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Zhanxiong Xu
Department of Statistics, Penn State University
Summer 2015
Chapter 2
Basic Topology
Proof. If the statement were not true, then there would exist some set A of which
every set.
a0 z n + a1 z n−1 + · · · + an−1 z + an = 0
Prove that the set of all algebraic numbers is countable. Hint: For every positive
Proof. Let A be the set of all algebraic numbers. For every positive integer N , denote
1
hard to see that
∞
[ [
A= {z ∈ C : a0 z n + a1 z n−1 + · · · + an−1 z + an = 0}
N =2 (n,a0 ,...an )∈BN
∞
[ [
:= Eα .
N =2 α∈BN
finite for every fixed N . Finally, the countable union of finite sets is at most countable.
3. Prove that there exist real numbers which are not algebraic.
2.1.1.). Therefore there exists real numbers which are not algebraic.
Proof. No, it is not. If so, then R = Q ∪ (R\Q) would also be countable, contradiction.
5. Construct a bounded set of real numbers with exactly three limit points.
Proof. The answer for this problem is apparently not unique. As one answer, let
E1 = {1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .}, E2 = {1} + E1 := {3/2, 4/3, 5/4, . . .}, E3 = {2} + E1 . Set
6. Let E 0 be the set of all limit points of a set E. Prove that E 0 is closed. Prove that E
and E have the same limit points. Do E and E 0 always have the same limit points?
2
Proof. We show that (E 0 )c is open. For every p ∈ (E 0 )c , since p is not a limit point
of E, there exists some δ > 0, such that Nδ (p) contains no limit point of E. In other
To prove E 0 = E 0 , we first show for any two sets A and B, we have (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0 .
E 0 = (E ∪ E 0 )0 = E 0 ∪ (E 0 )0 = E 0 .
E and E 0 don’t always have the same limit points. For example, if the metric space
Sn Sn
(a) If Bn = i=1 Ai , prove that Bn = i=1 Ai , for n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
S∞ S∞
(b) If B = i=1 Ai , prove that B ⊃ i=1 Ai .
Proof.
B 2 = A1 ∪ A2
= (A1 ∪ A2 ) ∪ (A1 ∪ A2 )0
= A1 ∪ A2 .
3
The third equality holds following the proposition we proved in last problem.
S∞
(b) Let p ∈ i=1 Ai , then there exists i ∈ N such that p ∈ Ai , hence p ∈ Ai or p ∈ A0i .
8. Is every point of every open set E ⊂ R2 a limit point of E? Answer the same question
Proof. By the definition of open set, the first statement is true. For closed sets, the
statement is not true. For example, all singletons in R2 are closed, but they are not
9. Let E ◦ denote the set of all interior points of a set E. E ◦ is called the interior of E.
Proof.
(a) Let p ∈ E ◦ , then there exists δ > 0 such that Nδ (p) ⊂ E. For every q ∈ Nδ/2 (p), if
d(x, q) < δ/2, then by triangle inequality, d(x, p) ≤ d(x, q)+d(p, q) < δ/2+δ/2 =
4
(b) If E is open, then by definition, E ⊂ E ◦ . On the other hand, E ◦ ⊂ E, hence
E is open.
Therefore, G ⊂ E ◦ .
p ∈ (E c )0 ⊂ E c . Thus (E ◦ )c ⊂ E c . In summary, (E ◦ )c = E c .
(e) No. For X = R1 , E = Q. E has no interior while E = R1 has the whole real line
as its interior.
(f) No. Use the same counterexample as in (e). The closure of E is R1 , while E ◦ = ∅
Prove that this is a metric. Which subsets of the resulting metric space are open?
Proof. Requirements (a), (b) in the definition of metric space are readily checked.
d(p, r) + d(r, q) = 1 + 1 = 2 > d(p, q). If r = p or r = q, then one and only one of
d(p, r) and d(r, q) equals to 0, hence d(p, q) = d(p, r) + d(r, q). The triangle inequality
5
Every subset E of X is both open and closed. First note that every singleton {p} is
open, as N0.5 (p) = {q ∈ X : d(p, q) < 0.5} = {p} ⊂ {p}. Since the union of open sets
open and E c is a subset of X. Only finite subsets of E are compact. If E were infinite
and compact, then there exists a limit point p in E (cf, the equivalance between (b)
and (c) in Theorem 2.3.7., which actually applies to any metric space), which means,
for every ε ∈ (0, 1), ∃q 6= p, q ∈ E, such that d(p, q) < ε, however, d(p, q) = 1 by
d1 (x, y) = (x − y)2 ,
p
d2 (x, y) = |x − y|,
d3 (x, y) = |x2 − y 2 |,
d4 (x, y) = |x − 2y|,
|x − y|
d5 (x, y) = .
