LAB REPORT

SFL1013
TECHNIQUES IN PHYSICS LABORATORY

LABORATORY 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

NAME : MUHAMMAD AMIRUDDIN BIN MD SHAH

NO. METRIC : E20171016971
GROUP : E
LECTURE NAME : DR. MAHIZAH BINTI ISMAIL
PRE LAB
Voltmeter

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
VOLTMETER AND TECHNICAL
SPECIFICATIONS
The main principle of voltmeter is that it
must be connected in parallel in which
we want to measure the voltage. Parallel
connection is used because a voltmeter
is constructed in such a way that it has a
very high value of resistance. So if that
high resistance is connected in series
than the current flow will be almost zero which means the circuit has become open. If
it is connected in parallel, than the load impedance comes parallel with the high
resistance of the voltmeter and hence the combination will give almost the same the
impedance that the load had. Also in parallel circuit we know that the voltage is same
so the voltage between the voltmeter and the load is almost same and hence voltmeter
measures the voltage.
For an ideal voltmeter, we have the resistance is to be infinity and hence the current
drawn to be zero so there will be no power loss in the instrument. But this is not
achievable practically as we cannot have a material which has infinite resistance.

Ammeter
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AMMETER
AND TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
The main principle of ammeter is that it
must have a very low resistance and also
inductive reactance. Now, why do we need
this? Can't we connect an ammeter in
parallel? The answer to this question is it
has very low impedance because it must
have very low amount of voltage drop
across it and must be connected in series
connection because current is same in the
series circuit. Also due to very low
impedence the power loss will be low and
if it is connected in parallel it becomes
almost a short circuited path and all the current will flow through ammeter as a result
of high current the instrument may burn. So due to this reason it must be connected in
series. For an ideal ammeter, it must have zero impedance so that it has zero voltage
drop across it so the power loss in the instrument is zero. But the ideal is not
achievable practically.
Galvanometer

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
GALVANOMETER AND TECHNICAL
SPECIFICATIONS
Galvanometer is an electromechanical
instrument which is used for the detection
of electric currents through electric
circuits. Being a sensitive instrument,
Galvanometer can not be used for the
measurement of heavy currents. However
we can measure very small currents by
using galvanometer but the primary purpose of galvanometer is the detection of
electric current not the measurement of current.Galvanometer works on the principle
of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a current flows
in a magnetic field it experiences a magnetic torque. If it is free to rotate under a
controlling torque, it rotates through an angle proportional to the current flowing
through it.
There are five essential parts of a Galvanometer.
1. A U-shaped permanent magnet with concave poles.
2. Flat rectangular coil of thin enameled insulated wire ‘C’.
3. A soft iron cylinder 'B'.
4. A pointer or needle.
5. A scale.

Multimeter
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DIGITAL
MULTIMETER AND TECHNICAL
SPECIFICATIONS
As shown in block diagram, in a typical
Digital multimeter the input signal i.e ac or
dc voltage, current, resistance, temperature
or any other parameter is converted to dc
voltage within the range of the ADC. The
analog to digital converter then converts
the pre-scaled dc voltage into its equivalent
digital numbers which will be displayed on
the display unit. Sometimes, digital
controller block is implemented with a
microcontroller or a microprocessor
manages the flow of information within the instrument. This block will coordinate all
the internal functions as well as transferring information to external devices such as
printers or personal computer. In the case of some hand held multimeter, some of or
all of these blocks may be implemented in a VLSI circuit while A/D converter and
display driver can be in the same IC.
DMM working block diagram

Digital multimeter is most advanced instruments that make use of modern Integrated
circuits for making electrical measurements. Some of its features which make it
famous in the eyes of professional technicians are:
-It is light in weight.
-Capable of giving more accurate readings.
-It measures lots of physical quantities like voltage, current, resistance, frequency etc.
-It is less costly.
-It measures different electrical parameters at high frequencies with the help of special
probes.

