringenin: Grapefruit
Neohesperidin: Grapefruit, orange
Carotenoids: Flavones:
u-carotene: Grapefruit, lemon, orange; carrot, celery, parsley sweet
Carrot, pumpkin, sweet potato red/green pepper
fl-carotene: Apigenin:
Carrot, celery
Apricot, cantaloupe, guava, mango, peach, persimmon,
Luteolin:
red/pink, grapefruit; Arugula, asparagus, beetgreens,
Sweet red/green pepper
broccoli, Brussells sprouts, cabbage, carrot, cassava Flavonols:
leaves, chicory, chili pepper, collards, cress, dandelion Orange, red-purple grape; broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
greens, tiddlehead greens, kale, mustard greens, cauliflower, onion, turnip greens
pak-choy, pumpkïn, sweet redpepper, romaine, spinach, Quercetin: Apple, apricot. bilberry, blackberry,
sweet potato, Swiss chard, tomato, turnip greens, winter blackcurrant, blueberry, cherry, cranberry, elder-
berry, grapefruit, lemon, mango, peach, pear, plum,
squash
raspberry, red bilberry, redcurrant, red-purple grape,
frcryptoxanthin:
strawberry, whitecu rrant; broccoli, cabbage,
Apple, apricot, avocado,cantaloupe,carambola, grape chives, corn, endive, kale, lettuce, pepper, red
fruit, jackfruit, kiwifruit, kumquat, mango, olive, orange, cabbage, red onion, string bean, sweet potato,
papaya, passion fruit, peach, persimmon, plum, tomato
tangerine, watermelon; broccoli, corn, pumpkin, red Myricetin: Apple, bilberry, blackcurrant, blueberry,
pepper, tomato, winter squash cranberry, red-purple grape, red bilberry,
redcurrant, whitecurrant; carrot
Lycopene:
Kaempferol: Apple, apricot, bilberry, blackberry,
Guava, red/pink grapefruit, watermelon; tomato blackcurrant, cherry, cranberry, mango, peach,
Lutein: pear, plum, raspberry, red bilberry, redcurrant,
Kiwifruit, orange, tangerine, watermelon; asparagus, red/pink grapefruit, red-purple grape, whitecu rrant;
broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrot, collards, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, chives, endive,
corn, kale, lettuce, potato, pumpkin, spinach, sweet red green bean, horse radish, kale, lettuce, Leek, red
pepper, tomato, turnip greens onion, tomato
Isorhamnetin: Apple, blackberry, cherry, pear
Rutin: Apple, blackcurranis, cantaloupe;
asparagus
Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables
Isoflavones: Green bean, legumes, soybean Gallic acid: Blackberry, cherry, mango, pomegranate,
Genistein: Currants; alfalfa sprouts, legumes, soy- red-purple grapes
bean
Daidzein: Currants; legumes, soybean Citric acid:
Daidzin: Soybean Grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine
Genistin: Soybean
Glycitin/Glycitein: Soybean Plant sterols
Biochanin A: Legume 3-sitosteroL: Apple, apricot, avocado, banana,
Coumestrol: Legumes, soybean cantaloupe, cherry, fig, grapefruit, lemon, orange,
Formononetin: Legumes peach, pear, pineapple, plum, pomegranate, red
grape, strawberry, watermelon; asparagus, Brussels
Glucosinolates, indoles and isothiocyanates: sprout, carrot, cauliflower, cucumber, eggplant,
Bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, col- lettuce, okra, onion, pea, potato, pumpkin, radish,
lard greens, kale, napa cabbage, turnip soybean, tomato
Campesterol:
Glutathione: Apple, apricot, banana, fig, grapefruit, lemon, pineapple,
Cantaloupe, grapefruit, orange, strawberry; asparagus, spinach orange, peach; asparagus, Brussels sprout, carrot,
cauliflower, lettuce, okra, onion, pea, radish, soybean,
Lignans: tomato
Banana, cantaloupe, cranberry, orange, pear, peach, pomegran- Phytosterol:
ate, strawberry; asparagus, bok choy, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, Pulses
cauliflower, iceberg lettuce, lentil, nape cabbage. onion, potato, Saponins:
pumpkin, rutabaga, soybean, summer squash, sweet red/green Asparagus, beet, garlic, spinach
pepper, tomato, turnip, winter squash Stigmasterol:
Banana, fig, grapefruit, lemon, orange, peach; asparagus,
Phenolic acids: carrot, cauliflower, eggplant, lettuce, okra, pea, potato, soy
Apple, citrus fruit; olive bean, tomato
Cinnamic acids
Caffeic acid: Apple, gooseberry, grape, olive, rasp- Pectin:
berry, strawberry; broccoli, Brussels sprout, carrot, Apple, cherry, pear
endive, red onion, savoy cabbage, sweet potato,
tomato Resveratrol:
Chiorogenic acid: Apple, apricot, blackberry, Blueberry, red-purple grape
blueberry, cherry, cranberry, grape, plum, pome-
granate, strawberry; cabbage, carrot, sweet red/ Rutin:
green pepper, tomato Cantaloupe; asparagus
Ferulic acid: Apple, blackberry, blueberry,
cantaloupe, grapefruit, plum, raspberry, strawberry: Salicylates:
Brussels sprout, corn, endive, red onion Apricot, cantaloupe, cherry, date, grape, guava, orange, pineap-
para-Coumaric acid: Apple, blueberry, cherry, goose ple, raisin, raspberry, strawberry; Chili pepper, endive, radish,
berry, plum, red-purple grape, strawberry; sweet green pepper, zucchini
Brussels sprout, cabbage, carrot, savoy cabbage,
sweet red pepper, tomato Terpenes/terpenoid s:
Ellagic acid: Lemon, lime, orange, pink grapefruit
Blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, cranberry, elderberry, Limonene:
marionberry, pomegranate, red/black raspberry, red grape, Grapefruit, lemon, orange, tangerine; carrot, celery
strawberry
Fruits are listed first, followed by a semicolon and the listing of vegetables.
