Technical AFR Manual Part Explosion Protection - v1

Technical AFR Manual
AFR Design Safety

Part Explosion Protection
Holcim Group Support Ltd

Mechanical Process Technology
The copyright for this document and all appendices are reserved by Holcim Group Support Ltd
Version 1.0

AFR Design Safety
Date: October 6, 2009

Revision No.: 1.0

Lukas Schwank
Beat Maier
Werner Voramwald
Michael Schmid

Cement Manufacturing Services
Im Schachen
CH-5113 Holderbank
Phone +41 58 858 58 00

Fax +41 58 858 58 09
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Introduction
Motivation
Why is Explosion protection an important issue when dealing with AFR? The easiest way to
answer this question is to imagine a situation where an explosion would have happened. Let
us assume that there is an explosion on the top of liquid tank at an AFR platform. With a loud
bang a fireball would arise on the top of the tank. What would be the consequences in such a
case for the stakeholders? What would think the people living in the neighbourhood, the public
and the media, the authorities, the waste suppliers and the people working in the platform?
For sure the loss in good-will and confidence will by far exceed the direct cost impact from the
loss of equipment and the ability to pre-process AFR. Therefore the goal must be: Never give
the explosion a chance to happen on your platform!
Objectives
Generally speaking the goal of this manual is to provide information about the threats of
explosions, the concepts of explosion protection and the required actions to minimize
explosion risks. However it is also clear that this manual will not solve all safety problems and
answer all questions, which may arise around explosions. It shall therefore primarily serve as
a reference document which on the one hand introduces the key concepts of explosion safety
and on the other hand shows how to set them in practise.
Who is the target audience?

This document is written for a wide audience. Even the main part of its content is technical,
there are also other fields covered such as legal aspects, planning issues and required
measures.
Target audience in the field of AFR are:
• AFR Manager
• Platform Responsible
• AFR Production Manager
Target audience in the cement plant are:
• Process Engineer
• Production Manager
• Maintenance Manager
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Table of Contents
1. BASIC EXPLOSION THEORY 5
1.1 What is an explosion? 5
1.2 Explosion Factors 6
1.3 Upper and Lower Explosion limits – right fuel-oxygen mixture 7
1.4 Explosion Characteristics (pmax, KG/D) 9
1.5 Gas explosions 10
1.6 Dust explosions 11
1.7 Hybrid Mixtures Explosion 13
1.8 Pipe explosion 15
2. EXPLOSION PROTECTION 18
2.1 Overview 18
2.2 Inertisation 19
2.3 Explosion Pressure Resistant Construction 20
2.4 Explosion Pressure-Shock Resistant 20
2.5 Explosion Pressure Venting Measures 20
2.6 Explosion Suppression 23
3. REGULATIONS AND EU-DIRECTIVES 25
3.1 Overview of ATEX Directives 25
3.2 What is an explosive atmosphere? 26
3.3 Summary of ATEX 95 (Directive 94/9/EC) 26
3.4 Summary of ATEX 137 (Directive 99/92/EC) 27
3.5 Zone plan and equipment selection 28
4. APPENDIX A: EQUIPMENT LABELLING AND ATEX MARKING 31
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1. BASIC EXPLOSION THEORY

The goal of this chapter is to explain the underlying principles of an explosion and
determine its characteristics. This is important in the sense, that we can only take
protective measures against something that we understand. The better you know
your enemy the better you are prepared for a battle and the better are your chances
to win.
1.1 What is an explosion?

An explosion is defined as a rapid increase in volume and a sudden release of
energy. This goes along with the creation of high temperatures and a pressure
shock wave. Explosions are based on very fast chemical reactions, which originate
in a small spot but spread almost instantaneously to a wider volume.
The type of chemical reaction is usually an oxidation type reaction, which means
that a substance reacts with oxygen of the air and releases energy. An explosion
can therefore also be described as a very fast fire, which spreads through a volume,
where beforehand the fuel (or better combustible) has been distributed in the air.
This is an important characteristic of the explosion: The combustible-oxygen mixture
must be prepared before the explosion can take place.
1.1.1 Gas explosions and dust explosions

There are two general classes of explosions which will be discussed later on in more
details:
• Gas explosions due to combustible gases, vapour or mists mixed with air
• Dust explosions due to fine dust of combustible suspended in air
1.1.2 Explosion, deflagration and detonation

In physics there is a further distinction of explosions between deflagration and
detonation. Both expressions are summarised under explosions. The criterion of
distinction is the speed of the explosion front, where the chemical reaction occurs:
• Deflagrations are explosions where the explosion front propagates slower
than the speed of sound
• Detonations are explosions where the explosion front propagates faster
than the speed of sound.
• For ambient air the speed of sound is about 340 m/s or 1200 km/h.
This distinction is important since detonations are far more destructive than
deflagrations. If a combustible causes a deflagration or a detonation depends on the
type of combustible, the fuel-oxygen-mixture and the geometry of the propagation.
Most explosions in technical fields are deflagrations. However, under certain
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circumstances a deflagration can turn into a detonation, for example explosions in