Thermometer
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
THERMOMETER AND TECHNICAL
SPECIFICATIONS
The type that most of us are familiar with from
science class is the type that consists of a
liquid encased in a narrow glass column. Older
thermometers of this type used liquid mercury.
In response to our understanding of the health
concerns associated with mercury exposure,
these types of thermometers usually use some
type of liquid alcohol. These liquid
thermometers are based on the principal of
thermal expansion. When a substance gets
hotter, it expands to a greater volume. Nearly all substances exhibit this behavior of
thermal expansion. It is the basis of the design and operation of thermometers.
As the temperature of the liquid in a thermometer increases, its volume increases. The
liquid is enclosed in a tall, narrow glass (or plastic) column with a constant
cross-sectional area. The increase in volume is thus due to a change in height of the
liquid within the column. The increase in volume, and thus in the height of the liquid
column, is proportional to the increase in temperature. Suppose that a 10-degree
increase in temperature causes a 1-cm increase in the column's height. Then a
20-degree increase in temperature will cause a 2-cm increase in the column's height.
And a 30-degree increase in temperature will cause s 3-cm increase in the column's
height. The relationship between the temperature and the column's height is linear
over the small temperature range for which the thermometer is used. This linear
relationship makes the calibration of a thermometer a relatively easy task.
The calibration of any measuring tool involves the placement of divisions or marks
upon the tool to measure a quantity accurately in comparison to known standards.
Any measuring tool - even a meter stick - must be calibrated. The tool needs divisions
or markings; for instance, a meter stick typically has markings every 1-cm apart or
every 1-mm apart. These markings must be accurately placed and the accuracy of
their placement can only be judged when comparing it to another object that is
precisely known to have a certain length.
A thermometer is calibrated by using two objects of known temperatures. The typical
process involves using the freezing point and the boiling point of pure water. Water is
known to freeze at 0°C and to boil at 100°C at an atmospheric pressure of 1 atm. By
placing a thermometer in mixture of ice water and allowing the thermometer liquid to
reach a stable height, the 0-degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer.
Similarly, by placing the thermometer in boiling water (at 1 atm of pressure) and
allowing the liquid level to reach a stable height, the 100-degree mark can be placed
upon the thermometer. With these two markings placed upon the thermometer, 100
equally spaced divisions can be placed between them to represent the 1-degree marks.
Since there is a linear relationship between the temperature and the height of the
liquid, the divisions between 0 degree and 100 degree can be equally spaced. With a
calibrated thermometer, accurate measurements can be made of the temperature of
any object within the temperature range for which it has been calibrated.

Temperature sensor

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TEMPERATURE SENSOR AND TECHNICAL

SPECIFICATION
The Wireless Temperature Sensor can perform most of the functions of the
PASPORT Temperature Sensor and long-term temperature data can be logged
directly onto the sensor. Best of all, it connects directly to your computers, tablets,
smartphones and Chromebooks without the need for an interface and with no cables
to get in the way. Our Temperature Sensor is reason enough to make the switch to
probeware! Its stainless steel probe is more durable than a glass thermometer,
allowing for years of student use. Its fast response rate means students spend more
time analyzing data and less time waiting for results. The sensor's wide range (–35 °C
to +135 °C ) covers the majority of temperature experiments in the student lab.High
resolution (0.0025 °C) allows students to investigate the small but significant
temperature changes produced by chemical reactions, convection currents and skin
temperatures at various points on the body.Interchangeable probes – can be used with
stainless steel, fast response or surface temperature probes. No recalibration required.
Thermocouple made by two different metal wires joined at one end,this joint ends is
placed in a temperature zone where temperature should be measured called “hot zone”
and the other end of thermocouple where two metal wire are open(not connected or
joined) placed in a low room temperature called “cold zone or reference
temperature.”.
Now two ends of this metal pair are placed in two different temperature zone.A net
thermoelectric voltage is generated according to the temperature difference between
two ends.This voltage is measured in the open pair placed in cold zone or reference
zone. Facts of thermocouple,two metal wire as a pair measures temperature in terms
of voltage. Hot zone is the temperature to be measured ,two metal joint together. Cold
zone established in the PLC section or in the panel,voltage measured in the open
wires.