1 + |x − y|
Proof. d1 is not a metric since d(1, −1) = 4, whereas d(1, 0) + d(0, −1) = 1 + 1 = 2 <
d2 is a metric. (a), (b) in the definition of metric hold trivially. For (c),
p p qp p p p
|x − y| ≤ |x − z| + |y − z| ≤ ( |x − z| + |y − z|)2 = |x − z| + |y − z|.
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|x − y| ≤ |x − z| + |z − y| holds for all x, y, z ∈ R1 , we have
|x − z| + |y − z|
d5 (x, y) = f (|x − y|) ≤ f (|x − z| + |y − z|) =
1 + |x − z| + |y − z|
|x − z| |z − y|
= +
1 + |x − z| + |y − z| 1 + |x − z| + |y − z|
|x − z| |z − y|
≤ + = d5 (x, z) + d5 (z, y).
1 + |x − z| 1 + |z − y|
12. Let K ⊂ R1 consist of 0 and the numbers 1/n, for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. Prove that K is
compact directly from the definition (without using the Heine-Borel theorem).
Proof. Let {Gα } be an open cover of K. Suppose 0 is covered by Gα0 for some α0 .
Since Gα0 is open, 0 ∈ Gα0 , there exists δ > 0 such that Nδ (0) ⊂ Gα0 . Let N be the
largest integer such that 1/N ≥ δ. Then for all n > N , |1/n − 0| = 1/n < δ, i.e.,
1/n ∈ Nδ (0) ∈ Gα0 . Let Gαi , i = 1, . . . , N be the open sets that cover 1, 1/2, . . . , 1/N ,
compact.
13. Construct a compact set of real numbers whose limit points form a countable set.
A, b ∈ B}.
14. Give an example of an open cover of the segment (0, 1) which has no finite subcover.
7
Proof. Let O = {Nx/2 (x) : x ∈ (0, 1)}. It is easy to check O is an open cover of (0, 1). If
it had a finite subcover of (0, 1), we can denote it by U = {Nx1 /2 (x1 ), . . . , Nxm /2 (xm )}.
15. Show that Theorem 2.36 and its Corollary become false (in R1 , for example) if the
Proof. Let X = R1 .
16. Regard Q, the set of all rational numbers, as a metric space, with d(p, q) = |p − q|. Let
E be the set of all p ∈ Q such that 2 < p2 < 3. Show that E is closed and bounded
√
p0 3 √
|q| = |q − p0 + p0 | ≥ |p0 | − |q − p0 | > p0 − ε = + > 3
2 2
{qn } can be taken as 1.7, 1.73, 1.732, 1.73205, . . .. If E is compact, by Theorem 2.37,
8
√ √
F has a limit point in E, denote it by q0 . Since q0 ∈ E, q0 < 3. Since qn ↑ 3
√
as n → ∞. For ε = 3 − q0 > 0, there exists N0 ∈ N, such that for all n > N0 ,
√
0 < 3 − qn < 12 ε. Let δ = min{|q1 − q0 |, . . . , |qN0 − q0 |, 12 ε} > 0 (if q0 = qi for some
no point in F , since for every qi with i ≤ N0 , |qi − q0 | ≥ δ. For every qi with i > N0 ,
√ √ √
|qi − q0 | ≥ | 3 − q0 | − |qi − 3| > 3 − q0 − 12 ε = 12 ε ≥ δ. Thus q0 is not a limit point
17. Let E be the set of all x ∈ [0, 1] whose decimal expansion contains only the digits 4
hence E is uncountable.
E is not dense in [0, 1], in fact, inf E = 0.444 · · · = 94 , sup E = 0.777 · · · = 79 . Therefore,
for example, there is no point of E is in the neighborhood N0.1 (0), hence it is not dense
in [0, 1].
Hence p ∈ E, E is closed.
