TB 189-Insulation Coordination For HVAC Underground Cable Systems

189
INSULATION CO-ORDINATION FOR HV AC

UNDERGROUND CABLE SYSTEM
Joint Working Group

21/33
June 2001
INSULATION CO-ORDINATION FOR HV AC
UNDERGROUND CABLE SYSTEMS
Joint Working Group

21/33
Composition of the Working Group:
RD. ROSEVEAR (Convener) United Kingdom

F. LESUR France
A. ORINI Italy
B. GUSTAVSEN Norway
A. WIERSMA The Netherlands
P. ASKER Sweden
E. JONQUEL France
L. MARTI Canada
W. FRICKE Germany
SUMMARY
Increasing environmental and aesthetic concerns regarding the utilisation of overhead electrical power
transmission lines is resulting in a growing need to progress the use of underground alternatives. The cost
ratio however between underground and overhead solutions is rather high and it has become necessary to
look at the economics of underground cable distribution and transmission in order to reduce this cost ratio.
One approach is to address the inherent costs associated with the cable system, such as the cost and
design of the cable and accessories and to review the possibility of reducing the required withstand
capability of the cable system in line with “actual service requirements” in order to achieve the cable system
design which is predicated by the transient overvoltage performance.
It was decided therefore that a joint working group be established between study committees 21 (High
Voltage Cables) and 33 (Insulation Coordination) to evaluate the influence of transient overvoltages on ac
cable insulation design.
Two main types of cable system were included in this study, laminar fluid impregnated cables and extruded
insulation cables. The fluid impregnated laminar cables are designed to meet predominantly the lightning
impulse overvoltage requirements which more than covers the ac service design requirements, whilst for
extruded cables the ac service voltage stress level must also be taken into account.
As a consequence, cables in the IEC test specifications reflect this approach, with current lightning impulse
voltages being specified together with an ac high voltage test at power frequency. It should be noted that
the cable internal insulation is assumed to satisfy the required switching impulse insulation level, the cable
insulation is far less dependent on the front time and shape of the impinging overvoltage as compared to
gaseous insulation.
Underground cables are used within ac distribution and transmission systems in many ways. There are
several ways of limiting the magnitude of the overvoltages, the overall network configuration and
characteristics influencing the choice of methodology.
In reality cable systems are likely to be subjected to lower externally generated impulse overvoltages than
overhead lines due to their lower surge impedance. On the other hand, the possibility of insulation failure is
of much more concern as the insulation is not self-restoring. The risk associated with the consequence of a
failure must be balanced against the potential benefits in terms of cost saving.
For a cable system the internally generated overvoltages are also generally lower than for overhead lines. In
particular, for solidly bonded cable systems where reclosure is not applied , internal overvoltages are
generally limited to below 2 times the crest value of the phase to ground voltage.
In some cases the internal and externally generated transient overvoltage can be limited by overvoltage
protection such as Zinc Oxide surge arresters connected at either one or both ends of the cable.
It is possible to carry out insulation coordination studies by taking into account appropriate safety factors and
assuming a specified acceptable failure rate. However, further studies to confirm these safety factors are
required, particularly for the newer extruded insulated cable system technology where there is less
experience and less knowledge of some of the parameters such as ageing that need to be taken into
account. By evaluating the results of these studies the overvoltage withstand requirement can be
established and taken into account in determining the design of the primary insulation of the cable system.
Regarding the withstand capability of cable systems, suitable safety factors for design purposes and
“acceptable” performance failure rates, it is at present not possible to recommend specific changes. It would
appear however that a reduction in performance should be possible in many cases. Each circuit must be
studied on a case-by-case basis.
Some typical network configurations have been studied using numerical simulation techniques in order to
verify these conclusions. Further work is required and guidelines need to be established to facilitate
calculations and ensure consistency.
- 3 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE .......................................................................................................................... 8
2. NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS AND CONFIGURATIONS.................................................................... 10

2.1 CONFIGURATIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.1 Meshed underground network ................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.2 Siphon ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.3 Substation entrance ................................................................................................................................ 11
2.1.4 Power generator output.......................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.5 Auxiliary supply ...................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Overhead line / underground cable ratio ............................................................................................... 12
2.2.2 Type of overhead line.............................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.3 Cable type ............................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.4 Type of switchgear .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.5 Overvoltage protection ........................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.6 Earthing system ...................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.7 Sheath bonding system............................................................................................................................ 13
2.3 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................... 13
3. CABLE DESIGN AND CHARACTERISTICS................................................................................................. 14
3.1 DESIGN PRACTICE ........................................................................................................................................... 14
3.1.1 Cables with lapped insulation................................................................................................................. 14
3.1.2 Cables with extruded insulation ............................................................................................................. 14
3.2 AGEING OF CABLE INSULATION ....................................................................................................................... 15
3.3 SERVICE EXPERIENCE / FAULT STATISTICS...................................................................................................... 17
3.4 CABLE TYPES .................................................................................................................................................. 18
3.4.1 Basic insulation design of high voltage AC cables with lapped insulation ............................................ 18
3.4.2 Insulation design of high voltage AC cables with extruded insulation................................................... 19
3.5 TESTING REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................................................. 20
3.6 CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING ELECTRICAL STRESSES ................................................................................. 20
3.7 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................... 27
4. PRINCIPLES ........................................................................................................................................................ 29
4.1 ORIGIN OF OVERVOLTAGES ............................................................................................................................. 29
4.1.1 Overvoltage Classification ..................................................................................................................... 29
4.1.2 Overvoltages of external origin .............................................................................................................. 29
4.1.3 Overvoltages of Internal Origin ............................................................................................................. 30
4.2 INSULATION COORDINATION ........................................................................................................................... 31
4.2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 31
4.3 TRAVELLING WAVE THEORY .......................................................................................................................... 33
4.4 PROTECTIVE DEVICES...................................................................................................................................... 33
4.5 EXTERNAL OVERVOLTAGES ............................................................................................................................. 34
4.6 INTERNAL OVERVOLTAGES .............................................................................................................................. 36
5. CURRENT PRACTICES FOR PROTECTION ............................................................................................... 39
5.1 PROTECTION DEVICES ..................................................................................................................................... 39
5.2 OTHER PROTECTING METHODS ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.1 Operation................................................................................................................................................ 39
5.2.2 Grounding practices ............................................................................................................................... 39
5.3 IMPACT OF NETWORK CONFIGURATION ON LIGHTNING OVERVOLTAGES ........................................................ 40
5.3.1 Number of ground wires ......................................................................................................................... 40
5.3.2 Conductors' formation ............................................................................................................................ 40
5.3.3 Type of tower .......................................................................................................................................... 40
5.3.4 Conductor bundling ................................................................................................................................ 40
5.3.5 Conductor material................................................................................................................................. 40
5.3.6 Cable sheath grounding and connection ................................................................................................ 41
5.4 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................... 41
6. DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................................................ 43

7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.............................................................................................. 45
8. APPENDIX A: SOME EXAMPLES OF INSULATION DESIGN ................................................................. 46

8.1 A.1.ELECTRICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION .......................................................................................................... 46
8.2 A.2.INSULATION THICKNESS FOR MAXIMUM STRESS ...................................................................................... 47
8.3 A.3.INSULATION THICKNESS FOR EXTERNAL STRESS ...................................................................................... 47
8.4 A.4.DESIGN OF INSULATION ............................................................................................................................ 48
8.4.1 A.4.1.Criterion of maximum stress ......................................................................................................... 48
8.4.2 A.4.2.Criterion of mean stress ................................................................................................................ 50
8.4.3 A.4.3.Weibull statistics without threshold............................................................................................... 51
8.4.4 A.4.4.Minimum breakdown stress........................................................................................................... 52
8.5 A.5.REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 54
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................................. 55
9.1 PRACTICES AND EXPERIENCES ......................................................................................................................... 55
9.2 OVERVOLTAGES AND INSULATION COORDINATION STUDIES ............................................................................ 55
9.2.1 Modelling techniques.............................................................................................................................. 55
9.2.2 Lightning overvoltages ........................................................................................................................... 55
9.2.3 Switching overvoltages ........................................................................................................................... 56
9.2.4 Lightning and switching overvoltages .................................................................................................... 56
9.2.5 Overvoltage measurements..................................................................................................................... 56
9.2.6 Effect of overvoltages on insulation life.................................................................................................. 56
9.3 TESTING .......................................................................................................................................................... 56
9.4 INSULATING MATERIALS .................................................................................................................................. 57
9.5 IMPROVED CABLE TECHNOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 57
9.6 STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................ 57
FIGURES
Figure 1 : Meshed underground network ........................................................................................................ 10
Figure 2 : Siphon, an underground cable between 2 overhead lines.............................................................. 11
Figure 3 : Underground substation entrance................................................................................................... 11
Figure 4 : Power generator output................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 5 : Auxiliary transformer supply............................................................................................................ 12
Figure 6 : Partial Weibull distributions of breakdown time (constant stress) and breakdown stress (constant
time) for an extruded cable insulation ............................................................................................. 15
Figure 7 : Lifetime curve for extruded cable insulation.................................................................................... 16
Figure 8 : Qualitative lifetime curves for cables under electric stress ............................................................. 17
Figure 9 : Distribution of representative overvoltages..................................................................................... 32
Figure 10 : Effect of surge impedance discontinuity on travelling wave ......................................................... 33
Figure 11 : Voltage buildup on cable end due to multiple reflections inside cable ......................................... 35
Figure 12 : Switching discharged cable to a live bus ...................................................................................... 36
Figure 13 : AC voltage U=145/ 3 kV............................................................................................................. 46
Figure 16 : AC voltage U=145/ 3 kV, E(ri)=7 kV/mm, E(re)=4 kV/mm.......................................................... 49
Figure 17 : Lightning Impulse voltage U=650 kV, E(ri)=70 kV/mm. ................................................................ 50
Figure 18 : Lightning Impulse voltage U=650 kV, Em=20 kV/mm.................................................................... 50
Figure 19 : Lightning Impulse voltage U=650 kV, b=8, ri0=20 mm, t0=20 mm. ............................................... 52
Figure 20 : Lightning Impulse voltage U=650 kV, b=40, ri0=20 mm, t0=20 mm. ............................................. 52

TABLES
Table 1 : Typical stresses in service ............................................................................................................... 14
Table 2 : Typical stresses in service ............................................................................................................... 15
Table 3 : Failure statistics................................................................................................................................ 17
Table 4 : Low pressure oil filled cables. Test voltages according to IEC 141-1 [3.8] and IEC 71-1 [3.9] ....... 21
Table 5 : High pressure oil filled cables. Test voltages according to IEC 141-4 [3.10] and IEC 71-1 [3.9] .... 22
Table 6 : External gas pressure cables. Test voltages according to IEC 141-3 [3.11] and IEC 71-1 [3.9]..... 23
Table 7 : Internal gas pressure cables - cables with fully-impregnated insulation. Test voltages according to
IEC 141-2 [3.12] and IEC 71-1 [3.9]................................................................................................ 24
Table 8 : Internal gas pressure cables - cables with not-fully-impregnated insulation. Test voltages according
to IEC 141-2 [3.12] and IEC 71-1 [3.9]............................................................................................ 25
Table 9 : Cables with extruded insulation. Test voltages according to IEC 840 [3.13], IEC 71-1 [3.9] and
Electra No 151 [3.14] ...................................................................................................................... 26
Table 10 : Classification of voltage stresses according to IEC 71-2 ............................................................... 29
Table 11 : Maximum overvoltage that can occur when switching a cable to a busbar, for circuit in Figure 12.
......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Table 12 : Survey of national protection practices for underground cables (for information purpose) ........... 42

1. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE
Background:
In recent years many underground cable circuits have been installed within the distribution and transmission
system in various parts of the world, in different arrangements than were considered in the past. Cable
circuits have been installed between metal clad switchgear with no direct connection to overhead line or
transformer. The cable system comprising cable and accessories have traditionally been designed to meet
a performance as defined by the customer following a national or international specification which in turn
generally refers to transient overvoltage levels as defined in IEC publications.
The question has been asked whether these requirements are realistic or unduly onerous in the network
configurations currently being utilised. It has also been suggested that the performance requirements might
change from circuit to circuit. Improved protection devices and network design philosophy might also
provide some scope for changing the requirements of the underground cable system which could lead to a
more economic underground system.
A similar exercise has been carried out by CIGRE Study Committee 21 in conjunction with Study
Committees 33 and 14 in the context of submarine cables and reported in CIGRE Publication No 86,
published in August 1994.
Terms of Reference:
The terms of reference agreed by Study Committees 21 and 33 were as follows:
• Identification of transmission system configurations containing high voltage cables taking into account
cables operating in cable systems connected to overhead lines via transformers as well as connected
to overhead lines directly or between overhead lines, including the various relay protection
philosophies.
• Description of all types of overvoltages which can occur in the various systems and determination of
the parameters describing the prospective amplitudes and shapes of the overvoltages emphasising
differences to overhead line systems.
• Examination of means for overvoltage amplitude limitation including recommendations for the most
suitable location of arresters and evaluation of the advantages that might be realised.
• For each cable type, classification of factors which may reduce the dielectric strength of cables, joints
and terminations in service with respect to their withstand proven in type test, e.g. ageing, variation in
production, etc., and recommendation of suitable safety factor to be applied in insulation co-ordination.
• Analysis of the existing design and testing procedures in the context of their adequacy and the
insulation co-ordination requirements, including on-site testing requirements.
• Collection of service experience with special reference to failure rates and power availability as
compared to overhead line systems and recommendation of an acceptable failure rate.
In addition it was agreed that cable systems rated at U110kV (Um 123kV) and above, would be considered.
Only the primary cable insulation would be included and not the cable metallic sheath insulation system.
Compressed gas insulated transmission lines were not included.
Approach Adopted by JWG 21/33:

The working group found that the subject matter is rather complex and the way forward in analysing the
current situation was not obvious. A similar exercise conducted by JWG 21/33 on “Overvoltages in dc
submarine cable systems” and published as CIGRE Technical Report No. 86 was initially adopted as a
model. It became apparent however that underground HV ac cable systems are more integrated into the
ac network, rather than being a discreet interconnector, making the situation more complex.