bThere are over 4000 flavonoid compounds, but far fewer have been identified in commonly consumed foods; most of them are
within the six classes listed here.
Sources: Smith et al., 1995; Perry et al., 1996; USDA, 1998, 1999a, 2002; Holden et ai., 1999; Barratt-Eornell & Drewnowski, 2002;
Mayo Clinic et al., 2002; McCann et ai., 2002; Pennington, 2002; World Health Organization & Tufts University School of Nutrition and
Policy, 2002
VA
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
plants) division. Of the two classes complexity of the botanical classifica- similar food component profiles
within the Spermatophyta (Gymno- tion. Various food components in fruit include rue (Rutaceae), rose (Rosa-
sperm and Angiosperm), almost all and vegetables are concentrated in ceae), cabbage (Cruciferae), amaryllis
human foods are in the Angiosperm some families, but are also widely and (Amaryllidaceae), goosefoot (Cheno-
(flowering) class. Within the two variously distributed among the podiaceae), heath (Ericaceae), legume
Angiosperm subclasses (Monoco- families. Peterson and Dwyer (1998) (Leguminosae) and sunflower (Astera-
tyledonae and Dicotyledonae), there reported that botanical classifications ceae). Foods within the gourd
are approximately 93 orders and 432 may be helpful in ascertaining the (Cucu rbitaceae), nightshade (Solana-
families (20 orders and 67 families for likely presence of flavonoids in foods ceae), carrot and laurel families do not
the Monocotyledonae and 73 orders when food composition data are not contain similar food component
and 365 families for the Dicotyle- available; however, they noted that profiles. The gourd family includes
donae). Even though only a small per- quantitative estimates are likely to be cantaloupe (vitamin C and 11-caro-
centage of available plants are used Imprecise. tene), watermelon (lycopene) and
as human foods, hundreds of different Table 3 lists 16 botanical families pumpkin and deep yellow winter
types of fruit and vegetable are con- that are sources of food components squash (13-carotene). Other members
sumed across the world and consider- (as identified from Table 2) and lists of the gourd family (honeydew melon,
ation of the various cultivars and some of the fruits and vegetables summer squash, and non-yellow
strains for each fruit and vegetable within these families. The asparagus winter squash) do not serve as major
increases the number of available fruit (Asparagaceae), olive (Oleaceae), sources of these or other food
and vegetables into the thousands. grape (Vitaceae) and morning glory components. The nightshade family
Table 2, which lists the subclasses, (Convolvulaceae) families contain only includes chili peppers (3-carotene,
orders, and families of Spermatophyta one type (or main type) of food, and capsaicin); sweet peppers (vitamin C,
that are used as human foods and each has a unique food component lycopene if red); tomatoes (vitamin C,
provides examples of food plants profile. Individual families that contain 13-carotene, lycopene); and eggplant
within each family, illustrates the fruits and vegetables with somewhat and white potatoes (not major sources
of food components). The laurel family
includes avocado (folacin, vitamin B6)
and plants that are sources of herbs or
spices (cinnamon, sassafrass, sweet
bay). The carrot family includes carrot
((X- and [3-carotenes); the stalk
vegetable celery; the root vegetables
celeriac and parsnip; and plants used
as herbs (anise, caraway, coriander,
dill, fennel, parsley).