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E is perfect. First, we have shown E is closed, so it remains to show every point
such that 10−k < ε, implying p − ε < p − 10−k = 0.n1 · · · (nk − 1)nk+1 nk+2 · · · ,
(0.n1 · · · (nk − 1)nk+1 nk+2 · · · , 0.n1 · · · (nk + 1)nk+1 nk+2 · · · ) := J. It is then easily
seen that the number 0.n1 · · · nk n0k+1 n0k+2 · · · , which belongs to E and distinct from
Proof. Yes. We just need to modify the construction of the Cantor set a little bit.
√ √
For example, replace the original interval [0, 1] by [ 3, 3 3], and then proceeding in
19. (a) If A and B are disjoint closed sets in some metric space X, prove that they are
separated.
(c) Fix p ∈ X, δ > 0, define A to be the set of all q ∈ X for which d(p, q) < δ, define
B similarly, with > in place of <. Prove that A and B are separated.
(d) Prove that every connected metric space with at least two points is uncountable.
Proof.
some δ > 0 such that Nδ (p) ⊂ A. For such δ, since p ∈ B 0 , there exists q ∈ B,
10
such that q 6= p, q ∈ Nδ (p) ⊂ A. Thus we have q ∈ A ∩ B, contradiction. Hence
(c) Clearly, A and B such defined are disjoint. In addition, A = Nδ (p) is open, by
Theorem 2.19. Similarly, we can show B is open. By (b), A and B are separated.
(d) By assumption, we have two distinct points p and q in the connected metric space
X. Let δ be any positive number such that d(p, q) > δ and set A = {r ∈ X :
20. Are closures and interiors of connected sets always connected? (Look at subsets of
R2 .)
p(t) = (1 − t)a + tb
for t ∈ R1 . Put A0 = p−1 (A), B0 = p−1 (B). [Thus t ∈ A0 if and only if p(t) ∈ A.]
Proof.
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(a) If A0 ∩ B0 6= ∅, assume t0 ∈ A0 ∩ B0 . Since A and B are separated, a ∈ A, b ∈ B,
then for arbitrary ε > 0, there exists t ∈ B0 such that |t − t0 | < ε/|b − a|, thus for
this t,
ε
|[(1 − t)a + tb] − [(1 − t0 )a + t0 b]| = |t − t0 ||b − a| < |b − a| = ε
|b − a|
are separated.
(b) Assume that for every t ∈ (0, 1), p(t) ∈ A ∪ B. Let A1 = {t ∈ (0, 1) : p(t) ∈ A},
for instance, A1 is empty, then (0, 1) = B1 , which implies a ∈ B 0 , contradicts with the
∃δ > 0 such that Nδ (a0 ) ∈ B c . Now for every t such that |t − t0 | < δ/|b − a|,
is open. Now we express (0, 1) as the union of two nonempty disjoint open sets (by
Exercise 19 (b), these two sets are separated), which contradicts with the fact that
(0, 1) is connected. Therefore, the assumption cannot hold, and there exists t0 ∈ (0, 1)
(c) Suppose C is a convex set in Rk , if it is not connected, then there exist two
convexity of C, since A and B are separated, for every t ∈ (0, 1), p(t) = (1 − t)a + tb ∈
C = A ∪ B. On the other hand, by the result of (b), there exists t0 ∈ (0, 1) such that
12
p(t0 ) ∈
/ A ∪ B, contradiction. Therefore, C must be connected.
22. A metric space is called separable if it contains a countable dense subset. Show that
Rk is separable. Hint: Consider the set of points which have only rational coordinates.
Proof. Let E be the set of points which have only rational coordinates, namely, E =
any given positive. Since Q is dense in R1 (which follows from the construction of R
√
from Q), there exist qi ∈ Q such that |pi − qi | < ε/ k, for i = 1, 2, . . . , k. Clearly,
v v
u k u k
uX uX ε2
|p − q| = t (pi − qi )2 < t =ε
i=1 i=1
k
23. A collection {Vα } of open subsets of X is said to be a base for X if the following is true:
For every x ∈ X and every open set G ⊂ X such that x ∈ G, we have x ∈ Vα ⊂ G for
some α. In other words, every open set in X is the union of a subcollection of {Vα }.
Prove that every separable metric space has a countable base. Hint: Take all neigh-
borhoods with rational radius and center in some countable dense subset of X.