Useful documentation has been collated that describes the current ‘state of the art’ in the field of Insulation
Coordination of HV ac Cable Systems. It is felt that this, together with the comprehensive bibliography will
provide a sound background for further work in the future.

2. NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS AND CONFIGURATIONS
The networks considered are those with highest voltages for equipment of Um = 123 kV and above.
The overvoltages that can occur in a given cable are strongly dependent on the configuration in which the
cable is located, as well as the characteristics of the network components.
2.1 Configurations
Various configurations such as single circuit, double circuit and triple circuit lines with different arrangements
of transformer and generator connections are in use.
Many types of connections comprising overhead lines, underground cables or both are possible and can be
found. The length of such transmission lines and cables can vary significantly.
For load reasons, one circuit can consist of several cable systems.
In order to have the possibility of performing calculations, some typical configurations have been selected.
These configurations, given below, are representative of the various practical situations. Further details
regarding national practices are included in Table 12 for information purposes.
Note that in the subsequent figures each cable can consist of several cable systems.
2.1.1 Meshed underground network
Some parts of a HV network may be entirely underground as can be often seen in large towns where
urbanisation prevents the construction of overhead lines. Cables connect the busbars in the system, as
indicated in Figure 1.
Substation 2 Substation 1
Underground
cables
Substation 3
Figure 1 : Meshed underground network
2.1.2 Siphon
A siphon is an underground cable connected between two overhead lines. It is assumed that no switching
device is located between line and cable. This configuration allows a HV link to pass through areas too wide
for an overhead line span such as rivers or small lakes. The configuration may also permit the transmission
line to pass through or near a protected site or an urbanised area.

Overhead line Overhead line
Underground cable
Figure 2 : Siphon, an underground cable between 2 overhead lines
2.1.3 Substation entrance
An underground cable is often used as the interface between an overhead line and a substation, especially
when it is a gas insulated station. This configuration allows the design of more compact stations, in
particularly when there is a large number of incoming overhead lines.
Substation
Overhead line
Underground
cable
Figure 3 : Underground substation entrance
2.1.4 Power generator output
An underground cable may be used to carry power from an inaccessible generator to a busbar. In this case,
there is not room enough to put a breaker between the generator and the cable. In many hydro power
stations the generator is located inside a mountain. In order to save space the generator is connected
directly to the step-up transformer, without usage of a circuit breaker. The secondary side of the transformer
is connected to an outdoor substation via cable which may have a length up to several kilometres. The
substation (air insulated or gas insulated) is connected to one or more overhead lines.
Overhead
line
Underground cable
Generator
Busbar
Figure 4 : Power generator output
2.1.5 Auxiliary supply
In this configuration, a cable is connected between a high power busbar and the auxiliary transformer of a
power unit. The cable is usually short.

Transformer
Generator Busbar Overhead
line
Underground
Auxiliary cable
transformer
Figure 5 : Auxiliary transformer supply
2.2 Network characteristics
2.2.1 Overhead line / underground cable ratio

The majority of networks consist of overhead lines. Although, at the lower voltage ranges (Um from 123 to
170 kV), a larger quantity of underground cable is used. In some countries, the amount of cable can reach
levels of nearly 20 %. Nevertheless, even in 420 kV networks, a significant amount of underground cable is
or will be installed.
2.2.2 Type of overhead line
Various types of overhead line are found:
- single, double, triple and quadruple circuits
- single, twin, triple and quadruple bundle conductors
- copper, aluminium/steel and full aluminium conductors
- one or more networks (different voltages) on the same tower

- with or without protection wires
- different tower configurations (flat, delta, horizontal or vertical )
A discussion about the possible impact of OHL configurations on cable is given in chapter ?5.
2.2.3 Cable type
Generally it can be stated that within the voltage range 123-245 kV, many kilometres of low pressure
oil-filled, high pressure oil-filled (pipe type) and gas-pressure pipe type cables have been in use for several
decades (40 years). Extruded cables have been used since the early 1970s.
At Um = 420 and 525 kV, the cable type generally installed is low pressure oil-filled cable. Extruded cables
for this voltage range are currently being installed and put into service.
The different cables have different properties regarding the impulse withstand voltage characteristics. Also,
the ageing characteristics are different.
2.2.4 Type of switchgear
Generally SF6-insulated Gas Insulated Substations and Air Insulated Substations with SF6-circuit breakers
are used. AIS with minimum-oil and air-blast circuit breaker also remain in use.
2.2.5 Overvoltage protection
The subject will be treated more in detail in Chapter ?5. In summary, the main types of arresters are air-gap
type, SiC type with series gap and the newest type, ZnO arrester without gap. The latter has been used
since the early 1980's.

2.2.6 Earthing system
In most systems at the voltage levels under consideration, the neutral is grounded directly or via an
impedance. The selected grounding impedance depends on the permissible overvoltages, short circuit
currents and grounding conditions.
In some countries, for networks with Um ≤ 170 kV, the Petersen coil earthing method is still used. There is a
tendency to change more and more to direct or impedance earthing.
Usage of Petersen coil earthing will normally produce higher temporary overvoltages than direct earthing.
For a given system voltage this may result in usage of surge arresters with a higher rated voltage, thus
leading to a poorer protection against overvoltages.
2.2.7 Sheath bonding system
For cable systems Um = 123 kV and above, various sheath bonding systems are used.
In many cases sheath are solidly grounded at both ends. In the case of specially bonded systems (single
point bonded or cross-bonded), SVL (Sheath Voltage Limiters) are used to protect the cable sheath at
positions which are not directly grounded (Ref. [2.1]).
2.3 References
[2.1] WG21-07, "Guide to the protection of specially bonded cable systems against sheath overvoltages"
Electra N°128 January 1990

3. CABLE DESIGN AND CHARACTERISTICS
Insulated cables for 110 kV (Um = 123 kV) and higher system voltages have been used since the 1920’s with
oil-impregnated paper as insulation. By the introduction of oil at a positive pressure as impregnant for the
paper-insulation of the cable, void formation in the insulation (between paper layers, in butt spaces etc.) was
eliminated. The impregnant was maintained inside the cable with a metal sheath.
The improvements of design, materials, manufacturing techniques etc. made an increase of the rated
voltage for the oil-filled paper-insulated cables possible. In the 1950’s the first oil-filled paper insulated cables
were installed in a 380 kV network.
During the 1950’s the technology of extruded insulation was introduced for medium voltage cables. The first
high voltage cables with extruded insulation on 110kV systems were installed in the 1960's. The
improvements of design, materials, manufacturing techniques etc. resulted in cables with extruded insulation
for even higher voltages. Today cables with extruded insulation are used at installations at system voltages
up to 500 kV.
3.1 Design Practice
3.1.1 Cables with lapped insulation

Paper insulated power cables have been used of many years. The experience from the use of low- and
medium voltage cables was taken into account in the design of high voltage paper insulated cables. From
the very early design it was found that a critical parameter was the lightning voltage withstand level. This led
to the lightning impulse voltage stress becoming one of the important design parameters for high voltage
paper-insulated cables. Later, also the switching surge impulse voltage stresses have been considered as a
design parameter, particularly for terminations having gas insulation.
Low Pressure Oil-Filled High Pressure Oil-Filled

High Pressure
cables (LPOF) cables (HPOF)
Gas-Filled cables
(HPGF)
Up to Above Up to Above Up to Above
Um =170 kV Um =170 kV Um =170 kV Um =170 kV Um =170 kV Um =170 kV
kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm
AC voltage 10 15 10 14 8 10
Lightning Impulse 85 95 80 90 60 80
(design criteria)
Switching Impulse 75 85 70 80 50 70
Table 1 : Typical stresses in service
3.1.2 Cables with extruded insulation
During the 1950’s extruded insulation was introduced for medium voltage cables. The cables with extruded
insulation were found to have good impulse voltage strength. With the introduction of medium and high
voltage cables with extruded insulation, the expected lifetime of these new technology cables was
questioned. Very early focus was concentrated on methods for determining the expected lifetime of cables
with extruded insulation.
A number of accelerating ageing tests were started at the manufacturers plants and at test institutions
around the world for establishing the ageing parameters. Different statistical methods were used for finding a
model to evaluate the estimated lifetime from the test results. The Weibull distribution became the world-
wide used method to estimate the expected lifetime for a full-scale cable based on the results of ageing tests
on model cables. Theoretical methods for correction of length, insulation volume (diameter, thickness),
temperatures, threshold stresses etc. were introduced. [3.1]
The results from the ageing tests combined with the experience from medium voltage cables in service were
used for designing cables at higher rated voltages. In the beginning of 1970’s 132 kV cables with extruded

insulation were installed. Further improvements in design, materials and processes made it possible to
increase the design stresses for the high voltage cables, which was necessary for the increase of the rated
voltage to 220 and 400 kV.
Polyethylene (PE) Cross-linked Polyethylene Ethylene Propylene

(XLPE) Rubber (EPR)
Up to 161 kV Above Up to 161 kV Above Up to Above
Um=170 <Um< Um=300 Um=170 <Um< Um=300 Um=170 Um=170
kV 300 kV kV kV 300 kV kV kV kV
kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm kV/mm
AC voltage 7 11-12 16 7 11-12 16 7 12
(design criteria)
Lightning Impulse 70 80 80 70 80 80 70 80
Switching Impulse 60 70 70 60 70 70 60 70
Table 2 : Typical stresses in service
Reference is also made to the papers "Working gradients of HV and EHV cables with extruded insulation
and its effect" [3.2] and "Criteria for electrical stress design of HV cables" [3.3].
3.2 Ageing of cable insulation
The electrical performance of cable insulation generally decreases with time due to degradation processes
of the insulating materials. The mechanisms of the ageing process are different depending on the physical
properties of the materials used for the insulation.
The ageing of cables with lapped impregnated insulation is mainly influenced by the operating temperature.
Gas production in the insulation due to thermal degradation is the dominating ageing process for this cable
type. As long as the gas can be dissolved in the impregnating liquid, the electric withstand stress remains
nearly constant. The applied AC stress does not have a significant influence on the ageing, provided that it is
held below the PD inception stress [3.4], [3.5] and [3.6]. Therefore the effect of electric ageing is negligible.
The ageing process of cables with extruded insulation is significantly influenced by the applied electrical
stress. Assuming, that the physical process responsible for the ageing does not change, the time to
breakdown for a given stress as well as the breakdown stress for a certain time are stochastic values which
are represented by homogeneous distribution functions. The results of many tests have shown that both
values may be approximated by Weibull distributions with two parameters (scale parameters at 63 %
probability t0 and E0, Weibull slopes a and b, see Figure 6).
( E = const ) ( t = const )
p
p
( double log scale )
( double log scale )
63% 63%
a
b
1 1
t0 t E0 E
( log scale ) ( log scale )
Figure 6 : Partial Weibull distributions of breakdown time (constant stress) and breakdown stress
(constant time) for an extruded cable insulation