Thus, although, some botanical
families have some fruits and
vegetables with similar food
components, not all foods within a
family may be reliable sources of a
given food component. Another issue
that makes the use of botanical families
somewhat difficult for classifying fruits
and vegetables as foods is that different
parts of some plants may be eaten
separately and have different food
components (e.g., beet roots and
greens, turnip roots and greens, broc-
coli stems and flowers, chive bulbs and
green tops). Botanical classification
applies to the entire plant and is not
8
Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables
specific for the different parts of a plant component composition and not very drupes, pomes and berries. Drupes
that are consumed. useful for nutritional epidemiology. have a single seed enclosed by a hard,
Classification by growing conditions stony pit, as in the apricot, cherry,
Growing conditions might have some use for population coconut, date, nectarine, olive, peach
Plants may be classified according to studies where fruits and vegetables and plum. In pomes, the flesh comes
habitat, i.e., whether they grow in water are locally grown and are of limited from the enlarged receptacle that
or in soil, and the soil-growing plants variety. Such a classification is less grows up around the ovary, and the
may be further classified according to useful for populations with access to endocarp around the seeds is papery
whether they grow in areas that are national and international food or leathery, as with the apple, pear
desert (low humidity, high temperature), commerce and commercial methods and quince. Berries develop from a
tropical (high humidity, high tempera- of food preservation (freezing, compound ovary and usually contain
ture) or temperate (moderate humidity canning), processing and prepara- more than one seed. The three types
and temperature) (Yamaguchi, 1983). tion. of berry are true berries, pepos and
Aquatic plants include lotus, taro, water hesperidiums. True berries are fruits
chestnut, water convolvulus and water- Fruit development from flowers with a thin skin that is soft at maturity,
cress. Desert plants include cactus and In addition to the botanical classifica- as in avocado, blueberry, cranberry,
some desert cucurbits (buffalo gourd). tion of whole plants (Table 2), there is date, eggplant, gooseberry, grape, per-
Tropical plants include avocado, a botanical classification of fruits simmon, red/green pepper and tomato.
banana, breadfruit, carambola, cas- according to how they develop from Pepo berries have a relatively thick
sava, date, durian, guava, mango, their flowers. Fruits typically have three rind and include cantaloupe, cucum-
papaya, passion fruit, pineapple and regions, the exocarp, which is the skin ber, pumpkin, squash and watermelon.
winged beans (goa beans). Plants (peel) or outermost layer of the fruit Hesperidium berries have a leathery
grown in temperate areas may be wall; the mesocarp or middle region; oil-containing skin, and outgrowths
divided according to their growing sea- and the endocarp, which is the from the inner lining of the ovary wall
son. Cool-season crops, which are innermost area around the seeds become sac-like and swollen with juice
adapted to mean monthly temperatures (Stern, 1988). Fruits with a mesocarp as the fruit develops. All members of
of 16-18'C (60-65F), include that is dry at maturity are classified as the rue family (grapefruit, kumquat,
artichoke, asparagus, Brussels sprout, dry fruits (cereal grains, beans, peas, lemon, lime, orange and tangerine)
broccoli, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, and nuts), and fruits with a mesocarp produce this type of fruit.
celery, chard, endive, garlic, kale, that is at least partly fleshy at maturity Aggregate fruits develop from a
lettuce, mustard, onion, parsnip, pea, are classified as fleshy fruits (all single flower with several to many
radish, spinach, turnip and white potato. others). Fleshy fruits may be simple, pistils. The pistils develop into tiny dru-
Warm-season crops, which are adapted aggregate or multiple. pes and mature as a clustered unit on
to mean monthly temperatures of 18-30'C Simple fleshy fruits develop from a a single receptacle. Examples are
(65-86 F) and are intolerant of frost, flower with a single pistil; the ovary blackberries, loganberries, raspberries
include cantaloupe, cucumber, eggplant, alone may develop into the fruit, or and strawberries.
lima bean, okra, pepper, snap bean, other parts of the flower may develop Multiple fruits are formed when a
squash and pumpkin, sweet corn, sweet with it. Simple fleshy fruits include cluster of flowers grouped closely
potato, tomato and watermelon.
Several foods within the tropical
plants (avocado, mango, papaya),
the cool-season plants (Brussels
sprout, broccoli, cabbage, carrot,
cauliflower, chard, endive, garlic,
kale) and the warm-season plants
(pumpkin, sweet potato, tomato,
watermelon) contain a range of
vitamin and bioactive components.