By hint, let V be the collection of all neighborhoods with rational radius and center
Fix x ∈ X, for every open set G ⊂ X such that x ∈ G. Since G is open, there
exists δ > 0 such that Nδ (x) ⊂ G. Because E is dense in X, there exists p ∈ E such
that d(x, p) < δ/3. Take r ∈ Q such that δ/3 < r < 2δ/3, then Nr (p) ∈ V , and
13
d(x, p) < δ/3 < r implies x ∈ Nr (p). Finally we shall show Nr (p) ⊂ Nδ (x), hence
Nr (p) ⊂ G. This follows from that for every q ∈ Nr (p), d(q, x) ≤ d(q, p) + d(p, x) <
r + δ/3 < 2δ/3 + δ/3 = δ. Therefore, x ∈ Nr (p) ⊂ G, and thus V is a base for X.
24. Let X be a metric space in which every infinite subset has a limit point. Prove that
this process must stop after a finite number of steps, and that X can therefore be
Proof. The hint almost says everything, let me just fill in the gaps.
If the process described in the hint can be proceeded infinitely many times, we can
during the construction process. Note by construction, d(p, q) ≥ δ for any two distinct
By defnition, there exists p1 ∈ E such that p1 6= p0 and d(p0 , p1 ) < δ/2. Now
since d(p0 , p1 ) > 0, there exists p2 ∈ E such that p2 6= p0 and d(p0 , p2 ) < d(p0 , p1 ).
Since d(p1 , p2 ) ≥ d(p1 , p0 ) − d(p0 , p2 ) > 0, p1 and p2 are distinct points in E, hence
δ
d(p1 , p2 ) ≤ d(p1 , p0 ) + d(p0 , p2 ) < 2d(p0 , p1 ) < 2 × = δ.
2
This contradiction shows that the process must stop after a finite number of steps, say
N steps. In other words, there doesn’t exist any x ∈ X such that d(x, xi ) ≥ δ for all
d(x, xi ) < δ, which proves that X can be covered by finitely many neighborhoods of
radius δ.
(n) (n)
For every n ∈ N , let N1/n (x1 ), . . . , N1/n (xmn ) be the neighborhoods of radius 1/n
such that X is covered by them (this is possible based on the preceding argument),
14
(n)
then set V = {N1/n (xj ), n = 1, 2, . . . , j = 1, . . . , mn }. Clearly V is countable. In
addition, for any x in X and ε > 0, choose n0 sufficiently large so that 1/n0 < ε.
(n0 ) (n )
Since X can be covered by N1/n0 (x1 ), . . . , N1/n0 (xmn00 ), there exists some m ∈
(n ) (n )
{1, . . . , mn0 } such that x ∈ N1/n0 (xm 0 ), i.e., d(x, xm 0 ) < 1/n0 < ε, proving that V
is dense in X.
In summary, X is separable.
25. Prove that every compact metric space K has a countable base, and that K is sep-
arable. Hint: For every positive integer n, there are finitely many neighborhoods of
contains countably infinite open sets is obvious. In addition, for every p in K and
every open set G ⊂ K such that p ∈ G, since G is open, there exists δ > 0 such that
Nδ (p) ⊂ G. For this δ > 0, we can choose n0 sufficiently large such that n10 < 2δ , since
Smn0 (n ) (n )
K ⊂ j=1 N1/n0 (pj 0 ), there exists j0 ∈ {1, . . . , mn0 } such that p ∈ N1/n0 (pj0 0 ).
(n ) (n ) (n )
Since for every q ∈ N1/n0 (pj0 0 ), d(q, p) ≤ d(q, pj0 0 ) + d(pj0 0 , p) < 1/n0 + 1/n0 =
(n )
2/n0 < δ, i.e., N1/n0 (pj0 0 ) ⊂ Nδ (p) ⊂ G.
26. Let X be a metric space in which every infinite subset has a limit point. Prove that
X is compact. Hint: By Exercises 23 and 24, X has a countable base. It follows that
Proof. The hint is detailed enough except for the last sentence may need further
15
in the way to make sure E is infinite. For G1 , since F1 := Gc1 6= ∅, there exists
p1 ∈ Gc1 . Note p1 must be covered by one of the other open sets, say G2 . Now since
can form E = {p1 , p2 , . . .} such that the elements in E are all distinct, hence E is an
T
infinite set. By condition, E has a limit point, denote it by p. We shall show p ∈ Fn .