Varnier calipers

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF VARNIER CALIPERS AND TECHNICAL

SPECIFICATION
The Vernier Caliper is constructed of a few simple components that fit together to
make it work. These parts are not very complex and have been perfected over the
years to give performance at low costs. However as is the case with most tools, the
better and smoother the performance gets, the higher the price gets. The Vernier
Calipers main components are its jaws. There are two types of jaws, the upper and
lower jaws which are used to measure inside and outside dimensions respectively.
One of these jaws is moving while the other is fixed. The fixed jaw is connected to the
main scale of the caliper while the moving jaw is connected to the Vernier scale.
The Main body or frame of the Vernier caliper contains a large scale that runs down
its length. This scale is known as the main scale and is graduated in centimetres. The
smallest value or the least count of the main scale is 1 millimetre. The vernier scale is
smaller than the main scale and also contains up to 50 graduations. The vernier scale
graduations are used to further divide the least measurement of the main scale i.e if 50
divisions are present the value of 1mm can be further divided into 50 parts.
The Vernier scale uses the basic principle of alignment of line segments to improve
the accuracy of the readings. When a certain graduation on the vernier scale aligns
with a graduation on the main scale. The value of the vernier scale reading is added to
the main scale reading to obtain the decimal value of the reading in millimetres.
This is made possible by the difference in the spacing between the graduations on
both the scale. The main scale is graduated like a normal meter rule with each mark at
a distance of 1 mm. However the vernier scale has different distance between the
graduations. This spacing is normally of 0.9 mm. In this way if the zero markings on
the vernier scale is aligned with the zero on the main scale, then the first mark on the
vernier scale will be 0.1 mm before the first mark on the main scale.
Similarly the second mark will be 0.1*2 = 0.2 mm short of the corresponding mark
on the main scale. This will carry on for the subsequent marks with the third mark 0.3
mm before, the fourth 0.4mm till the 10th mark on the vernier scale which will be
exactly 1 mm behind the 10th mark on the main scale.
Let us now imagine that we are measuring an object 8.7 mm in length. The jaws will
be opened that length and the vernier scale will slide forward on the main scale. The
zero mark of the Vernier scale will slide a total of 8.7 mm and will end up somewhere
between the 8 and 9 mm marks on the vernier scale. In fact it will be ahead of the
8mm mark by 0.7 mm.
The next mark on the vernier scale which was previously behind the corresponding
mark on the main scale by 0.1 mm will now be 0.7-0.1= 0.6 mm ahead. Similarly the
2nd mark will be 0.7-0.2= 0.5 mm ahead. However the 7th mark on the vernier scale
which was behind its corresponding mark by 0.7 mm will now move ahead and
become perfectly aligned with that mark on the main scale. Thus the value of the
vernier scale will be 0.7mm and this will be added to the main scale reading of 8 to
give the reading of 8.7 mm.
This principle works because the alignment can be detected easily by the human eye
and noted to find the accurate measurement. So you can rest easy now that you have
understood the mystery behind the simple genius behind the working of the Vernier
Caliper.
Micrometer screw gauge