According to this mathematical model the breakdown probability as a function of time for a given cable at
constant electrical stress is
(
p( t ) = 1 − exp − (t t 0 )
a
)
For the same cable the breakdown probability as a function of the electrical stress applied for a constant
time can be written as
(
p(E) = 1 − exp − (E E 0 )
b
)
The two distribution functions may be combined, so that the complete equation for the breakdown probability
of a given cable sample is
(
p( t,E) = 1 − exp − (t t 0 ) (E E 0 )
a b
)
For a constant breakdown probability the following relation may be derived from the above:
a b
 t  E 
  ⋅   = const
 t 0   E0 
Introducing the lifetime exponent n as the quotient of the Weibull slopes b and a
b
n=
a
the lifetime law for an extruded cable insulation becomes finally (Figure 7)
En ⋅ t = const
log E
design
stress
1
n
safety margin
operating
stress
design required log t

time lifetime
Figure 7 : Lifetime curve for extruded cable insulation
Published values of the lifetime exponent n for XLPE cover the range from 12 to 20.
According to the lifetime law for extruded cable insulation, high electrical stress applied for short time causes
the same ageing as lower stress applied for a longer duration, provided that all other operating conditions
remain unchanged. The design philosophy for extruded cables must consider this effect. Basic values of the
design stresses are usually derived from short-term tests (design stress / design time in Figure 7).
Considering the ageing effect it has to be ensured that, at the required lifetime, there is a sufficient safety
margin (this term should be defined as I do not like margin in specifications, we do not need margin (our
accountants always think that the margins have to be reduced; in IEC 71-1 a concept of safety factor has
been introduced and can be used also for the long term withstand of the cables, the only remaining thing will

be to give some advice of the value of the safety factor Ks for the long term test withstand) left to cover
accelerated ageing effects due to temporary overvoltages, surges etc.
The different ageing behaviour of cables with lapped impregnated insulation and extruded insulation is also
the reason for the different design and testing philosophies according to the relevant standards and
recommendations. Typical differences in lifetime curves for lapped and extruded cable insulation are shown
qualitatively in Figure 8.
log E extruded insulation
lapped insulation
operating stress
log t
Figure 8 : Qualitative lifetime curves for cables under electric stress
3.3 Service Experience / Fault Statistics
The operating experience gained with the high voltage AC land cable system during the five-year period
from 1982 to 1986, have been collected by a questionnaire and prepared by CIGRÉ WG 21.10 [3.7]. The
reported failure rates and average outage times for cables are
Cable type OF PE 1) XLPE 1)

Rated voltage 220-500 kV 220 kV 60-220 kV
Failure rate due: internal origin fail./100 ct.km.yr 0,05 0,14 0,07
to defects of external origin fail./100 ct.km.yr 0,10 - 0,08
Average outage time hours/fail. 176 190 130
1) With provision against water penetration
Table 3 : Failure statistics
When considering the assessment it should be noted that the cable systems differ from each other for
various reasons.
Factors that may have had an influence on the conclusion are:
- The difference in length of circuits in operation.
- The age of the cable systems.
- The average ages of the cable systems surveyed in 1982-1986 are:
- PE-cables ~ 10 year
- Oil-filled cables ~ 20 year
- XLPE-cables ~ 7 year
- The failure mode of the pressure assisted paper-insulated cables is different from that of the extruded
insulation cables. In the case of oil-filled cables failures, in general, are of minor nature, rarely resulting in
an automatic disconnection, while in the case with extruded insulation cable the majority of failures result in
a breakdown of the insulation and subsequently in an automatic disconnection.

The conclusion of the survey is:
- External damage to cables has been a quite frequent cause of failure.

- On extruded -insulation cable systems most failures have occurred after a short period of service.
3.4 Cable Types
3.4.1 Basic insulation design of high voltage AC cables with lapped insulation
The insulation of such cables is formed by a number of thin paper tapes wounded around the conductor. The
shape of the conductor is circular, except for external gas pressure cables, where an oval shaped conductor
is used. Depending on the type of cable the insulation is impregnated with low viscosity oil or with a non-
draining high viscosity insulating mass.
The surface of the conductor is more or less irregular due to the interstices between the single wires. To
avoid electrical stress concentrations at such irregularities several layers of semi-conductive carbon black
paper tapes are applied on the conductor surface. For high voltage cables it is essential to form a pure radial
electric field inside the insulation. Therefore semi-conductive carbon black paper tapes, normally in
combination with metal coated paper tapes are used also over the insulation.
In order to achieve a satisfactory long duration AC withstand characteristic it is necessary to avoid ionisation
inside the insulation. Ionisation can take place in gas filled voids, which could be formed in the insulation by
different rates of expansion and contraction of the cable components during load cycles. Several cable types
have been developed using different mechanisms to overcome the ionisation problem and to form so-called
thermally stable cables.
3.4.1.1 Low pressure oil filled cable with paper insulation
The paper insulation of low pressure oil filled cables is impregnated with low viscosity insulating oil. During
the heating phase of a load cycle the expanding oil can flow through longitudinal channels inside the
conductor (respectively in the interstices of three-core cables) to oil expansion vessels in which the oil is
stored under pressure. When the load is reduced and the cable is cooling down, the vessel forces the oil
back into the cable. Therefore voids in oil-impregnated cables can never occur.
A metallic sheath covers the impregnated core, which can be an extruded lead sheath with reinforcement or
a corrugated aluminium sheath. Over the metallic sheath an anti-corrosion protection layer (compound) is
applied, followed by an extruded oversheath (PE or PVC).
Low pressure oil filled cables are used up to a rated voltage of 500 kV. Cables for higher rated voltages have
already been developed and successfully tested. The power frequency withstand stress of this type of cables
is about 40 kV/mm and the maximum stress under operating conditions varies between 10 and 15 kV/mm.
The insulation thickness are normally designed on the basis of the maximum permissible lightning impulse
stress in the range of 90 - 95 kV/mm depending on conductor design.
3.4.1.2 Low pressure oil filled cable with polypropylene paper laminate insulation
The use of low pressure oil filled cables with conventional paper insulation at extra high voltages (> 500 kV)
is limited due to the dielectric losses, which are proportional to the square of U0. Therefore an alternative
tape material - polypropylene paper laminate (PPL) - has been developed. The dielectric loss factor of low
pressure oil filled cables with PPL insulation is about 2.5 - 3 times lower compared to conventional paper
insulation.
The design of the complete cable is similar to that of conventional low pressure oil filled cables. Insulation
thicknesses are also determined using the maximum permissible lightning impulse stress, which is in the
range of 100 to 110 kV/mm due to the better material properties of PPL. The maximum power frequency
withstand stress is about 45 kV/mm, the maximum stress under operating conditions is 17 to 20 kV/mm.
3.4.1.3 High pressure oil filled cables

This type of cable consists of three impregnated paper insulated conductors, which are drawn into a steel
pipe. The steel pipe is subsequently filled with oil and maintained under a pressure of approximately 15 bar.
Due to this high operating pressure the insulation remains free of voids during any condition of operation.
Regulating equipment consisting of pressure monitors, pumps and valves, controls the operating pressure.
When the load increases and the cable is heating up, the expanding oil flows into a storage container.
During the cooling period the oil is pumped back into the cable.
High pressure oil filled cables have been constructed for rated voltages up to 500 kV. This type of cables has
not been used in recent installations.
The AC withstand stress is approximately 50 kV/mm and the lightning impulse withstand stress 100 kV/mm.
3.4.1.4 External gas pressure cables
The paper insulated cores of external gas pressure cables are impregnated with high viscosity synthetic oil.
Directly over the core a gas tight diaphragm lead sheath is applied which is exposed to an external gas
pressure of about 15 bar. During heating periods the lead sheath expands due to the internal pressure of the
expanding impregnating oil. When the cable cools down, the external gas pressure forces the lead sheath
back to its original position. In this way the insulation remains free of voids. To enable this action of the
diaphragm lead sheath the conductors are oval-shaped. External gas pressure cables can either be
designed as self contained cables (earlier installations) or as pipe type cables (more recent installations).
Pipe type cables consist of three cores pulled into a common steel pipe. The steel pipe is filled with
compressed nitrogen.
External gas pressure cables are used up to rated voltages of 275 kV. The typical lightning impulse design
stress is in the range of 85 to 95kV/mm; typical operating stresses vary from 8 to 13 kV/mm.
3.4.1.5 Internal gas pressure cables
The insulation of internal gas pressure cables is impregnated with a high viscosity non draining insulating
compound. This cable, in contrast to external gas pressure cable does not have a sheath. Either individual
non-laid-up cores, each protected by a gliding wire, or laid-up multi-core cables with flat steel wire armour
are fed into a steel pipe. The pipe is filled with nitrogen at a pressure of about 15 bar. The gas can penetrate
the insulation and fill any voids, which are formed in the insulation by expansion and contraction during
thermal cycles. Due to the high pressure of the gas inside the voids ionisation is suppressed.
The maximum rated voltage, for which internal gas pressure cables are used, is 110 kV. Typical values for
the lightning impulse design stress vary form 80 to 90 kV/mm. Under operating conditions the maximum AC
stress is usually 8 - 10 kV/mm.
3.4.2 Insulation design of high voltage AC cables with extruded insulation
An extruded layer of polyethylene (PE), cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) or ethylene-propylene rubber

(EPR) around the conductor forms the insulation of such cables. The shape of the conductor is circular for
high voltage cables.
The surface of the conductor is more or less irregular due to the interstices between the single wires. To
avoid electrical stress concentrations at such irregularities an extruded layer of semi-conductive material is
applied on the conductor surface. For high voltage cables it is essential to form a pure radial electric field
inside the insulation. Therefore an extruded semi-conductive material is applied also over the insulation.
In order to achieve a satisfactory long duration AC withstand characteristic it is necessary to avoid ionisation
(partial discharges, PD) which can take place in gas filled voids inside the insulation and at the interfaces
between the insulation and the semi-conductive layers. This is achieved by using properly defined process
parameters and by bonding the three extruded layers.
An extruded lead sheath, an aluminium sheath or a wire screen encloses the insulated core. For some
applications the cable is provided with reinforcement. Over sheath/screen there is an extruded oversheath
(PE or PVC).
Cables with extruded insulation are used up to a rated voltage of 500 kV. The power frequency withstand
stress of this type of cables is about 40 kV/mm, the maximum stress under operating conditions usually

varies between 7 and 16 kV/mm. Insulation thickness are normally designed on the basis of the maximum
permissible AC voltage stress.
3.5 Testing Requirements
The following tables provide details of the type (design), routine and after installation tests requirements.
As regards the tests conducted on the cable system after installation, current specifications continue to refer
to a dc voltage test being carried out on the primary installation. The internationally held view however, is
that an ac voltage test is to be preferred for extruded cables. Test equipment is now available to enable
such tests to be conducted on cable systems rated up to Um150kV and can be expected to be introduced
also at the higher voltage levels in future years. [Ref. 3.17]
It is also recognised that type approval tests should be carried out on cable samples that included any
accessories that form part of the overall cable system (joints and terminations). At voltage levels above
150kV, a long term ‘pre-qualification test’ [Ref 3.18] is also a pre-requisit, a test carried out on a length of
cable (single phase) of the order of 100m with accessories included in the test loop.
These requirements will eventually be introduced into the IEC specifications.
It should also be noted that the switching impulse (250/2500 µ s) test requirement is also being
recommended for inclusion in IEC specifications in the future.
3.6 Considerations Concerning Electrical Stresses
The increase in operating voltage means also an increase of the voltage gradient in the insulation of cables.
Criteria for electrical stress design and suitable values have been discussed for many years.
Appendix A gives some examples commonly used world-wide. The reader will keep in mind that these
examples illustrate general practices but are not recommendations.

Table 4 : Low pressure oil filled cables. Test voltages according to IEC 141-1 [3.8] and IEC 71-1 [3.9]
System voltages Type test Routine test

Nominal Highest Rated Dielectric Lightning impulse High-voltage AC High-voltage Test after installation
values voltages for voltage security voltage test test DC test DC
equipment test (15 minutes) (15 minutes) (15 minutes)
(24 hours)
U Um U0 (note 1) (note 2) (note 2)
kV kV kV kV kV kV kV kV
110 115 123 64 160 450 / 550 138 330 290
132 138 145 76 190 450 / 550 / 650 162 390 305
150 161 170 87 220 550 / 650 / 750 184 440 350
220 230 245 127 320 650 / 750 / 850 / 220 528 510
950 / 1050
275 278 300 160 375 850 / 950 / 1050 275 665 560
330 345 362 190 430 950 / 1050 / 1175 325 780 665
380 400 420 220 480 1050 / 1175 / 375 900 770
1300 / 1425
500 525 290 600 1175 / 1300 / 495 1000 870
1425 / 1550
Note 1: Test voltage at operating condition temperature as declared for the cable
Note 2: A DC test may be applied as an alternative to the AC test.