However, it appears that classifica-
tion by growing season, habitat, or
climate is not directly related to food
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
gourd), cucumber, dishcloth gourd (sponge gourd, loofa), Anise, arracacha, caraway, carrot, celeriac, celery,
honeydew melon, snake gourd (serpent gourd), summer coriander, dill, fennel (sweet anse), Florence fennel,
squash (e.g., zucchini), watermelon, wax gourd (Chinese mitsuba, parsley, parsnip
winter melon, preserving melon), West India gherkin, winter Order: Fabales
squash (e.g., pumpkin) LeguminosaelFabaceae (Legume family)
Order: Ebenales Adzuki beans, alfalfa, asparagus beans, bambara ground
Ebenaceae (Ebony family) nuts, black beans, broad beans (horse beans,
Persimmon field beans, fava beans), carob, chickpeas (garbanso
Sapotaceae beans), cluster beans (guar), cowpeas, edible-
Sapotes podded peas (e.g, sugar peas, China peas), Egyptian
Order: Ericales lupines, fenugreek, green/garden peas, hyacinth beans
Actinidiaceae (Actinidia family) (chickling peas), jack beans, jicama (yam bean), kidney
Kiwi (kiwi fruit, Chinese gooseberry) beans, lentils, lima beans, mat beans, mung beans, peanuts
Ericaceae (Heath family) (ground nuts), potato beans, ricebeans, scariet runner
Blueberry, cranberry, lingonberry beans, snapbeans (includes green beans, string beans, wax
Order: Euphorbiales beans, yellow snap beans, romano beans, haricots), soy
Euphorbiaceae (Spurge/Castor Bean family) beans, sword beans, tamarind (Indian date), winged deans
Cassava (manioc, tapioca, yucca), Chinese artichoke, shiso (goa beans)
Order: Mal vales Order: Geraniales
Bombacaceae (Bombax family) Malpigbiaceae
Duriari Acerola (Barbados cherry, West Indian cherry)
Malvaceae (Mallow/Cotton family) Oxalidaceae
Egyptian mallow, okra (lady's finger, gumbo), roselle Carambola
(Jamaican sorrel) Order: Myrtales
Tiliaceae (Basswood/Lindin family) Myrtaceae (Myrtle family)
Jew's mallow Feijoa (pineapple guava), guava
Order: Passiflora/es Punicaceae (Pomegranate family)
Car[caceae (Carica family) Pomegranate
Papaya (tree melon) Order: 0/cafes
Passifloraceae (Passion flower family) Oleaceae (Olive family)
Passion fruit (granadilla) Olives
Order: Thea/es Order: Rhamnales
Theaceae (Tea family) Flbamnaceae (Buckthorn family)
Mangosteen Jujube (Chinese date, red date)
Subclass: Hamamelididae Vitaceae (Grape family)
Order: Urtica les Grapes
Moraceae (Mulberry family) Order: Resales
Breadfruit, fig, jackfruit, mulberry Rosaceae (Rose family)
Subclass: Magnollidae Apple, apricot, blackberry (brambleberry, dewberry), cherry
Order: Laura/es (sweet cherry), loganberry, loquat (may apple, Japanese
Lau raceae (Laurel family) medlar, Japanese plum), nectarine, peach, pear,
Avocado, cinnamon, sassafrass, sweet bay plum, quince, raspberry, strawberry
Order: Magnoliales Order: Hula/es
Annonaceae (Custard apple family) Anacardiaceae (Cashew family)
Cherimoya (custard apple) Mango
Order: Nymphaeales Rutaceae (Hue family)
Nymphaeceae (Water Lily family) Calamondin, grapefruit, kumquat, lemon, lime, orange,
Lotus root (East Indian lotus) pummelo (pomelo, pommelo, Chinese grapefruit,
Subclass: Rosidae shaddock), tangerine
Order: Corna/es/Umbeilales Order: Sapindales
Araliaceae (Aralia/Ginseng family) Sapindaceae (Soapberry family)
Udo Longan, lychee (litchi), rambutan
Um bell iferae/Apiaceae (Carrot/Parsley family) Order: Saxifra gaies
Saxïfragaceae (Saxifrage family)
Currants (red, pink, white, black, Asian), gooseberry
Sources: Masefield et al., 1969; Encyclopedia Britannica, 1974
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
Carrot Anise, caraway, carrot, celeriac, celery, a- and (3-Carotene, lutein, apigenin, lignans, (3-sitosterol,
coriander, dill, fennel, parsley, parsnip campesterol (all in carrot)
Gcosefoot Beet greens and root, spinach, Swiss chard ft-Carotene, lutein (spinach), zeaxanthin, folacin,
magnesium, calcium, glutathione (spinach), vitamin C
Gourd Bitter melon, calabash gourd, cantaloupe, chayote, p-Carotene (cantaloupe, pumpkin, orange-yellow squash,
cucumber, honeydew melon, summer squash, lycopene (watermelon), vitamin C (cantaloupe)
watermelon, winter squash
Legume Black beans, broad beans, carob, chickpeas, Folacin, iron, isoflavones, protein, starch, vitamin B6
cowpeas, green peas, jicama, kidney beans,
lentils, lima beans, mung beans, peanuts, snap
beans, soybeans
Morning glory Sweet potato, water convolvulus a- and l3-Carotene (sweet potato)
Nightshade Chili pepper, eggplant, sweet red/green pepper, Capsaicin (chili pepper), 3-carotene (chili pepper),
tomato, white potato lycopene (tomato), luteotin (sweet pepper), lignans,
vitamin C (tomato, sweet pepper)
Rue Grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine Lycopene (red grapefruit), hesperidin, neohesperidin,
citric acid, (3-sitosterol, campesterol, salicylates (orange),
lirnoneno, vitamin C
Rose Apple, apricot, blackberry, cherry, loganberry, p-Carotene (apricot, nectarine, peach), anthocyanins,
loquat, nectarine, peach, pear, plum, quince, quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, caffeic acid, ellagic