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE AND TECHNICAL

SPECIFICATION
Micrometers use the principle of a screw to amplify small distances (that are too small
to measure directly) into large rotations of the screw that are big enough to read from a
scale. The accuracy of a micrometer derives from the accuracy of the thread-forms that
are central to the core of its design. In some cases it is a differential screw. The basic
operating principles of a micrometer are as follows:
The amount of rotation of an accurately made screw can be directly and precisely
correlated to a certain amount of axial movement (and vice versa), through the constant
known as the screw's lead (/ˈliːd/). A screw's lead is the distance it moves forward
axially with one complete turn (360°). (In most threads [that is, in all single-start
threads], lead and pitch refer to essentially the same concept.)
With an appropriate lead and major diameter of the screw, a given amount of axial
movement will be amplified in the resulting circumferential movement.
For example, if the lead of a screw is 1 mm, but the major diameter (here, outer
diameter) is 10 mm, then the circumference of the screw is 10π, or about 31.4 mm.
Therefore, an axial movement of 1 mm is amplified (magnified) to a circumferential
movement of 31.4 mm. This amplification allows a small difference in the sizes of two
similar measured objects to correlate to a larger difference in the position of a
micrometer's thimble. In some micrometers, even greater accuracy is obtained by using
a differential screw adjuster to move the thimble in much smaller increments than a
single thread would allow.
In classic-style analog micrometers, the position of the thimble is read directly from
scale markings on the thimble and sleeve (for names of parts see next section). A
vernier scale is often included, which allows the position to be read to a fraction of the
smallest scale mark. In digital micrometers, an electronic readout displays the length
digitally on an LCD on the instrument. There also exist mechanical-digit versions, like
the style of car odometers where the numbers "roll over".
Resistor
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF RESISTOR
AND TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
A resistor is a little package of resistance: wire
it into a circuit and you reduce the current by a
precise amount. From the outside, all resistors
look more or less the same. As you can see in
the top photo on this page, a resistor is a short,
worm-like component with colored stripes on
the side. It has two connections, one on either side, so you can hook it into a circuit.
What's going on inside a resistor? If you break one open, and scratch off the outer
coating of insulating paint, you might see an insulating ceramic rod running through
the middle with copper wire wrapped around the outside. A resistor like this is
described as wire-wound. The number of copper turns controls the resistance very
precisely: the more copper turns, and the thinner the copper, the higher the resistance.
In smaller-value resistors, designed for lower-power circuits, the copper winding is
replaced by a spiral pattern of carbon. Resistors like this are much cheaper to make
and are called carbon-film. Generally, wire-wound resistors are more precise and
more stable at higher operating temperatures. How does the size of a resistor affect its
resistance?
Suppose you're trying to force water through a pipe. Different sorts of pipes will be
more or less obliging, so a fatter pipe will resist the water less than a thinner one and a
shorter pipe will offer less resistance than a longer one. If you fill the pipe with, say,
pebbles or sponge, water will still trickle through it but much more slowly. In other
words, the length, cross-sectional area (the area you see looking into the pipe to see
what's inside), and stuff inside the pipe all affect its resistance to water.
Electrical resistors are very similar—affected by the same three factors. If you make a
wire thinner or longer, it's harder for electrons to wiggle through it. And, as we've
already seen, it's harder for electricity to flow through some materials (insulators) than
others (conductors). Although Georg Ohm is best known for relating voltage, current,
and resistance, he also researched the relationship between resistance and the size and
type of material from which a resistor is made.
ABSTRACT
Physics, as an experimental science, requires not only measurement but also an
understood agreement among experimenters pertaining to the standards used in
measurements.The objective of this lab is to become a students more familiar with
these units of measurements and to demonstrate how to use the instruments used in
the physics laboratory. First introduce the students to commonly used measuring
instruments in physics laboratory.Enable the students to identify the smallest unit of
each instruments.Enable the students to identify and write the value of uncertainty
that is asociated to the measuring instruments and to the measurement itself. Develop
the basics exsperimental skills including handling of measuring devices,taking
measurements, using appropriate instruments and etc. In this experiment students will
know how to use a temperature sensor,digital multimeter,voltage current
sensor,Vernier calliper and etc.

INTRODUCTION
Measurement is a science process skil that students are expected to master quite early
in their education. Rules for recording measurements are simple. The measuring
device determines the precision (decimal place) or uncertainty (    ) to which the
measurements are recorded. Record what the device allows you to know for sure, and
write the uncertainly associated with it.

OBJECTIVES
These activities are aimed to:
1. Introduce the students to commonly used measuring instruments in physics
laboratory.
2. Enable the students to identify the smallest unit of each instruments.
3. Enable the students to identify and write the value of uncertainty that is
asociated to the measuring instruments and to the measurement itself.
4. Develop the basics exsperimental skills including handling of measuring
devices,taking measurements, using appropriate instruments and etc. In this
experiment students will know how to use a temperature sensor,digital
multimeter,voltage current sensor,Vernier calliper and etc.

APPARATUS
 Resistor E
 Light bulb
 Temperature sensor
 Thermometer
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
  Digital multimeter
 Voltage current sensor
 Vernier calliper
 Micrometer screw gauge
 Sprng scale
 Electronic balance

METHODS / METHODOLOGY
 Observation
 Measurement
 Calculations
 Record data and present data

PROCEDURE

MEASUREMENT A
Using thermometer
1. Identify the smallest unit of thermometer.
2. The smallest unit of thermometer is recorded.
3. Using the thermometer record classroom temperature.
4. 500 ml beaker fill with the ice cube.
5. Fill the half of the beaker with water.
6. Leave the beaker for a few minutes.
7. Insert the thermometer into a beaker that contains ice cubes and water.
8. Then record the temperature.
9. Make sure the thermometer reader is taken in the right eye position and
perpendicular to the reading value to get the right value.