Table 5 : High pressure oil filled cables. Test voltages according to IEC 141-4 [3.10] and IEC 71-1 [3.9]
System voltages Type test

Nominal Highest Rated Dielectric Lightning impulse Test after installation
values voltages for voltage security voltage test DC
equipment test (15 minutes)
(24 hours)
U Um U0 (note 1)
kV kV kV kV kV kV
110 123 64 160 450 / 550 290
115
132 145 76 190 450 / 550 / 650 305
138
150 170 87 220 550 / 650 / 750 350
161
220 245 127 320 650 / 750 / 850 / 510
230 950 / 1050
275 300 160 375 850 / 950 / 1050 560
278
330 362 190 430 950 / 1050 / 1175 665
345
380 420 220 480 1050 / 1175 / 770
400 1300 / 1425
(500) (525) (290) (600) (1175 / 1300 / (1015)
1425 / 1550)
Note 1: Test voltage at operating condition temperature as declared for the cable

Table 6 : External gas pressure cables. Test voltages according to IEC 141-3 [3.11] and IEC 71-1 [3.9]

Nominal Highest Rated Dielectric Lightning impulse High-voltage test High-voltage test Test after installation
values voltages for voltage security voltage test AC DC DC
(24 hours)
110 115 123 64 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 424 or 1.0 U0 = 64 5.0 U0 = 320 4.0 U0 = 256
160 450 / 550
132 138 145 76 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 496 or 1.0 U0 = 76 5.0 U0 = 380 4.0 U0 = 304
190 550 / 650
150 161 170 87 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 562 or 1.0 U0 = 87 5.0 U0 = 435 4.0 U0 = 348
218 650 / 750
220 230 245 127 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 802 or 1.0 U0 = 127 5.0 U0 = 635 4.0 U0 = 508
318 850 / 950 / 1050
275 278 300 160 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 1000 1.0 U0 = 160 5.0 U0 = 800 4.0 U0 = 640
400 or
1050
Note 1: The impulse test voltage shall be minimum 6 U0 + 40 kV or according to IEC 71, when cable is connected directly to an overhead line and is so short, that the
maximum impulse voltage liable to take place is higher than 6 U0 + 40 kV. Test voltage at operating condition temperature as declared for the cable
Note 2: A DC test may be applied as an alternative to the AC test. Routine tests are made at atmospheric pressure.

Table 7 : Internal gas pressure cables - cables with fully-impregnated insulation. Test voltages according to IEC 141-2 [3.12] and IEC 71-1 [3.9]

(24 hours)
110 115 123 64 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 424 or 1.0 U0 = 64 5.0 U0 = 320 4.0 U0 = 256
160 450 / 550
132 138 145 76 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 496 or 1.0 U0 = 76 5.0 U0 = 380 4.0 U0 = 304
190 550 / 650
150 161 170 87 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 562 or 1.0 U0 = 87 5.0 U0 = 435 4.0 U0 = 348
218 650 / 750
220 230 245 127 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 802 or 1.0 U0 = 127 5.0 U0 = 635 4.0 U0 = 508
318 850 / 950 / 1050
275 278 300 160 2.5 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 1000 1.0 U0 = 160 5.0 U0 = 800 4.0 U0 = 640
400 or
1050

Table 8 : Internal gas pressure cables - cables with not-fully-impregnated insulation. Test voltages according to IEC 141-2 [3.12] and IEC 71-1 [3.9]

(24 hours)
110 115 123 64 2.0 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 424 or 0.5 U0 = 32 4.0 U0 = 256 4.0 U0 = 256
128 450 / 550
132 138 145 76 2.0 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 496 or 0.5 U0 = 38 4.0 U0 = 304 4.0 U0 = 304
152 550 / 650
150 161 170 87 2.0 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 562 or 0.5 U0 = 44 4.0 U0 = 348 4.0 U0 = 348
174 650 / 750
220 230 245 127 2.0 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 802 or 0.5 U0 = 64 4.0 U0 = 508 4.0 U0 = 508
254 850 / 950 / 1050
275 278 300 160 2.0 U0 = 6 U0 + 40 = 1000 0.5 U0 = 80 4.0 U0 = 640 4.0 U0 = 640
320 or
1050

Table 9 : Cables with extruded insulation. Test voltages according to IEC 840 [3.13], IEC 71-1 [3.9] and Electra No 151 [3.14]
System voltages Type test Routine test Test after Remarks

installation
Nominal Highest Rated Heating cycle Lightning Switching High voltage AC High-voltage High -
values voltages voltage AC voltage impulse voltage impulse voltage test after lightning AC test voltage
for test test test impulse voltage test DC test
equipmen 20 x 24 hours (if specified) (15 minutes) (15 minutes)
t
U Um U0 (note 1) (note 1)
kV kV kV kV kV kV kV kV kV
110 115 123 64 128 550 - 160 160 (30 min.) 3 U0 = 192 IEC 840
132 138 145 76 152 650 - 190 190 (30 min.) 3 U0 = 228 IEC 840
150 161 170 87 174 750 - 218 218 (30 min.) 3 U0 = 261 IEC 840
220 230 245 127 2 U0 = 254 650 / 750 / 850 / - 2 U0 = 254 2,5 U0 =317 (note 2) Electra No
950 / 1050 (30 min.) 151
275 278 300 160 2 U0 = 320 850 / 950 / 1050 750 / 850 2 U0 = 320 2,3 U0 = 368 (note 2) Electra No
(60 min.) 151
330 345 362 190 2 U0 = 380 950 / 1050 / 850 / 950 2 U0 = 380 2,3 U0 = 437 (note 2) Electra No
1175 (60 min.) 151
380 400 420 220 2 U0 = 440 1050 / 1175 / 850 / 950 / 1050 2 U0 = 440 1,9 U0 = 418 (note 2) Electra No
1300 / 1425 (60 min.) 151
500 525 290 1175 / 1300 / 950 / 1050 /
1425 / 1550 1175
Note 1: Test voltage at maximum rated temperature (+5 K / +10 K) and according to IEC 71-1 unless otherwise specified
Note 2: Under consideration

3.7 References
[3.1] Users guide for Weibull statistics applied to cables reliability studies
September 1983
[3.2] Working gradients of HV and EHV Cables with extruded insulation and its effect
ELECTRA No 139, December 1991
[3.3] Criteria for electrical stress design of HV cables

ELECTRA No. 169 December 1996
[3.4] J. G. Head, P. S. Gale, D. J. Skipper, A. W. Stannet

Ageing of oil filled cable insulation
CIGRE, paper 15-07, 1982
[3.5] P. Gazzana-Priarogia, G. L. Palandri, U. A. Pelagatti

The influence of ageing on the characteristics of oil-filled cable dielectric
Proc. IEE 108(A), No 42, 1961
[3.6] L. G. Brazier
The breakdown of cables by thermal instability
JIEE Vol. 77 1935, 104-115
[3.7] Survey on the service performance on HV AC cable systems.

ELECTRA No. 137, August 199
[3.8] IEC 141-1 (1993-08)

Tests on oil-filled and gas-pressure cables and their accessories
Part 1: Oil-filled, paper-insulated, metal-sheathed cables and accessories for alternating
voltages up to and including 400 kV
[3.9] IEC 71-1 (1993-12)

Insulation co-ordination
Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules
[3.10] IEC 141-4 (1980)

Part 4: Oil-impregnated paper-insulated high pressure oil-filled pipe-type cables and
accessories for alternating voltages up to and including 400 kV
[3.11] IEC 141-3 (1963)

Part 3: External gas-pressure (gas compression) cables and accessories for alternating
voltages up to 275 kV
[3.12] IEC 141-2 (1963)

Part 2: Internal gas-pressure cables and accessories for alternating voltages up to 275 kV
[3.13] IEC 840 (1988)

Tests for power cables with extruded insulation for rated voltages above 30 kV
(Um = 36 kV) up to 150 kV (Um = 170 kV)
[3.14] Recommendations for electrical tests type, sample and routine on extruded cables and
accessories at voltages > 150 (170) kV and ≤ 400 (420) kV
ELECTRA No 151, December 1993
[3.15] F. H. Kreuger, M. C. Lelie

The mean or maximum stress theory – possible solution of an old dilemma
IEEE Summer Power meeting, Chicago, 1968
[3.16] E. F. Peschke, R. G. Schroth, R. v. Olshausen

Extension of XLPE cables to 500 kV based on progress in technology

Jicable 1995, A.1.2.
[3.17] After Laying Tests on High Voltage Extruded Insulation Cable Systems, ELECTRA No.173
August 1997
[3.18] Recommendations for electrical tests, development and prequalification tests on extruded
cables and accessories at voltages >150(150)kV and ≤ 400 (420) kV
ELECTRA No.151, December 1993

4. PRINCIPLES
4.1 Origin of Overvoltages
In the following, a short classification and description of the different types of overvoltages is given.
When describing the different types of overvoltage and their origin, particular reference is made to
causes that are external or internal to the EHV system.
4.1.1 Overvoltage Classification
Overvoltages are classified in the new edition of Standard IEC 71 by different front wave duration:
Temporary Overvoltage (TOV), Slow-front Overvoltages, Fast-front Overvoltages and Very-fast-
front Overvoltages.
A schematic description of the different types of overvoltages is given in Table 10.
Table 10 : Classification of voltage stresses according to IEC 71-2

(with respect to HV underground cable systems)
Overvoltage Associated Relevant

standard clause
voltage shape
Type Origin Characteristics IEC 71-2
Temporary - earth faults - amplitude, shape and Power 2.3.2

Overvoltages duration depending on frequency
- load rejection the origin of the voltage of short
- resonance and ferroresonance overvoltage duration (see
section ?4.5)
- combination of the above
Slow-front - line energization and re- - front and tail durations Standard 2.3.3
Overvoltages energization of some tens to some switching
thousands of impulse
- faults and fault clearing microseconds 250/2500 µs
- load rejections - oscillatory
- switching of capacitive and
inductive currents
- distant lightning strokes to the
conductor of OHL
Fast-front - lightning (direct stroke, - aperiodic (lightning) or Standard 2.3.4
Overvoltages backflashover, induced surge) lightning
- oscillatory (switching impulse 1.2/50
- switching operation and faults operation, faults) µs
Very-fast- - disconnector operation or - front time < 0.1 µs, Suitable 2.3.5
front faults within GIS standardization
Overvoltages - oscillation above not available
1 MHz
- duration < 3 ms
In EHV systems, overvoltages can be generated from different sources, either external or internal to
the system.
4.1.2 Overvoltages of external origin
These overvoltages are generated by injection of charges into line conductors or by rapid variations
of the electromagnetic field in the proximity of the EHV system.
Typical sources of overvoltages of external origin are the following:
a) direct lightning stroke on a conductor of an overhead line or equipment

b) lightning stroke on the ground wire or tower of an overhead line followed by an indirect
discharge on line conductors
c) electromagnetic induction on overhead line conductors caused by strokes in the proximity
of the EHV system (e.g. lightning between clouds or from cloud to earth)

The overvoltages generated by a) and b) are characterized by the injection on line conductors of a
discharge current of high intensity and very short duration that propagates as a uni-directional
(impulse) wave in both direction from the injection point. These charges, propagating along a line
with a given surge impedance, produce a potential rise of same shape and duration.
The maximum value (peak) is reached in time of the order of microseconds; then, the value
reduces to 50% in times of the order of tens or hundreds of microseconds.
For EHV systems, causes a) and b) only are generally producing remarkable effects, while
overvoltages produced by cause c) are generally limited within the lightning impulse withstand level
of the system.
4.1.3 Overvoltages of Internal Origin
These overvoltages may be divided into two main ‘families’:

switching surges
temporary overvoltages (TOV)
Switching Surges. The switching surges are overvoltages generally characterized by a high-
frequency damped oscillatory phenomenon, superimposed to the fundamental power frequency
voltage. These overvoltages are consequent to switching operation on the EHV system (i.e. line
opening or line energization) or fault clearance.
In particular, following to manoeuvres of opening or closing of circuit breakers, steep voltage waves
are generated, that propagate on line conductors and reflect at the points of variation of surge
impedance, like transformers, cables, etc. thus generating a high-frequency component
superimposed to the impressed fundamental power frequency voltage. Typical frequencies are in
the range from 250 to 2500 Hz but very high frequencies (above 1 MHz) can be generated in case
of switching operations or faults in Gas Insulated Systems.
The high-frequency component is rapidly damped due to losses in conductors, earth and corona
losses; typical damping time constant is from few to tens of milliseconds. The maximum value is
normally obtained at the first cycles.
The magnitude of switching surges is in cable systems generally confined within values of 2 times
the system operating voltage (p.u.). Higher values can be obtained in the case of rapidly repeated
operations of closing/opening of the circuit, e.g. reclosing operations for fault clearing, due to the
injection of a new step voltage on a pre-disturbed system. In un-earthed systems not protected by
Petersen coils, a similar phenomenon can be caused by intermittent faults of insulation to ground.
Temporary overvoltages (TOV). These overvoltages have durations from a few cycles to several
seconds. They are in general confined within values of 1.5 p.u. (may exceed 1.73 p.u in Petersen
grounded systems); waveform is a sine wave at fundamental frequency, with an harmonic content
that depends on the presence of saturated ferro-magnetic components like transformers, reactors,
etc.; the significant frequencies in TOV waveshape can be up to hundreds of Hz.
The most common causes of generation of TOV are the following:
a) load rejection: in case of sudden loss of load, especially with long lines and weak feeding
systems, the loss of load can cause an increase of voltage due to generator over-excitation
caused by the change from inductive to capacitive load (open line), generator overspeed
and Ferranti effect
b) fault application and fault clearing
c) line dropping and line energizing
d) transformer energizing
e) reclosing
TOV that are caused by unconventional system configurations or breaker malfunction are defined
as special cases; in some situations, these overvoltage can reach values up to 2 times the
maximum system voltage for very long time durations or even steady state.
The special cases are mainly referred to the following situations:
a) parallel line resonance, that can be caused by capacitive coupling of an unenergized circuit
including shunt reactors with a parallel energized circuit
b) uneven breaker poles, due to single or double breaker poles stuck during closing or
opening sequences