raspberry, strawberry acid, -sitosteroI, campesterol, pectin, salicylates, vitamin C
Sunflower Butterhead lettuce, endive, globe artichoke, Kaempferol, stìgmasterol, lignans iceberg lettuce, Jerusalem
artichoke, loose leaf lettuce, romaine, salsify
12
Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables
together consolidates into a mass dur- Fruits that are commonly referred to as fruits, there are four type classes (cit-
ing ripening. For example, each of the berries are found in the true berry and rus, melons, berries and other) and
many sections that make up a pineap- aggregate fruit classes. five processing classes (fresh, juices,
ple is a developed flower, and each canned/chilled, dried and frozen). For
one is attached to the center core, Food supply and consumption vegetables, there are five type classes
which has a woody stem structure. data (dark green leafy; deep yellow/orange;
Other multiple fruits are fig, mulberry Government agencies often use fruit starchy; dry beans, peas, and lentils;
and osage orange. and vegetable classifications for and other) and four processing classes
Classification of fruits based on reporting national food supply (avail- (fresh, canned, frozen and dehy-
development from flowers is not ability) and food consumption data. For drated). Although these classes are
likely to be useful for epidemiological example, the United States Department broad, they provide rank orders for
studies because the classes are not of Agriculture (USDA) Economic individual fruits and vegetables, so that
specific for food component content. Research Service (ERS) reports the most commonly consumed foods
One exception is the hesperidium national food supply data (i.e., per can be identified.
berry class, which contains the capita food availability) for fruit and
rue family (citrus) fruits. Classification vegetable classes (USDA, 1999b; Edible parts of plants
by fruit development would be confus- United States General Accounting Classification by edible part attempts
ing for nutritionists and survey partici- Office, 2002) and the USDA to group fruits and vegetables by the
pants because the botanical term Agriculture Research Service (ARS) part of the plant, bush, vine or tree that
berries is used for some fruits that are uses these same classes to report is used as food (Table 4). This classifi-
not commonly considered to be summarized results from national food cation is useful because of the similar
berries, such as avocado, banana, consumption surveys (Krebs-Smith & nutrient composition of some plant
cantaloupe, cucumber, date, grape- Cantor, 2001). The classifications are tissues (e.g., leaves, stalks and Stems,
fruit, kumquat, lemon, lime, orange, based on fruit and vegetable type as roots and tubers, and pulses). This
squash, tangerine and watermelon. well as on processing methods. For type of classification is found in some
food composition databases. The
similarity in nutrient content among
some plant parts is due to the
functions of these tissues. Stem and
stalk vegetables (e.g., celery, rhubarb)
are usually high in dietary fibre, which
serves to support the structure of the
plant. Leaves, especially the dark
green ones, tend to be the most meta-
bolically active and most nutritious part
of plants and are usually good sources
of dietary fibre, folacin, carotenoids,
vitamin C, flavonoids, and minerals
such as iron, zinc, calcium and
magnesium. Pulses (mature beans
and peas) are high in protein, starch,
isoflavones, vitamin B6, folacin, iron
and other minerals. Bulbs (chives,
garlic, onion, shallots) are noted for
t allicin. Enlarged roots and tubers are
storage organs for plants and usually
have high starch content; they may
serve as inexpensive sources of
t . energy (potatoes, sweet potatoes,
taro). Other roots and tubers are lower
titi_ -- in energy content (e.g., Jerusalem
13
]ARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
artichokes, parsnips, turnips) and may responsible for their colour, and other only a small part by weight of the fruit
provide specific food components components that are present in these or vegetable and the peel may not be
(e.g., €L- and f3-carotene in carrots). foods. In relation to food consumption, consumed. Thus, reliance on peel
Fruits, which are grouped as vegetable colour may be a useful indicator of the color could be misleading with regard
fruits, citrus, berries, melons, and presence of some food components in to food component content. Examples
other, are more variable in nutrient fruit and vegetables, but may not be are summer squash with yellow or
content; some are especially high in specific for a bioactive component. For green peel; cucumber with green peel;
vitamin C and/or 13-carotene. example, red could be due to eggplant with purple peel; potatoes
anthocyanins or lycopene. White is with red peel; and apple with red,
Colour indicative of the allyl sulfides in garlic green, or yellow peel. Another issue is