Using spring scale and electronic balance

1. Identify the smallest unit of these two tooling tools.
2. The smallest unit of both devices is recorded.
3. The wooden blocks are hung on the spring scale hook and the reading is taken.
4. Then, place the wooden block on the electronic balance to measure the weight.
5. The obtained reading is recorded in the table and the uncertainty of the reading
can be noted.
Using measuring length : Vernier calliper & Micrometer screw gauge
1. Identify the smallest unit of these two tooling tools.
2. Prepare 3 pieces of paper.
3. By using the screw micrometer measuring the thickness 3 sheets of paper.
4. Paper sheet is placed on the micrometer screw gauge and ratchet roll so that
the beep click is heard.
5. The reading on the main scale is read then added with reading on the vernier
scale (main reading line and parallel vernier reading).
6. Then the vernier caliper is used to find the thickness of the wooden block.
7. The wooden blocks are placed on the jaw vernier caliper and their jaws scatter
each other.
8. The reading on the main scale is read and then add it to the reading on the
Vernier scale.
9. Record the results obtained in the table.

Using protractor
1. Identify the smallest unit of the protector.
2. By using a given diagram identifying the angle before measuring.
3. Protractor is placed on the diagram and calculate the angle.
4. Then read and record the value obtained.

Using ammeter and voltmeter

1. The circuit is provided as with a diagram.
2. The ammeter is used to find current during the circuit works.
3. The currents obtained are recorded and recorded.
4. Then the voltmeter is used to measure the amount of voltage that is reflected
in the circuit.
5. The voltage obtained is recorded and recorded.
6. Current voltage sensors can be used to ensure current values and current
voltages obtained by ammeter and voltmeter respectively.

MEASUREMENT B
Using termometer sensor
1. Computer provided.
2. On the computer
3. Open the application that has been provided to measure the temperature.
4. Then connect the thermometer to the computer by using the passport (USB
port).
5. Using the temperature sensor to detect the temperature of the classroom.
6. Record the result obtained from the temperature reading.
7. Follow the steps above by entering the thermometer sensor into a beaker that
is filled with cold water.
Using digital multimeter.
1. Multimeter is set for the correct orientation.
2. Resistor labeled A, B, C, D, E is used.
3. Multimeter is used to find resistance for each resistor. (For the smallest
readable detected)
4. The values obtained are repeated with regulators B, C, D, and E.

Using voltage current sensor

1. The circuit is built (shown in the result show).
2. The computer is switched on and the thermometer is connected to it via
passport (USB port).
3. The application is opened and the setup is done to measure current voltage and
flow.
4. Units selected each based on the physical quantities to be measured.
5. The value shown is recorded in the data with uncertainty.

Using magnetic sensor

1. The computer is powered on and the thermometer is connected to it via
passport (USB port).
2. The application is opened and the supply is done to measure the strength of the
magnetic field.
3. The best unit for measuring selected fields.
4. Magnets are placed at 1cm, 2cm and 3cm from the sensor end.
5. The value shown is recorded with uncertainty.

DATA
Measurements A
1. Using Thermometer: record the temperature of the classroom and water in degree
celsius using thermometer.

Object Instruments Temp Smallest Reading Reading

(0)/℃ unit uncertainty ( 0  0 )
( 0 )
Classroom Thermometer 21 10c 0.5 21 0c ± 0.5
temperature

Temperature Thermometer 6 1oc 0.5 6 oc ± 0.5

of cold water
2. Spring scale & Electronic balance: you will be given an object, e.g. a wooden block
and two measuring instrument that will enable you to measure two different physical
quantities that are related to the object. The measuring instruments for you
measurement. Name the physical quantity that you measured unsane.

a. Physical quantity measured by spring scale:

- Mass
b. Physical quantity measured by electronic balance:
- Mass
Use the spring scale and electronic balance to measure the physical quantities that has
been described in 2.a. and 2.b.
Object Instrument Smallest unit Uncertainty Reading
(    )
(  )
0.01N 0.1 N 4.2 ± 0.1 N
Spring scale
Wodden 0.00001 kg 0.0000005 kg 0.4451 ±
block
Electronic 0.000005 kg
balance