c) ferroresonance, which may occur under particular circumstances between a capacitance
(line or cable) and a non-linear inductance, usually an inductive Potential Transformer (PT)
d) backfeeding, that is the condition of supplying a high voltage system through a transformer
from the low voltage side.
It has to be noted that TOV can be controlled at the design and implementation stage of the EHV
system through appropriate studies and the insertion of suitable equipment and control instruments;
various mitigation techniques can also be applied for control of TOV after the system is operating.
4.2 Insulation Coordination
4.2.1 General
Insulation coordination is the selection of dielectric strength of equipment considering the

overvoltages that can occur and application of protective devices. Thus, insulation coordination
involves an assessment of the occurring overvoltages, the selection of insulation strength and the
localization of protective devices.
Traditionally, insulation coordination has been based on the electrical characteristics of air
insulation. The actual withstand voltage of air insulation depends on the shape of the applied
voltage pulse, which has led to usage of standardized voltage waveforms for the testing of high
voltage equipment. Most widely used is the 1.2/50 µs lightning impulse wave, and for rated voltages
300 kV and above also the 250/2500 µs switching impulse wave. For each rated voltage IEC
publication 71 - 1 defines a set of insulation levels for the respective impulse shapes which the
insulation must be able to withstand. These are the lightning impulse withstand level (LIWL) and for
the highest rated voltages also the switching impulse withstand level (SWIWL). In addition, the
component is tested with power frequency AC voltage.
Because the occurring overvoltages and the insulation strength are statistical in nature, a statistical
approach is in general recommended in insulation coordination studies : For the component under
study, a statistical distribution of the overvoltages (peak value) is calculated by means of simulation
software and is compared with the statistical withstand voltage of the component assuming a
particular shape of the impinging overvoltage (lightning impulse or switching impulse). This permits
the calculation of the risk of failure, as outlined in section 3.2.2.2 of IEC 71-2.
4.2.2. Cables
The withstand voltage of cable insulation has a significantly smaller dependency of the voltage
shape than external (air) insulation. As a consequence, cables are in IEC 141-1 not required to be
tested with switching impulse. Some countries, however, also require testing with switching impulse
at the highest rated voltages.
In the case of cables the statistical distribution of the impulse withstand voltage (peak value) is very
expensive to obtain because the insulation is not self restoring. As a practical solution, IEC 71-2
recommends for the withstand voltage statistical distribution usage of a step distribution changing
from 100% to 0% at the LIWL stated by the manufacturer. This means that the insulation is
assumed to fail if the insulation level is exceeded.
By usage of simulation software it is possible to establish a distribution of the overvoltages

stressing the cable insulation, as illustrated in Figure 9. Each point on the curve gives the expected
annual frequency of occurrence for overvoltages exceeding a given voltage The usage of a step
distribution for withstand voltage then directly gives the expected annual frequency of failure for a
given withstand voltage.

Failure rate [year -1]
Performance
criterion
Urp Voltage [kV]
Figure 9 : Distribution of representative overvoltages

By following the general recommendations in IEC 71-2, statistical insulation coordination for cables
should be carried out as follows :
1. Calculate the statistical distribution of representative overvoltages Urp (peak values) in Figure 9
by means of simulation software (Monte Carlo-simulation).
2. Specify the lowest acceptable failure rate for the cable (performance criterion). The selection of
the required failure rate is the responsibility of the utilities and may depend on the importance
and repair time of the particular cable.
3. From the overvoltage distribution, find the representative overvoltage Urp corresponding to the
specified failure rate.
4. Multiply Urp with a coordination factor Kc to obtain the coordination voltage Uc.
5. Multiply Uc with a safety factor Ks to obtain a required withstand level Urw.
6. Select a standard insulation level Uw from IEC 71-1 so that Uw=Urw.
Thus, the standard insulation level Uw is chosen as follows :
U w ≥ K c K sU rp [Eq.4.1]
Kc takes into account uncertainties in the calculated overvoltage distribution. The uncertainties arise
both due to inaccuracies in the overvoltage calculations, and due to the number of simulations
being finite.
Ks takes into account factors which may lead to a reduced withstand voltage:
a) Voltage shape : When the overvoltage impinging the cable has a slower wavefront than the
standard lightning impulse wave, the actual withstand voltage may be lower than the
lightning insulation level.
b) Uncertainties in testing procedures
c) Ageing : Ageing may reduce the withstand voltage with time. Extruded and paper insulated
cables have different ageing characteristics (see section ?3.2).
d) Dispersity in production : The withstand voltage may vary due to variations in materials and
production. This may particularly be the case for extruded insulation.
The cable apparatus committee (SC21) has not recommended safety factors for cable systems. For
situations with unknown safety factors, IEC 71-2 (section 4.3.4) generally recommends for internal
insulation systems usage of a safety factor of Ks=1.15. It appears that the factor 1.15 originates
from paper-oil insulation and oil-immersed insulation (transformers). Its application to cable
systems with extruded insulation should be subject to further investigations.
It should be noted that the actual withstand voltage of a new cable may be significantly higher than
the stated insulation level. This is done deliberatly in order to take into account dispersity in
production, ageing effects etc. The actual withstand voltage is, however, often not known and the
safety factor (Ks=1.15) should thererefore not be omitted.
Some cable terminals (potheads) utilize air as external insulation. Because of the stronger time-
voltage characteristic of air, the terminals could in principle flashover at a significantly lower voltage
than the inner insulation when subjected to a impulse with slower front than that of the standard
lightning impulse wave. This possibility is not always considered in existing test practices. In UK,

where national practices often require testing with switching impulse, external flashover at the
termination does not appear to be a problem.
4.3 Travelling Wave Theory

The transient overvoltages in a power system propagate as waves along overhead lines and
underground cables. Discontinuities in the surge impedance seen by the wave results in the wave
being reflected and transmitted. The resulting overvoltage at a given location can be considered as
the superposition of all waves at that location.
Figure 10a illustrates a voltage wave propagating along a line with surge impedance Z1. When the
wave meets a line with surge impedance Z2 , the reflected and transmitted waves are given by
Z 2 − Z1
Ur = U 0 = ρU 0 [Eq.4.2]
Z1 + Z 2
2 Z2
Ut = U 0 = αU 0 [Eq.4.3]
Z1 + Z 2
The resulting voltage along line 1 becomes equal to the sum of the incident and reflected wave, and
the resulting voltage along line 2 becomes equal to the transmitted wave. This is illustrated in
Figure 10b, assuming that Z2 < Z1
U0
a)
Z1 Z2
? U0
U0
a U0
b)
Z1 Z2
Figure 10 : Effect of surge impedance discontinuity on travelling wave
Overhead lines and underground cables have a surge impedance of about 400 ohm and 25 ohm,
respectively. Thus, a voltage reduction results when a wave on an overhead line enters a cable,
Similarly, a voltage increase results when a wave on a cable enters an overhead line. A voltage
doubling results when a wave meets an open line end since Z2 is then infinite.
In reality, a wave is attenuated and distorted as it propagates along a line due to frequency
dependent effects in conductors and earth, and corona formation. These effects must be
considered in insulation coordination studies.
4.4 Protective Devices

Protective devices are used to limit the overvoltages in a system. The devices can be categorized
as follows :
overhead ground wires (sky wires, shield wires)
surge arresters (zinc-oxide, or silicon carbide with series gaps)
Ground wires applied to overhead lines reduce the frequency and severity of lightning overvoltages
in connected cable systems. The protective effect is achieved as lightning strokes to the overhead
line are intercepted by the ground wires and diverted to ground, thus preventing the lightning
current from being injected into the phase conductors. However, the phase conductors may still be
affected by the stroke, as the line insulation may backflashover. In that case, the ground wires will
still have a very favourable effect as they provide several parallel ground paths through the tower

footings. This has the effect of reducing the peak value and duration of the overvoltage impinging a
cable system. Backflashovers are a rare event for the highest system voltages if a low tower footing
impedance can be achieved.
It remains a possibility that the lightning will bypass the ground wires and strike a phase conductor
directly (shielding failure). For overhead lines with a sufficiently small shielding angle, the probability
of a shielding failure is typically of the order of 1 %. Also, calculations by the Electro Geometric
Model shows that the peak value of the lightning current will normally be limited to below 5-10 kA
("critical current"), although the peak value of subsequent strokes may be higher. A discussion of
shielding angles is given in [4.2].
Surge arresters of the zinc-oxide type provides an efficient means for overvoltage protection of
cable systems. These are resistive components with a highly non-linear voltage-current
relationship. As the voltage across the arrester increases it smoothly undergoes a transition from
an isolating to a highly conductive state. The arrester is placed at one or both ends of the cable
which is to be protected.
The lightning protective level Up of zinc-oxide arresters is according to IEC 99-4 given as the peak
residual voltage across terminals when subjected to a 8/20 µs current impulse with nominal peak
current. The lowest possible protective level depends mainly on the size and duration of the
temporary overvoltages in the system. The protective factor Kp is the ratio between the LIWL of the
cable and the protective level at 10 kA :
Uw
Kp = [Eq.4.4]
Up
The protective factor should in general be as high as possible because wave reflections may cause
the overvoltages along the cable to be higher than the arrester protective level. Also, the protective
level Up increases if the cable is subjected to a larger current than the nominal current. In general,
the increase in Up with increasing current is dependent on the arrester energy class.
4.5 External overvoltages
This section provides a qualitative description of the lightning overvoltages that can be expected to
occur in cable systems.
Shielding failure
If the lightning current is injected directly at a phase conductor close to the overhead line cable
junction, the lightning current is in effect fed directly into the cable. The resulting voltage is given by
the product of the cable surge impedance and the lightning current. If assuming a surge impedance
of 25 ohm and a maximum possible peak current of 10 kA for the first stroke, a voltage wave with
peak value 250 kV would be impinging the cable. A higher voltage could occur due to wave
reflections, depending on the cable length and the termination of the cable.
The highest overvoltages are expected to occur if the cable is open-ended at the far end. This may
be the situation if the line has been tripped due to a previous lightning flash. If the travel time of the
cable is longer than the time to half value of the lightning current, voltage doubling at the opposite
end will give a total of 500 kV (neglecting attenuation). For illustration, the median value for
negative first strokes is 75 µs [4.2], which corresponds to a cable length of about 12,000 m. For
shorter cables the voltage will become even higher due to multiple reflections.
Several discharges can take place in the same lightning channel. The subsequent strokes may
exceed the maximum current of 10 kA assumed for the first stroke. According to the lightning
statistics, 5% of all negative subsequent strokes have a peak current exceeding 30 kA [4.2].
Voltage doubling at the far end of the cable would for a 30 kA stroke current lead to a voltage of
1,500 kV and wave reflections could lead to even higher voltages. On the other hand, the duration
of subsequent strokes is relatively short, with a median value of the time to half value of 32 µs.
It should be noted, however, that unless the lightning current strikes the phase conductor of the
overhead line within a short distance from the overhead line/cable junction, the line insulation is
likely to flashover and the above suggested high voltages will not occur. The combination of few
shielding failures (about 1 % for a well designed line) and a short line segment (where strokes will
not cause the line insulation to flashover) makes the above suggested high overvoltages a very rare
event.
Backflashover
The majority of lightning strokes to an overhead line will terminate at the ground wires or at the
tower top. As a rough estimate the lightning current will in the latter case "see" the tower footing