The main pigments responsible for and onion, but other white vegetables that there are many different cultivars
colour in fruit and vegetables are such as potatoes, parsnips and turnips for each fruit and vegetable, and the
chlorophyll (green), various caro- do not contain these protective compo- cultivars may vary by colour and
tenoids (yellow, orange and red) and nents. As indicated in Table 5, fruits hence by their concentration of pig-
anthocyanins, a type of flavonoid (red, and vegetables that contain the ments. For example, most cultivars of
blue and purple). Variations in colour pigments chlorophyll, anthocyanins or cherries are red, but some are white
between different fruits and vegetables carotenoids may not have similar and others are yellow. Sweet potatoes
and between various cultivars of a fruit profiles with respect to other food com- show variation in 13-carotene concen-
or vegetable result from the different ponents such as vitamin C, minerals tration among the orange, yellow-
concentrations of pigments. Caro- and phenolic acids. Some green veg- white and purple cultivars (Huang et
tenoids and anthocyanins function as etables are sources of carotenoids; al., 1999).
antioxidants. Although chlorophyll some are sources of glucosinolates,
does not appear to be useful in human indoles and thiocyanates; and some Processing and preparation
physiology, foods that are high in (iceberg lettuce, green peas, green The usefulness of processing terms for
chlorophyll are usually also high in beans) do not contain these food com- classifying fruits and vegetables
13-carotene. (The yellow-orange colour ponents. depends on their association with food
of 13-carotene is masked by the green Some fruits and vegetables have a component concentrations. The terms
chlorophyll). The carotenoids most peel with a colour that is different to the fresh, juice, canned/chilled, dried and
extensively investigated in relation to underlying tissue. The peel constitutes frozen for fruits and fresh, canned,
human health are Œ-carotene,
14
Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables
Roots (part of the plant below the ground that holds the plant in Fruits - other
place, draws water and nourishment from the soil, and stores Abiyuoh; acerola (West Indian cherry); apple; apricot; Asian pear,
food) banana; carambola (star fruit): carEssa (natal-plum); cherimoya;
Arracacha; arrowroot; beet (beetroot); burdock root: carrot; cherry (sour, sweet); crabapple; currants (black, red, white,
cassava; celeriac (celery root); chicory root; jicama (yambean); Lante); custard apple (bullock's heart); date; durian; feijea; fig;
lotus root; parsnip; radish; radish, oriental; radish, white icicle; grape, red/green; grouncfcherry; guava: guava, strawberry;
rutabaga (swede); salsify; sweet potato; turnip: wasabi root ackfruit; java plum; jujube; kiwi fruit (Chinese gooseberry);
kumquat; lychee (litchi); longan; loquat; mammy apple (mamey);
Tuber (short, thickened, fleshy part of an underground stem) mango; mangosteen; nectarine; papaya; passion fruit (grandilla),
Jerusalem artichoke (sunchoke); Hawaiian mountain yam; poi purple; peach; pear; persimmon, Japanese; persimmon; pine-
(taro root paste); potato (brown-, red-, white- skinned and apple; pitanga (Surinam cherry); plum; pomegranate; prickly
russet); Tahitian taro; yautia (tan nier); yam pear; prune: pummelo; quince: rambutan; rose apple; roselle:
rowal; sapodilla; sapote; soursop; sugar apple; tamarind
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
Dark green Kale Chlorophyll, p-carotene, lutein Calcium, iron, magnesium, quercebn, kaemp-
ferol, glucosinolates, indoles, isothiocyanates,
vitamin C
Dark green Spinach Chlorophyll, p-carotene, lutein Folacin, calcium, iron, magnesium, glutathione,
saponins, vitamin C
Green Asparagus Chlorophyll, 3-carotene, lutein, Folacin, glutathione, lignans, saponins, rotin
anthocyanin
Green Brussels sprout Chlorophyll, p-carotene, lutein Glucosirolates, indoles, sothiocyanates, para-
coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid,
vitamin C
Deep orange Cantaloupe a-Carotene, 13-carotene Glutathione, terulic acid, rotin, vitamin C
Deep orange Carrot a-Carotene, p-carotene, Apigenein, myricetin, caffeic acid, para-coumaric
(3 -cryptoxanthin, lutein acid, chlorogenic acid, linonene
Deep orange Mango p-Carotene, p-cryptoxanthin, antho- Quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, vitamin C
cyanins
Deep orange Sweet potato (3-Carotene Quercetin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid
16
Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables
Mir 1'1[.IL'i'I1I('I
Red Pomegranate Anthocyanins Lignans, ellagic acid, chlorogenic acid, gallic acid
Red Raspberry Anthocyanins Quercetin, kaempferol, caffeic acid, ellagic acid, ferulic acid,
salicylates, vitamin C
Red Red onion Anthocyanins Allicin, quercetin, kaempferol, caffeic acid, ferulic acid
Red skin Red-skinned apple Anthocyanins Quercetin, myricetin, ferulic acid, pectin, rutin
Red Strawberry Anthocyanins Glutathione, lignans, ellagic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid,