3. Measuring length: you will be given two measuring instruments to measure the
thickness of two objects
a. Object A (3 pieces of paper)
b. Object B (a wooden block)
Record the thickness of the objects
Thickness Smallest Uncertainty The reading
of the object unit
Object Instrument (  ) (    )
()
Micrometer 0.32 mm 0.01 mm 0.005 mm 0.32 ± 0.005
screw gauge mm
A 3 pieces
of paper
Varnier 2.25 mm 0.01 mm 0.005 mm 2.25 0.005
calliper mm
B a wooden
block
4.Protractor
a. What do you measure using protractor?
- Angle
b. What is the smallest unit of your protractor?
- 1.0 degrees
c. Use the protractor to measure A and B in the diagram below:

A=___________  ___________
A

BB

B=______________  _____________
5. Ammeter and voltmeter: construct the around below. Measure the value of voltage
and current when the curcuit is closed.

Instrument Smallest unit Reading (    )

Ammeter 0.001A 0.012 ± 0.001A

Voltmeter 1V 6 ± 1V

Measurement B

1. Temperature sensor: Record the temperature of the classroom, and water in kelvin,
using temperature sensor.

Smallest Reading Reading (T

unit uncertainty   T)
Object Instrument Temp0C
(  T)
/K (T)
Classroom Thermometer 22.9 0.1 0.05 22.9 0C ±
temperature sensor 0.05

Temperature Thermometer 2.6 0.1 0.05 2.6 0C ±

of cold sensor 0.05
water
2. Multimeter: resistance of a resistor can be contained by reading its color code or by
measuring it using a multimeter. Use the color code and then measure the resistance
of each resistance using the multimeter. Record your reading in the table below.

Analogue/gidital multimeter
Resistor Colour code (p   p) (p   p)
Orange,orange,brown,gold 20KΩ : 0.32KΩ ± 0.005
A 2KΩ : 0.332KΩ ± 0.0005
Red,red,brown,gold 20KΩ : 0.21KΩ ± 0.005
B 2KΩ : 0.215KΩ ± 0.0005
Brown,black,red,gold 20KΩ : 0.98KΩ ± 0.005
C 2KΩ : 0.988KΩ ± 0.0005
Blue,grey,brown,gold 20KΩ : 0.66KΩ ± 0.005
D 2KΩ : 0.666KΩ ± 0.0005
Brown,black,brown,gold 20KΩ : 0.09KΩ ± 0.005
E 2KΩ : 0.098KΩ ± 0.0005

3. Voltage current sensor: construct the circuit below. Measure the value of voltage
and current when the circuit is closed.

Instrument Smallest unit Reading (    )

Voltage current sensor 0.01 0.02A

(current)
 Voltage current sensor 0.01 6.31V
(voltage)

4. Magnetic sensor: place your magnetic field sensor at a distance of 1 cm,2 cm,3
cm,4 cm,5 cm, and 6 cm in front of bar magnet. Measure the strength of the magnetic
field at those locations.

Distance Smallest unit Magnetic field strength

reading (B   B)
1 cm 0.01 80 ± 0.01

2 cm 0.01 71 ± 0.01

3 cm 0.01 38 ± 0.01

4 cm 0.01 23 ± 0.01

5 cm 0.01 15 ± 0.01

6 cm 0.01 10 ± 0.01

CONCLUSION:
In this lab, we successfully accomplished the purpose of appropriately and
accurately using a temperature sensor ,thermometer,ammeter,voltmeter ,digital
multimeter ,voltage current sensor ,sprng scale ,electronic balance meter stick, a
vernier caliper, and a micrometer screw gauge by determining the thickness a
marble ,a block of wood, finding the volume of a cylinder, measuring the thickness of
a 3 pieces of paper, and determining the temperature of the classroom using
thermometer and temperature sensor, we learned how to correctly select which piece
of equipment to use depending on what we were measuring and how accurate we
needed the measurement. The micrometer and Vernier are both used to measure small
distances. The micrometer may have needed to be re-calibrated, and this could be a
possible source of error. Also, because the measurements of the room were so large
and had to be measured with meter sticks, this could be another source of inaccuracy.