impedance in series with the inductance of the tower (about 1 µH / m). If the voltage on the tower
top becomes sufficiently high the insulator string(s) will flashover. As the lightning current does not
depend on the system voltage, backflashovers are more frequent on lines with a low insulation
level, particularly if the footing impedance is high.
The backflashover causes a steep fronted wave to propagate towards the cable entrance. As the
surge impedance of the cable is much lower than that of the overhead line, the voltage wave
transmitted into the cable is only about 10-20 % of the incident wave on the overhead line.
However, the cable voltage will increase due to multiple reflections in the cable, depending on the
time to half value of the incident wave vs. the travel time of the cable. The phenomenon is
illustrated in Figure 11 which shows the voltage at the cable end (B), for two different cable lengths.
The dotted traces in Figure 11 show the voltage when the cable is replaced by its lumped
capacitance. It is seen that the capacitor representation gives a reasonable description of the
voltage buildup. Thus, the increased voltage reduction for the long cable can be viewed as the
absorbing effect of a capacitor for an incoming voltage surge.
Figure 11 : Voltage buildup on cable end due to multiple reflections inside cable
In reality, the situation is a lot more complicated than in Figure 11. This is partly due to the following
phenomena and factors :
• Wave reflections between the cable entrance and the site of backflashover
• Current waves on the ground wires
• Cable termination at far end
• Usage of surge arresters
• Ground potential rise at cable entrance
A typical result from Monte Carlo-simulations is that long cables tend to be subjected to lower
overvoltages than shorter cables. This is mainly because the buildup of the cable overvoltage takes
longer time for long cables, and so it may become halted by the finite duration of the stroke current.
This is also evident in Figure 11. Also, very short cables tend to be subjected to lower overvoltages
due finite steepness of the incident wave. The trend of lower overvoltages for short and very long
cables is reflected in some of the national practices for protection (see Table 12).
Protection by surge arresters
It is common practice to protect the cable by surge arresters at the overhead line side of the cable.
This limits the overvoltage at this end to the arrester protective level plus the voltage drop of
connecting leads. This provides good protection of most cable systems. Sometimes it may be
necessary to provide surge arresters at both ends of the cable, particularly if the opposite cable end
could be disconnected (e.g. due to line tripping). Even when a cable is protected by arresters at
both ends, a higher overvoltage could occur inside the cable due to reflections. In one case [4.4] a
voltage increase of 15 % was found at the cable point compared to the arrester protective level.
In general, a technical-economical optimal selection of rated withstand voltage and protective
devices would depend on the following factors :
• The lightning stroke density

• The system voltage
• Tower footing impedances
• Cable termination at far end
• Location of surge arresters and their protective level

• Others…
4.6 Internal overvoltages

Overvoltages will occur in a cable system when a part of the network becomes connected or
disconnected by circuit breaker operation.
It seems that the highest overvoltages will occur due to cable energization. If there are a number n
of cable circuits connected to a busbar, each with a surge impedance Z, then the busbar can as a
first approximation be represented by a voltage source behind an internal impedance equal to Z/n.
(this representation is valid until reflected waves arrive from the opposite cable ends). If a
discharged cable is switched on to this busbar at the instant when the voltage is U0 , then a voltage
wave of height
1
U= U0 [Eq.4.5]
1 + 1/ n
is transmitted into the cable. It is seen from [Eq.4.5] that the transmitted voltage may approach V0 if
there are several cables connected to the busbar. If in addition the cable is open-circuited at the far
end and crossbonding is not applied, then a voltage doubling results, giving a total voltage of 2 U0.
The situation is illustrated in Figure 12.
It should be noted that overvoltages slightly in excess of 2 U0 may occur in the presence of a series
inductor at the source side. Theoretically, an overvoltage of 2.43 U0 may result at the far end of a
cable when energizing the cable from an ideal source in series with an inductor. However, this high
voltage assumes a lossless system. Reference [4.5] (p. 4.9) shows maximum cable overvoltages
for a lossy system ranging between 2.10 U0 and 2.20 U0 (depending on which cable model was
used), when energizing a crossbonded cable system.
1 +U 0
Z
Z
2 Z
Z
3
Z
n Z
U0 +
-
Voltage (n>>1):
t1
U0
t2 > t 1
2U 0
U0
Position
Figure 12 : Switching discharged cable to a live bus

Even higher overvoltages may occur if the cable contains a trapped charge at the instant of
switching (reclosure). Table 11 lists the maximum overvoltages.

Table 11 : Maximum overvoltage that can occur when switching a cable to a busbar, for
circuit in Figure 12.
Case Max. overvoltage

Discharged cable 2U0
First reclosure 3U0
Second reclosure 5U0
Reclosures are normally not used in pure cable systems as faults are assumed to be permanent.
Thus, switching is not likely to cause overvoltages exceeding 2 times the peak value of the phase
voltage. This voltage is likely to be lower than the protective margin of arresters. Reclosures may,
however, be used in networks with a mix of cable and overhead lines.
For comparison, the maximum switching overvoltages that can occur in cables are normally lower
than those occurring in overhead lines subjected to switching. This is partly due to the strong
electromagnetic coupling between phases of an overhead line and the possible usage of
reclosures. Field investigations indicate that overhead line energization (without reclosure) can give
maximum values of 1.7-2.8 U0 [4.4].
4.7 References
[4.1] CIGRE brochure 63: "Guide to procedures for estimating the lightning performance of
transmission lines", Working Group 01 report for Study Committee 33, October 1991.
[4.2] K. Berger, R.B. Anderson and H. Kröninger, "Parameters of lightning flashes", Electra No.
41, July 1975.
[4.3] J. Huse, K. Olsen and T. Ulriksen, "Lightning overvoltages in cable connections", Electra
no. 58, pp. 81-93, 1978.
[4.4] IEEE Committee Report, "Switching surges, Part III: Field and Analyzer Results for
Transmission Lines. Past, Present and Future Trends", IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 173-
189, 1970.
[4.5] IEEE PES Special Publication: "Modeling and analysis of system transients using digital
programs",
IEEE Catalog Number: 99TP133-0, 1998.

5. CURRENT PRACTICES FOR PROTECTION
This section reports considerations on current practices being employed by the countries
represented in the working group. Some examples are given in Table 12. In addition, the impact of
network configuration on lightning overvoltages is discussed.
5.1 Protection Devices
Three types of protection devices are installed in the network:

• Air-gap: First device available to protect networks: air-gaps are still used nowadays when
other types can be avoided.
• Surge arresters:
− SiC (Silicon Carbide): This is the first technology of surge arresters. Its poor voltage-
current characteristic necessitates the connection with an air-gap in series.
− ZnO (Zinc Oxide): This is the more recent technology. Its quality of non-linearity makes it
possible to connect it directly to the network.
An air-gap is simple and robust but presents a delay before flashover. This delay, which is typical to
gaseous insulation, may be a problem for the protection of solid insulation devices. The flashover
also stresses the network by dropping the voltage very rapidly down to zero, creating a large
transient in the network.
ZnO arresters are more efficient than SiC types because they do not present the time delay and
voltage drop the SiC arresters have because of their series gap. The lack of series gap also makes
the wave forms smoother in networks protected by ZnO arresters than by SiC arresters. Finally, the
intrinsic voltage-current characteristic of ZnO is better than the SiC's. These arguments are
developed in [5.4].
Surge arresters are generally located at underground cable / overhead line interfaces. A cable may
be protected by devices located at either one or both ends, depending on its length, the risk of
overvoltages, the keraunic level and national practices.
It has to be noted that an arrester is efficient only if it is placed close to the cable it protects. The
stray inductance due to distance between protection device and cable may be of importance
because of the high steepness of the wave forms involved in lightning overvoltages.
5.2 Other Protecting Methods
5.2.1 Operation
Cables may also be protected against switching transients by operation restrictions. For example, a
hybrid link (overhead line and underground cable) may not be energised from the cable side, but
from the line side. Auto reclosure or circuit breaker operation proven to give raise to high
overvoltages may be forbidden.
In special cases, insertion resistor, synchronous closing or point-on-wave control may be used to
damp energising overvoltages. These devices are described in [IEC 71-2], [5.1], [5.2] and [5.3].
5.2.2 Grounding practices

High quality earthing of towers particularly near an underground cable will reduce risk of
backflashovers.
The presence of one or more ground wire(s) on the entire line protects the phase wire against
direct lightning strokes and reduces lightning overvoltages and backflashovers by creating a low
impedance return path to ground. This phenomenon is discussed in more detail in chapter ?4.

5.3 Impact of Network Configuration on Lightning Overvoltages
5.3.1 Number of ground wires
Without ground wire, about half of the lightning strikes hitting a line hit a phase conductor, leading
to a severe overvoltage (see [5.5]). The line insulators limit this overvoltage and transform it into a
chopped transient. An underground cable connected to such a line is thus submitted to 3 types of
overvoltages :
- Approximately half of lightning strokes hit a tower. Only few of them have a current high enough to
cause a backflashover, leading an overvoltage to the cable.
- Among the lightning stoikes hitting a phase conductor, most have a current high enough to make
an insulator flash. Thus, the overvoltages caused by these strokes and transmitted to the cable are
chopped. The behaviour of insulation stressed by such wave forms is not very well known, because
they are tested under standard wave forms.
- Few of the strokes hitting a conductor do not make the line insulators flash. The consequent
overvoltages have the same shape as the lightning current, which looks like a standard wave form.
The overvoltage amplitude can be up to the BIL of the line.
If a line has at least one ground wire, the number of these wires has two effects:
- An electro-geometric effect: the more ground wires a line has, the better the conductors are
protected against direct strokes.
- An electrical effect: the ground wires are paths to ground for the lightning current and the more
numerous they are, the better path to ground they represent, so the greater the critical current is.
5.3.2 Conductors' formation

The conductors' formation determines distances between sky wires and phase conductors. The
closer a phase conductor is from a sky wire, the larger is the coupling with it. So, when a tower or a
protection wire is struck, the potential of each phase conductor rises the more close that it is to the
protection wire. Thus, the farther from the sky wire the phase conductor is, the bigger the insulator
voltage is and the larger the flashover probability is. Thus, farthest conductors will be submitted to
more stresses than closer ones.
5.3.3 Type of tower
The type of tower may have an impact on back flashovers. When a lightning stroke hits a tower, a
current flows into it and a voltage drop appears between its crossarms due to L.dI/dt. If the phase
conductors are in a vertical formation, the farthest crossarm will have the smallest voltage, so the
farthest phase insulation will have the smallest voltage, thus the smallest flashover probability. This
effect acts against the coupling effect. These two phenomena have the same magnitude (15 to 20
per-cent). This voltage dropping effect does not appear in a flat formation tower.
5.3.4 Conductor bundling
In HV overhead networks, instead of raising the diameter of a single conductor, n small conductors
(radius r) are often put together in a bundle (radius R). From the high frequency surge point of view,
the bundle is seen as a conductor having an equivalent radius of Req = n.r.R n-1 . Since R >> r,
n
the equivalent radius may be 10 to 20 times r, which has an influence on the surge impedance. For
example, the surge impedance of a line can drop from 480 to 330 ohms when replacing a single
conductor by a quadruple bundle, keeping the same total cross section. This smaller surge
impedance reduces the overvoltage (U=Zs.I) transmitted to the line at a given current. It causes
also the overvoltage transmitted to a cable (Zs=25 ohms) connected to this line to rise from 10 to
15 per-cent of the incoming overvoltage, because of a better impedance matching. Because
bundled conductors are less subject to corona effect, a surge travelling along such a line is less
damped than along a single conductor line. As a consequence, the length to be considered for
atmospheric overvoltages calculation is a little longer for bundled conductors. This effect is not very
pronounced.
5.3.5 Conductor material

HV line conductors are made of all aluminium (or alloy) and may be steel reinforced. Skin effect
prevents the steel from having any influence on overvoltages propagation.