vitamin C
Red-pink Red-pink grapefruit It-Carotene, lycopene Hesperidin, naringenin, quercetin, kaempferol, glutatbione,
ferulic acid, limonene, 3-sitosterol, vitamin C
Red Sweet red pepper 13-Carotene, lutein para-Coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, vitamin C
Blue Blueberry
Anthocyanins Proanihccyanidins, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol,
chlorogenic acid, para-coumaric acid, ferulic acid,
resveralrol, vitamin C
Source: Barratt-Fornell & Drewnowski, 2002; Joseph et aL, 2002; National Cancer Institute, 2002; Pennington, 2002
17
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
frozen and dehydrated for vegetables commercial juicing may be different bles and may add other ingredients
were presented earlier in this chapter. from those available in the market as (fat and sugar) as in frying vegetables,
Current methods of commercial raw fruit and vegetables, so again food preparing vegetables in a cream or
processing, such as the freezing and component levels may be different. butter sauce, adding mayonnaise or
canning of fruit and vegetables appear Some commercial orange and grape- salad dressing to potatoes or salads,
not to significantly alter the nutrient fruit juices are fortified with calcium, canning fruit in a sugar syrup or juice,
content of these foods, although there giving significantly higher levels than in or preparing pickled vegetables in a
may be some loss of components such unfortified juices. salt brine.
as vitamin C and folacin. Often the cul- Fruit and vegetable juices and Classification of fruits and vegeta-
tivars used for freezing and canning dried fruit offer different levels of bles by processing and preparation
are different from those sold in markets nutrients and bioactive components on methods could be especially important
as the raw product. Thus, differences in a weight basis compared with their in cultures where there is reliance on a
nutrient profiles between a raw and fresh, canned and cooked counter- limited number of local crops and the
processed food may be due to differ- parts. For example a serving of orange processing techniques alter the
ences in cultivar as well as the effects juice might constitute the juice from composition so as to limit the intake of
of processing. The drying of fruit and two or more oranges; dried plums will critical food components. For popula-
vegetables removes water and proba- weigh less than the fresh. For dark tions that have access to a wide
bly also some volatile nutrients, reduc- green leafy vegetables, the quantity variety of fruit and vegetables and a
ing the volume and weight of the prod- (weight) consumed could vary range of processing and preparation
uct and concentrating the remaining considerably between the raw and the methods, these methods are not likely
food components. The juicing of fruit cooked. For example, a given volume to be useful as classification terms.
and vegetables usually removes the of raw spinach yields only about half
pulp, which contains dietary fibre, and that volume of cooked spinach.
may concentrate other nutrients on a Processing and preparation may Considerations for
weight basis. The cultivars used for remove peels from fruits and vegeta-
epidemiological studies
epidemioLogical studies. The table pro- toes and taro. Soybeans are usually presented in these materials. Dietary
vides information on botanical families, considered with pulses; however, guidance materials emphasize the
important food components and some soybean products (tofu, miso, temph, weekly or biweekly consumption of
considerations with respect to food soy-based moat analogues, soymilk) dark green leafy vegetables and/or
processing. The list does not cover all are generally grouped elsewhere. deep yellow-orange fruits and vegeta-
fruits and vegetables, e.g., it does not FFQs usually ask questions about bles as a source of the vitamin A
include some commonly consumed mixed dishes containing fruit or vegeta- precursor, (3-carotene; daily consump-
fruits such as apples, pears and bles (casseroles, stews, stir-fries; tion of citrus fruit or juice for vitamin C;
bananas. Open-ended dietary assess- pasta, rice and pizza with tomato and daily consumption of protein
ment tools (e.g., 24-hour recalls or sauce; soups with vegetables; and pies sources such as meat and meat
food records) allow flexibility in terms containing fruit, pumpkin or sweet substitutes, which include beans, peas,
of identifying and classifying fruit and potato) separately from questions and soy products. Thus, the public is
vegetable consumption because the about fruit and vegetables. For a num- usually exposed to and has some
investigators may organize the results ber of fruit and vegetable foods, deci- understanding of several fruit and veg-
as desired after the survey has been sions about placement and grouping in etable groups depicted by colour, plant
completed. Food frequency question- FFQs may be made according to how part and/or botanical family.