If p ∈
/ F1 , then p ∈ G1 , since G1 is open, there exists r > 0 such that Nr (p) ⊂ G1 , by
p ∈ F1 . If p ∈
/ F2 , then p ∈ G1 ∪ G2 , as we have shown p ∈
/ G1 , p ∈ G2 . Clearly p 6= p2
In summary, for each open cover {Gα } of K, we can find a finite subcover of K, hence
K is compact.
E. Prove that P is perfect and that at most countably many points of E are not in P .
In other words, show that P c ∩ E is at most countable. Hint: Let {Vn } be a countable
base of Rk , let W be the union of those Vn for which E ∩ Vn is at most countable, and
show that P = W c .
Proof. We will go following what the hint suggests. To show P = W c , first show
whereas by the definition of Vn , E ∩Vn is at most countable. Since E ∩Nr (p) ⊂ E ∩Vn ,
16
contains q satisfy E ∩ Vm is uncountable, implying that E ∩ G is uncountable, hence
q ∈ P, Wc ⊂ P.
at most countable, since W is the (at most countable) union of Vn for which E ∩ Vn
is at most countable.
28. Prove that every closed set in a separable metric space is the union of a (possibly
empty) perfect set and a set which is at most countable. (Corollary: Every countable
separable, the results of Exercise 27 still applies. (in the proof of Exercise 27, the only
property of Rk is that it admits a countable base, which also holds for any separable
metric space, by Exercise 23.) Let P be the set of all condensation points of E,
decompose E as follows:
E = (E ∩ P ) ∪ (E ∩ P c ) := E1 ∪ E2 . (1)
is perfect.
Proof of the Corollary: Let E ⊂ Rk be closed and countable. If E doesn’t have isolated
points, then every point of E is a limit point of E, then E is perfect. But perfect sets
17
29. Prove that every open set in R1 is the union of an at most countable collection of
Proof. For the first time, I found the hint is not that useful.
∼ is symmetric: If x ∼ y, then [min(x, y), max(x, y)] ⊂ U , implying [min(y, x), max(y, x)] ⊂
U , hence y ∼ x.
x < y < z. Then [x, y] ⊂ U and [y, z] ⊂ U . Hence [x, z] = [x, y] ∪ [y, z] ⊂ U , i.e.,
x ∼ z.
∼ classes. Let I be the collection of ∼-classes. We shall show the elements in I are
I are disjoint follows directly from the definition of equivalence class. So it remains
(Theorem 2.47). Take x ∈ I, since I ⊂ U and U is open, there exists δ > 0 such
[x, y] ⊂ U , in conjunction with x < z < y, this implies [x, z] ⊂ U and [z, y] ⊂ U , hence
complete.
18
30. Imitate the proof of Theorem 2.43 to obtain the following result:
S∞
If Rk = 1 Fn , where each Fn is a closed subset of Rk , then at least one Fn has a
nonempty interior.
(This is a special case of Baire’s theorem; see Exercise 22, Chap. 3, for the general
case.)
Proof. We first show the two statements in the problem are indeed equivalent. Denote
T∞ S∞
S1 ⇒ S2 : If 1 Gn = ∅, then 1 Gcn = Rk . Since every Gn is open, Gcn is closed,
hence by S1 , at least one Gcn , say Gci , has nonempty interior. That means,
∃x ∈ Gci and r > 0 such that Nr (x) ⊂ Gci , contradicts with Gi is dense in Rk .
S2 ⇒ S1 : If for every n, Fn◦ = ∅, then Fnc is open and dense in Rk (recall the
T∞
identity (E ◦ )c = E c , by Exercise 9(d)). Hence by S2 , 1 Fnc 6= ∅. Therefore,
S∞ k
1 Fn $ R , contradiction.
Having shown S1 and S2 are equivalent, we will prove S2 only. Let ε be any given
|x1 − x0 | < ε/2. Since G1 is open, there exists r1 > 0 such that Nr1 (x1 ) ⊂ G1 ,
note we may adjust r1 so that for all x ∈ Nr1 (x1 ) such that for all x ∈ Nr1 (x1 ),
V 1 ⊂ G1 . Now since G2 is dense, there exists x2 ∈ G2 such that |x2 − x1 | < r1 /2,
19
T∞ T∞ T∞
∅. By (ii), this implies 1 Gn 6= ∅. Let p ∈ 1 V n ⊂ 1 Gn , since p ∈ V1 , we have
T∞
d(p, x0 ) ≤ d(p, x1 ) + d(x1 , x0 ) < ε, showing that 1 Gn is also dense in Rk .
20