5.3.6 Cable sheath grounding and connection
The way sheaths are cross-bonded and grounded is very important for lightning overvoltages. Main
insulation of cables with sheaths grounded at both ends are normally subject to higher overvoltages
than cross-bonded ones, due to the absence of coupling effect between phases. This matter needs
further investigation.
5.4 References
[5.1] Application of controlled switching in high voltage systems

I.Dalziel P.Foreman T.Irwin C.Jones S.Nurse A.Robson
CIGRE 1996 : 13-305
[5.2] Synchronous Closing Application in Utility Transmission Systems

A.H. Khan D. S. Johnson J.H. Brunke D.L. Goldsworthy
CIGRE 1996 : 13-306
[5.3] "IEEE application guide for surge protection of electric generating plants"
IEEE Std C62-23-1995
[5.4] CIGRE brochure 60 : "Metal oxide surge arresters in ac systems", WG33-06, April 1991
[5.5] Les propriétés diélectriques de l'air et les très hautes tensions

G. Le Roy, C. Gary, B. Hutzler, J. Lalot, C. Dubanton
Ed. Eyrolles 51 1984, ISSN 0399-4198

Country Surge Arrester Type Surge Arrester Location Other protection devices National specificities
Operating practices
Canada - Air-gap (most cases)
- ZnO
France - ZnO : - OHL/UC interface Ground wires on entire OHL
High keraunic level - Other extremity if
Configuration II (siphon) 100 < Length < 700 m
- Air-gap : Other cases
Germany - SiC - OHL/UC interface - Ground wires on all OHL
- ZnO (recent installations) - Additionally at locations where high - Double ground wires near
switching overvoltages are expected OHL/Cable interfaces
Italy ZnO Lower tower foot impedance Large amount of underground cables
Some forbidden operations (1 (830 km of circuits)
case)
Netherlands - SiC (year < 1980) - OHL/UC interface (not always) Always ground wires on OHL Large proportion of underground cables
- ZnO (year > 1980) in the 150 kV network
Norway - SiC (year < 1980) - OHL/UC interface Lower tower foot impedance
- ZnO (year > 1980) - Other extremity if Length > 200 m Ground wire on OHL
Insertion resistor (1 case)
Sweden ZnO - OHL/UC interface
United - SiC then ZnO : Large amount of underground cable in
Kingdom Strategic locations use (3500 km of circuits). Many
When needed (studies to examples of siphons
demonstrate)
High keraunic level
- Air-gap : Other cases
Table 12 : Survey of national protection practices for underground cables (for information purpose)

6. DISCUSSION
Some examples of different system configurations have been identified, based on the experience of the
working group member countries.
The different categories of overvoltages that can occur on the cable system have been documented.
Methods to limit the magnitude of the overvoltage vary from Utility to Utility. There is no standardised
approach and Utilities adopt their own tried and tested techniques. Internally and externally generated
overvoltages can be limited by the use of overvoltage protection devices such as zinc oxide surge
arresters connected to one end or both ends of the cable. Certain operating procedures can also minimise
the impact of internally generated switching surges.
Cable systems are likely to be subjected to lower externally generated impulse overvoltages than
overhead lines due to their lower surge impedance. On the other hand the possibility of insulation failure is
of much greater concern as the insulation is not self-restoring. The risk associated with the consequence
of a failure must be balanced against the potential benefits. As regards internally generated overvoltages,
cable switching overvoltages are likely to be less than two times the crest value of the phase to ground
voltage in magnitude. In the case of overhead lines values could exceed 2.5 p.U.
Two different types of cable system technology have been considered in the study; laminar fluid or gas
pressure cables, and extruded insulation cables. Fluid or gas pressurised cables are designed to meet
predominantly the lightning impulse overvoltage requirement. In satisfying this condition the ac service
stress level is well below the ac breakdown performance of the dielectric. In the case of extruded cables
however the ac service voltage stress is a parameter that must be considered in addition to the lightning
impulse requirement.
The IEC test specifications (IEC 141 and IEC 840) reflect this approach. It is also planned to include a
switching impulse voltage requirement in future editions for system voltages above Um 170 kV (this having
been a requirement in a few countries for some years). It is believed however that this performance
requirement is not a major design parameter for paper/oil or extruded dielectric, these insulations being
less dependent on the front time and shape of the overvoltage compared to gaseous and air insulation
associated with terminations. Switching transients are clearly becoming more of an issue. There is less
information concerning “very fast transients” and the performance capability of cable insulations and
perhaps more importantly accessories under these conditions. It is possible that the standard lightning
impulse is sufficiently representative of very fast transients but the situation is unclear. In the absence of
any significant service problems that could be associated with this phenomena, it has been assumed that
performance is adequate. In the light of the fact that the occurrence of this type of overvoltage will be
greater at the higher system voltage levels, where there is less experience, particularly with extruded cable
system, further work to verify this view would seem appropriate. The deficiency associated with dc testing
of extruded cables after installation is recognised and well documented. With these exceptions it is
concluded that current and planned testing procedures are adequate.
The working group relied on existing published information pertaining to service experience, failure rates
and power availability, in the belief that this information was still valid. More up-to-date information would
however be valuable.
Insulation coordination studies using numerical simulation techniques are perfectly feasible nowadays.
However, account must be taken of suitable safety factors and of an acceptable failure rate. IEC 71-2
currently assumes a safety factor of 1.15 for cables in the absence of any other guidance. Unlike some
other electrical equipment, no specific value is specified for cables. The safety factor should take into
account voltage shape, uncertainties in testing procedures, insulation ageing, variation in production and
uncertainty in calculated overvoltages. The value of 1.15 appears to be based on paper/oil insulation and
requires further investigation, in particular for the case of extruded cables.
Similarly there are no referenced values for “acceptable failure rate” for underground cables although
some Utilities appear to have assumed a certain value, the basis of which is unclear.
The working group has undertaken system studies using the numerical simulation techniques, the
objective being to publish a “worked example” of a typical network. Unfortunately this has not been
completed within the allotted time scale and further work will be required. One interesting issue that arose

during the study was the apparent effect of the cable sheath bonding arrangement (solidly bonded or
specially bonded sheath) on the magnitude of the transient voltage appearing across the primary
insulation. This effect needs to be studied in greater depth.
In order to facilitate such calculations, guidelines are required in order to both outline how the calculations
should be performed, how the results can be interpreted and how to adapt the testing protocol to represent
the requirements.

7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 A greater awareness of the use of protective devices and operating procedures and guidelines on
their application would be advantageous.
7.2 There should be scope for reducing the withstand capability of the cable system by verifying the
actual overvoltages generated in the system with or without the adoption of suitable protection
devices employing appropriate operating procedures. Current network modelling techniques
facilitate this possibility.
7.3 Guidelines should be developed to ensure a consistent application of the modelling techniques, in
making the calculations and interpreting the results.
7.4 Current cable testing protocols are generally satisfactory. However, more attention needs to be
paid to switching overvoltages, slow and very fast transients. The latter considerations could
introduce some additional testing requirements.
7.5 The safety factor ‘k’ (currently 1.15) needs to be investigated for both types of cable with particular
reference to cable system ageing.
7.6 Recommendations should be made regarding an “acceptable cable failure rate”.
7.7 Further simulation exercises are required on specific network configurations in order to verify these
preliminary conclusions.
7.8 The influence of specially bonded cable systems on the transient overvoltages appearing across
the primary insulation needs to be investigated.

8. APPENDIX A: Some examples of insulation design
This section gives some examples in common use. A few diagrams are given for the reference cable of
76/132(145) kV, 630 mm² Copper XLPE.
Further information may be found in reference [A.1].
8.1 A.1.Electrical stress distribution
When an impulse or an alternative voltage U (kV) is applied, the electrical stress distribution E (kV/mm) in
the insulation layer is a function of radius r (mm):
U U
E(r ) = =
r  t
r.Ln e r.Ln1 + 
ri  ri 
where: ri and re are the internal and external radii of insulation,

t is the insulation thickness.
Ele ctrical Stre s s Dis tribution
6
electrical stress (kV/mm)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
dista nce from conductor a xis (mm)
Figure 13 : AC voltage U=145/ 3 kV.
In the case of a radial field, equipotential lines are cylindrical and concentric to the conductor. Stress is
maximal on the conductor (or inner semi-conducting layer), where r = ri, and minimal at the surface of the
insulation layer, where r = re.

8.2 A.2.Insulation thickness for Maximum Stress
From the previous expression, the insulation thickness t (mm) is given by:
 U 
t = ri  exp − 1
 riE(ri ) 
It is possible to draw curves to determine the insulation thickness as a function of the conductor diameter
and the maximum electrical stress considered:
M axim um Stre s s (inte rnal diam e te r)
16 mm
18 mm
8,5 240 300 400 500 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000 20 mm
22 mm
24 mm
8
7,5
6,5
5,5
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
conductor di ameter (mm)
8.3 A.3.Insulation thickness for External Stress
If the design criterion is the external stress, the following equation is easily solved with a few iterations:
V
t= − ri
 t
E(re )Ln1 + 
 ri 
and the external electrical stress considered:

Exte rnal Stre s s (e xte rnal diam e te r)
16 mm
18 mm
240 300 400 500 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000 20 mm
4
22 mm
24 mm
3,5
2,5
2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
8.4 A.4.Design of insulation
Three design criteria for high voltage cables are briefly described as follows: maximum stress, mean stress
and a third statistical approach [A.1 and A.2]. The minimum breakdown stress is also presented as a
variation of the mean stress.
8.4.1 A.4.1.Criterion of maximum stress
Historically, oil-filled cables have been designed for the maximum stress at impulse, according to a
European practice, considering breakdown as a localised phenomenon at the inner surface of the
insulation, where the electrical stress is the highest.
When maximum and external stresses are both considered for the previous example, it is possible to draw
the insulation layer dimensional characteristics as a function of the conductor diameter:

Des ign of the Ins ulation Laye r
95
23,5 insulation thickness
90 insulation diameter
23 240 300 400 500 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000 85
22,5 80
75
22
70
21,5
insulation thickness (mm)
insulation diameter (mm)

65
21 60
20,5 55
20 50
45
19,5
40
19 35
18,5 30
18 25
20
17,5
15
17
10
16,5 5
16 0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Figure 16 : AC voltage U=145/ 3 kV, E(ri)=7 kV/mm, E(re)=4 kV/mm.
The maximum stress is predominant for small conductors, the external stress prevails for large conductors
(the limit in this example is located at a cross-sectional area of 1000 mm²).
For a voltage U and a maximum stress E(re) given, the insulation diameter can be expressed as a function
of the inner radius of insulation. Deriving this function, it is possible to determine an optimal cross-sectional
area for which:
U
ri = and re = e1.ri ≈ 2,718 ri.
E(re )
The optimal cross-sectional area in this example would be located between 300 and 400 mm².
The conductor of a HV cable is almost always chosen on a thermal criterion, a short-circuit current
intensity, or economical considerations due to total losses cost (IEC 60287 and 60949). However, it may
be noted that for small currents, the conductor designed on a usual criterion, despite its smaller diameter,
will have an increased insulation thickness which leads to a cable of a larger external diameter.
The process is similar with an impulse voltage constraint:

85
15,5 80 insulation thickness
insulation diameter
240 300 400 500 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000 75
15
70
65
14,5
60

14 55
50
13,5 45
40
13
35
12,5 30
25
12 20
15
11,5
10
5
11
0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Figure 17 : Lightning Impulse voltage U=650 kV, E(ri)=70 kV/mm.
8.4.2 A.4.2.Criterion of mean stress

The North American practice refers to a different approach already used for medium voltage cables: the
mean stress leads to a thickness constant for a given voltage and conductor size range:
U
t=
Em
where Em is the mean stress at withstand or breakdown voltage (kV/mm).
The following diagram underlines the linearity of the involved parameters...
Design of the Insulation Layer

95
insulation thickness
90
insulation diameter
240 300 400 500 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000 85
17
80
75
70
65
16,5 60
55
50
45
40
16 35
30
25
20
15
15,5
10
5
0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
conductor diameter (mm)
Figure 18 : Lightning Impulse voltage U=650 kV, Em=20 kV/mm.

Combining expressions of Ei = E(ri) and Em, the relationship between maximum stress and mean stress is :
r  t
E m = E i . i .Ln1 + 
t  ri 
8.4.3 A.4.3.Weibull statistics without threshold
The experience on oil-filled cables was discussed once again when high voltage extruded cables appeared
in the 1960’s. A peculiar and alternative approach, based on Weibull statistics, was developed.
According to Weibull distribution without threshold (dealt in section ?3.2 dedicated to ageing), the
statistical parameter b can be evaluated for a reference cable.
This reference sample is of: internal insulation radius ri0,

insulation thickness t0,
length L0,
U
maximum stress: E i0 = E(ri0 ) =
 t 
ri0 .Ln1 + 0 

 ri0 
If we consider a sample j of: internal insulation radius rij,

length Lj,
it is possible to establish a new expression of the insulation thickness for this sample:
 
 
 
 U 
t j = rij exp 1
− 1
 
  2 
ri0 L 0 h 0  b

rijE i0 
  r 2L h  
  ij j j  
2−b
 tj 
where hj is an intermediate coefficient given by: h j = 1 − 1 +  (b≠2).
 rij 

Starting with tj=t0, the equation can be easily solved with a few iterations.
and the reference cable considered:
ri0 = 20 mm
t0 = 20 mm
Lj = L0.
Two diagrams illustrate the influence of the statistical parameter b: a typical conservative value (b=8), and
an extremely high value (b=40).