naires (FFQs) require a priori deci- they are usually used in dietary pat- Dark green leafy vegetables
sions as to which foods are to be listed terns. Examples of these foods are represent both the plant part and
on the questionnaire and how the tomato ketchup, paste, puree, sauce colour; deep orange/yellow fruits and
foods are organized into groups. and salsa; fried potatoes; soups con- vegetables represent colour; and citrus
There are many similarities taining tomatoes, pulses, or other veg- fruits and pulses represent both
between available FFQs with respect etables; garlic and onion (used as gar- botanical families and plant parts.
to questions asked about fruit and nish versus vegetable); coconut; Consumers are also generally familiar
vegetable consumption. Differences sauerkraut; pickled fruits and vegeta- with the plant part groupings of berries,
include the number of fruits and bles; and olives. Potato crisps, jams, melons and starchy root/tuber
vegetables that are listed; which foods jellies, preserves and candied fruit are vegetables and with processing terms
are considered to be fruits and which usually not counted as vegetables or such as fresh, frozen, canned and
vegetables; the placement of certain fruits in FFQs. dried. Cabbage family vegetables are
fruits and vegetables in other food likely to be familiar to survey partici-
groups: and the listing and placement Fruit and vegetable groupings pants because of media attention over
of foods that contain fruit and familiar to survey participants the past 10-15 years. Consumers who
vegetables or are derived from these Because food gudes and related are especially interested in food and
foods. For example, fruit and dietary guidance information are health may also have read or heard
vegetables that are used as dietary provided to children and teenagers in about bioactive components in garlic,
staples (i.e., as a main source of schools and to the general public from onions, tomatoes, tomato products,
energy) for a population may not be government health and/or agricultural watermelon, grapes, cherries and
considered to be fruits or vegetables. agencies and from health profession- blueberries. Consumer knowledge of
These foods include pulses (mature als (dietitians, nurses, physicians), fruit and vegetable groupings might be
beans and peas), bananas, plantain, many survey participants are likely to used to advantage by researchers in
white potatoes, sweet (yellow) pota- be familiar with the food groups designing epidemiological studies.
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables
Dark green leafy Goose foot: beet greens, spinach, (3-Carotene, folacin, magne- Separate questions for raw
vegetables Swiss chard Cabbage: couards, kale, slum, calcium and cooked because of
mustard greens, mustard spinach, changes in weight and
turnip greens volume
Cabbage family (some green Cabbage: arugula, bok choy, broccoli, Glucosinolates, isothio- Separate questions for
leafy vegetables, stem and flower Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauli- cyanates, indoles coleslaw and sauerkraut;
vegetables) flower, collards, kale, mustard greens, some overlap with dark
napa cabbage, pak chol green leafy vegetables
(collards, kale)
Deep orange-yellow fruits and Gourd: cantaloupe, pumpkin (3 -Carotene, u-carotene (car-
roots Car/ca: papaya rot, pumpkin, sweet potato)
Rose: apricot, nectarine, peach
Carrot: carrot
Morning Glory: Sweet potato
Cashew: mango
Citrus family fruits and juices Rue: clementine, lime, lemon, grape- Hesperidin, naringenin Separate questions for citrus
fruit, orange, tangerine, clementine (grapefruit), neohesperidin fruit juices and juices forti-
(grapefruit, orange), f ied with calcium
limonene, vitamin C
Blue-black berries Rose: blackberry, loganberry Anthocyanins, quercetin, Separate question for juices;
and red-purple grapes Heath: blueberry, lingonberry phenolic acids; red-purple separate questions for
Saxifrage: gooseberry grapes also have proantho- grapes of other colours
Grape: red-purple grape cyanidins, catechins, myri-
cetin, resveratrol, vitamin C
20
Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables
Allium family bulbs Amaryllis: chives, garlic, leeks, onion, AI]yI sulfides Clarify if garlic and onion are
shallots consumed as a vegetable,
garnish, powder or salt
Legume family Legume: black beans, broad beans, Iron, isoflavones. protein, Include beans in mixed dish-
chickpeas, cowpeas. edible-podded starch, vitamin B6 es (chili, burritos, soups),
peas, green peas, hyacinth beans, tofu, soy-based meat substi-
kidney beans, lentils, lima beans, soy- tutes, and other soy products
beans
Starchy vegetables Nightshade: potato Calories, starch, phenolic Separate questions for deep-
Grass: corn, hominy acids fried potatoes or potatoes
Arum: taro made with sauce or mayon-
Yam: yam naise
'\f
i? --
21