Design of the Insulation Layer
100 insulation thickness

95 insulation diameter
240 300 400 500 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000
90
22 85
80
75
70
21,5 65

60
55
50
21 45
40
35
30
20,5 25
20
15
10
20 5
0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
conductor diameter (mm)
Figure 19 : Lightning Impulse voltage U=650 kV, b=8, ri0=20 mm, t0=20 mm.
29
95 insulation thickness
28,5 insulation diameter
90
28 240 300 400 500 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000
27,5 85
27 80
26,5 75
26 70

25,5 65
25
60
24,5
55
24
23,5 50
23 45
22,5 40
22 35
21,5 30
21
25
20,5
20
20
19,5 15
19 10
18,5 5
18 0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Figure 20 : Lightning Impulse voltage U=650 kV, b=40, ri0=20 mm, t0=20 mm.
8.4.4 A.4.4.Minimum breakdown stress
The criterion of minimum breakdown stress, based on mean stress, is used in Japan.
Two values of insulation thickness are determined :

- tac necessary to withstand commercial frequency AC voltage,
- timp needed to withstand lightning impulse voltage.
The larger of the two values is then chosen for the cable insulation.
The insulation thickness t (mm) is given by :

U
t=
EL
where EL (kV/mm) is the design stress for the AC or impulse withstand voltage U (kV) considered,
evaluated from the Weibull distribution function.
Values of EL(AC) = 20 kV/mm and EL(imp) = 50 kV/mm are currently used for high-voltage XLPE cables.
They have been improved respectively to 30 and 60 kV/mm for dry-cured cables.
The AC withstand voltage is derived from the equation :

U
Uac = m × K 1 × K 2 × K 3
3
where : Um is the maximum rated voltage (kV),

K1 is the deterioration coefficient under electric stress,
K2 is the temperature coefficient,
K3 is a safety factor for uncertainty.
Coefficient K1 corresponds to the ratio between the time duration tw of withstand voltage test (h) and the
expected life t0 of the cable (h). It is determined by the inclination n of the voltage-life curve (voltage-time
curve) :
t0
K1 = n
tw
For a reasonable value of n=12 for XLPE cables, an expected cable life of 30 years and a one-hour
withstand voltage test :
30 × 365 × 24
K1 = 12 = 2,83
1
Coefficient K2 corresponds to the ratio of breakdown strength at room temperature to that at 90°C,
coefficient K3 gives allowance for uncertain factors.
Values of K2 =1.1 and K3 =1.1 are commonly adopted.
The lightning impulse withstand voltage is derived from the equation :

Uimp = UBIL × K 4 × K 5 × K 6
where : UBIL is the basic impulse level (kV),

K4 is the repeating deterioration coefficient,
K5 is the temperature coefficient,
K6 is a safety factor for uncertainty.
The meaning of coefficients K4 to K6 is similar to that of K1 to K3.

Values of K4 =1.1 , K5 =1.25 and K6 =1.1 are commonly adopted.
A numerical application to our reference cable would give :
AC voltage lightning impulse voltage

Reference level (kV) Um = 145 / 3 UBIL = 650
Insulation design coefficients K1=2,83 K2=1,1 K3=1,1 K4=1,1 K4=1,25 K6=1,1
Withstand level (kV) Uac = 290 Uimp = 980
Minimum breakdown stress EL(AC) = 20 EL(imp) = 50
(kV/mm)
Insulation thickness (mm) tac = 14,4 timp = 19,7
Cable insulation thickness (mm) t = 19,7

8.5 A.5.References
[A.1] Final report of WG 21.04

Criteria for electrical stress design of HV cables
Electra N°169, December 1996
[A.2] F. H. Kreuger, M. C. Lelie

The mean or maximum stress theory – possible solution of an old dilemma
IEEE Summer Power meeting, Chicago, 1968
[A.3] B. Yoda, C. Ikeda, Y. Sekii, M. Kanaoka

Development of 500 kV cross-linked polyethylene insulated power cable
IEEE 1984, 84 T&D 382-8

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.1 Practices and experiences
L.Csuros and K.F. Foreman, "Some practical aspects of overvoltages on the CEGB transmission system",
IEE PROC, vol. 127, pt. C, no. 4, pp. 248-261, July 1980.
J. Lepers, M. Pays and B. Riot, "Outcome of French experience in the field of extra high voltage cables
with extruded synthetic insulation" : 21-101, CIGRE Session 1990, August 26 - September 1.
CIGRE WG 21.10, "Survey of the service experience on HV AC cable systems", Electra no. 137, pp. 47-
59, August 1991.
M.T. Bishop et. al., "Overcurrent protection alternatives for underground distribution systems", IEEE Trans.
PWRD, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 252- , January 199?.
H. E. Orton and R. Samm, "Worldwide underground transmission cable practices", IEEE 96 SM 371-5
PWRD.
9.2 Overvoltages and insulation coordination studies
9.2.1 Modelling techniques
CIGRE brochure 63 : "Guide to procedures for estimating the lightning performance of transmission lines",
WG33-01, October 1991.
CIGRE Brochure 60 : "Metal oxide surge arresters in AC systems", WG33-06, April 1991.
CIGRE Brochure 39 : "Guidelines for representation of network elements when calculating transients",
WG33-02, 1990.
WG21-07, "Guide to the protection of specially bonded cable systems against sheath overvoltages",
Electra no. 128, January 1990.
9.2.2 Lightning overvoltages
A.S.H.A. Hamza, "A study of switching overvoltages on composite feeders - line-cable feeders", Energy
Convers. Mgmt, vol. 36, no. 12, pp. 1153-1165, 1995.
F.A.M. Rizk, "Some recent advances in system overvoltages and insulation coordination", Internation
Journal of Energy Systems", vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 15-19, 1991.
P.P. Barker, "Voltage quadrupling on a UD cable", IEEE Trans. PWRD, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 498-501, January
1990.
E.W. Greenfield, "Transient behaviour of short and long cables", IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. 103, no. 11, pp.
3193-3204, November 1984.
J. Huse, K. Olsen and T. Ulriksen, "Lightning overvoltages in cable connections", Electra no. 58, pp. 81-93,
1978.
G. Maschio and A. Morello, "I cavi per altissime tensioni e le riflessioni a impulso", December 1955.

9.2.3 Switching overvoltages
T. Karasaki, T. Goto and A. Ametani, "An abnormal overvoltage due to load rejection on EHV underground
transmission lines", IPST'95, Lisbon, 3-7, pp. 93-97, September 1995.
Von Hans-Uhlrich Paul and M. Losing, "Schutzschaltung zur Begrenzung von Schaltspannungen",
Elektrizitaetswirtschaft, Jg. 93 (1994), H. 4, pp. 129-134.
G. Maschio and A. Taschini, "Il problema delle sovratensioni manovra nei cavi ad alta tensione", April
1966.
IEEE Committee Report, "Switching surges, Part III: Field and Analyzer Results for Transmission Lines.
Past, Present and Future Trends", IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 173-189, 1970.
9.2.4 Lightning and switching overvoltages
L. Csuros and K.F. Foreman, "Some practical aspects of overvoltages on the CEGB transmission system",
IEE Proc., vol. 127, pt. C, no. 4, pp. 248-261, July 1980.
C.F. Wagner, "Insulation co-ordination", AIEE Technical Paper 52-278, August 1952.
9.2.5 Overvoltage measurements
R.A Walling and R.D. Melchior, "Measurement of cable switching transients in underground distribution
systems", IEEE Trans. PWRD, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 534-539, January 1995.
M. Ermel, J. Pannicke and M. Henschel, "Field measurements and modelling of the transients propagation
properties of a 380 kV cable system of 7.5 km length at BEWAG, Berlin", ?????.
Von Hans-Uhlrich Paul and M. Losing, "Die Beanspruchung der Leiter und Mantelisolation von Kunststoff-
Hochspannungskabeln durch Schaltspannungen", Elektrizitaetswirtschaft, Jg. 92 (1993), H. 4, pp. 1746-
1752.
9.2.6 Effect of overvoltages on insulation life
R.A. Hartlein, V.S. Harper and H.W. Ng, "Effects of voltage surges on extruded dielectric cable life. Project
update", IEEE Trans. PWRD, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 611-619, April 1994.
R.A. Hartlein, V.S. Harper and H.W. Ng, "Effects of voltage surges on extruded dielectric cable life", IEEE
Trans. PWRD, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 829-842, April 1989.
R.H. Hopkinson, "Better surge protection extends URD cable life", IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. 103, pp. 2827-
2836, October 1984.
9.3 Testing
H. Ota et. al., "Application of advanced after-laying test to long-distance 275 kV XLPE cable lines", IEEE
Trans. PWRD, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 567- , April 1995.
R. Bartnikas, R.J. Densley and R.M. Eichhorn, "Accelerated aging test for polymer insulated cables under
wet conditions", IEEE Trans. PWRD, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 929- , July 1991.
K. Helling et. al., "Prequalification test of 400 kV XLPE cable systems", pp. 11-15, Jicable 95

9.4 Insulating materials
F.H. Kreuger and M.C. Lelie, "The mean or maximum stress theory - Possible solution of an old dilemma",
IEEE paper 68 TP 601 - PWR, 1968.
J. Midoz (on behalf of WG21-09), "Working gradients of HV and EHV cables with extruded insulation and
its effect", Electra no. 139, December 1991.
A.J. Vandermaar, M. Wang, J.B. Neilson and K.D. Srivastava, "The electrical breakdown characteristics of
oil-paper insulation under steep front impulse voltages", IEEE Trans. PWRD, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1926-
October 1994.
CIGRE Working Group 21.04, "Criteria for electrical stress design of HV cables", Electra no. 169,
December 1996.
J.G. Head, P.S. Gale, D.J. Skipper and A.W. Stannett, "Ageing of oil-filled cable insulation", CIGRE 1982.
9.5 Improved cable technology
E. Peschke, R. Schroth, R Olshausen, "Extension of XLPE cables to 500 kV based on progress in

technology", paper A.1.2., Jicable ‘95.
9.6 Standards and recommendations
IEC PUBLICATION 71-1, "Insulation co-ordination. Part 1 : Definitions, principles and rules", Seventh
edition, 1993-12.
IEC PUBLICATION 71-2, "Insulation co-ordination. Part 2 : Application Guide", Third edition, 1996-12.

Le CIGRÉ a apporté le plus grand soin à la réalisation de cette brochure thématique numérique afin de vous
fournir une information complète et fiable.
Cependant, le CIGRÉ ne pourra en aucun cas être tenu responsable des préjudices ou dommages de quelque
nature que ce soit pouvant résulter d’une mauvaise utilisation des informations contenues dans cette brochure.
Publié par le CIGRÉ

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Tél. : +33 1 53 89 12 90
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information contained therein.
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INSULATION CO-ORDINATION FOR HV AC

Joint Working Group

Joint Working Group

Composition of the Working Group:

RD. ROSEVEAR (Convener) United Kingdom

- 3 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

2. NETWORK CHARACTERISTICS AND CONFIGURATIONS.................................................................... 10

- 5 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

8. APPENDIX A: SOME EXAMPLES OF INSULATION DESIGN ................................................................. 46

- 6 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

- 7 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

Approach Adopted by JWG 21/33:

- 8 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

- 9 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

Figure 1 : Meshed underground network

- 10 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

Figure 2 : Siphon, an underground cable between 2 overhead lines

2.1.3 Substation entrance

Figure 3 : Underground substation entrance

2.1.4 Power generator output

Figure 4 : Power generator output

2.1.5 Auxiliary supply

- 11 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

Figure 5 : Auxiliary transformer supply

2.2 Network characteristics

2.2.1 Overhead line / underground cable ratio

- one or more networks (different voltages) on the same tower

- 12 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

- 13 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

3.1 Design Practice

3.1.1 Cables with lapped insulation

Low Pressure Oil-Filled High Pressure Oil-Filled

Table 1 : Typical stresses in service

3.1.2 Cables with extruded insulation

- 14 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

Polyethylene (PE) Cross-linked Polyethylene Ethylene Propylene

Table 2 : Typical stresses in service

( double log scale )

- 15 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

design required log t

Figure 7 : Lifetime curve for extruded cable insulation

- 16 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

log E extruded insulation

Figure 8 : Qualitative lifetime curves for cables under electric stress

3.3 Service Experience / Fault Statistics

Cable type OF PE 1) XLPE 1)

Table 3 : Failure statistics

- 17 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

- External damage to cables has been a quite frequent cause of failure.

3.4 Cable Types

3.4.1.1 Low pressure oil filled cable with paper insulation

3.4.1.3 High pressure oil filled cables

- 18 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

3.4.1.4 External gas pressure cables

3.4.1.5 Internal gas pressure cables

3.4.2 Insulation design of high voltage AC cables with extruded insulation

An extruded layer of polyethylene (PE), cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) or ethylene-propylene rubber

- 19 / 57 - Cigre Report JWG21/33

3.5 Testing Requirements

These requirements will eventually be introduced into the IEC specifications.

3.6 Considerations Concerning Electrical Stresses

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