pipes (see pipe explosions).
1.2 Explosion Factors

For explosions three factors have to be present at the same time: A combustible,
oxygen and a source of ignition. This can be expressed in the explosion triangle,
which looks the same as the fire-triangle. However there is a difference to it: For an
explosion the first two factors - the flammable substance and oxygen - must be
present in specific quantities. Both, too much and too less will, not lead to
explosions.
Ignition
Ignition source
source
Combustble
Combustble Oxygen
Oxygen
Figure 1: Explosion Triangle, with the 3 factors needed for an explosion
What is meant by the third factor – source of ignition? The combustible and the
oxygen must be present in the correct ratio. But this alone will not start the
explosion. It can be seen as a gun which is loaded, but not yet fired. Pulling the
trigger in this image would mean, to bring a source of ignition into the fuel-oxygen
mixture. The source of ignition gives the needed push to start the chemical reaction
in one point. Since the chemical reaction generates heat itself, the reaction will now
propagate very fast and form what we finally call an explosion. In that sense one can
say that a part of the energy released by the explosion is needed for its propagation.
However the energy given to the environment in form of pressure and temperature
exceeds this by far.
¾ Combustible
− Gas / Vapours / Mists
− Dust
¾ Oxygen
− Air (other oxidizing agents are theoretically possible, but have no
relevance in practice)
¾ Ignition Source
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− Hot surfaces
− Open flames and hot gases
− Mechanical sparks (welding, cutting, grinding etc.)
− Electrical sparks
− Electrical equipment
− Electric currents
− Electrostatic charging
− Lightning
− Electromagnetic fields
− Ionizing radiation
− Ultra sonic waves
− Adiabatic compression (e.g. shock waves)
− Chemical reactions
− Self heating, Smoldering Nests and Exothermic decomposition
1.3 Upper and lower Explosion Limits – Right Fuel-Oxygen Mixture

As explained above the explosion starts only if a source of ignition is brought to a
certain combustible-oxygen mixture. If the concentration of combustible in the air
volume is too low, there is not enough heat created to ignite the next particle and the
reaction will not propagate. On the other hand if there is too much combustible
dispersed in the air volume, there is not enough oxygen to react with the
combustible. This means that there can be a too much and a too less of combustible
dispersed in the air.
The two limits of combustible concentration are called LEL and UEL, lower
explosion limit and upper explosion limit. LEL and UEL are different for every type of
combustible and are also dependent on the surrounding temperature and pressure.
For values close to ambient conditions (10 – 30°C) this dependency can be
neglected, since the effect is rather weak.
Figure 2: Explosion pressure as a function of combustible in air. The maximum impact of an explosion is reached
at stoichiometric conditions.
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The impact of an explosion varies with the combustible-air-mixture. The optimum

ratio, in the sense of maximum power of an explosion, is reached when every
particle of combustible finds the needed particles of oxygen. This means that all fuel
is burned and all oxygen has been used. In combustion engineering this ratio is
called the lambda 1 ratio (or stoichiometric ratio).
1.3.1 Explosion limits for dusts

For dust only the lower explosive limit is relevant (the upper limit is hardly ever
reached and is very difficult to measure). For dust from organic substances the
lower explosion limit is in the order of LEL = 10 – 50 g/m3. Note that this limit is
much higher than what is acceptable for OH&S reasons. Dust clouds of this
concentration are hard to see through for more than a short distance, and should
only exist inside equipment.
Lower Explosive Upper Explosive

Limit Limit
(LEL) (UEL)
Fuel Gas (%vol of Air) (%vol of Air)
Acetaldehyde 4 60
Acetone 2.6 12.8
Acetylene 2.5 81
Ammonia 15 28
Carbon Disulfide 1.3 50
Carbon Monoxide 12 75
Ethane 3 12.4
Ethylene 2.8 28.6
Ethyl Alcohol 3.3 19
Ethyl Chloride 3.8 15.4
Fuel Oil No.1 0.7 5
Hydrogen 4 75
Isobutane 1.8 9.6
Isopropyl Alcohol 2 12
Gasoline 1.4 7.6
Kerosine 0.7 5
Methane 5 15
Methyl Alcohol 6.7 36
Methyl Chloride 10.7 17.4
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 1.8 10
Propane 2.1 10.1
Table 1: Selected gases and their upper and lower explosion limits at 20°C.
1.3.2 Explosion limits for gases

In the following there is a list for different gases and their explosion limits in air at
20°C and ambient pressure. It can be seen that LEL and UEL for different
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hydrocarbon gases vary strongly. The range in volume percents of air is

approximately for LEL = 2 – 10 % and for UEL = 10 – 70 %. A general
1.4 Explosion Characteristics (pmax, KG/D)

To compare different explosions from different substances it is necessary to define a
measure, which expresses the impact of an explosion. In practise there are two
parameters which are used for this purpose:
• pmax [bar] meaning the maximum reached pressure during an explosion

• KG/D [bar/s] meaning the maximum increase of pressure per time. For a gas
explosion the value is called KG and for a dust explosion KD.
Both values are material parameters, but also depend on the measuring setup or the
actual conditions when they occur. As already discussed, the impact of an explosion
is dependent on the combustible-air ratio. Therefore pmax and KG/D are measured
and defined at the stoichiometric or lambda 1 ratio (maximum power of explosion).
The standardized measuring-conditions specify also the volume of the test container
to 1m3. While the maximum explosion pressure pmax is almost independent of the
container’s form and size, the maximum pressure increase KG/D is dependent on the
amount of involved combustibles and therefore also from the container volume.
V = 0.001 m3 → (dp/dt)max = 720 bar/s Propan

V = 1 m3 → (dp/dt)max = 75 bar/s
Explosion Pressure p [bar]
V = 20 m3 → (dp/dt)max = 27 bar/s
7 7 pmax
(dp/dt)max
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Time [s]
Figure 3: Comparison of 3 explosions in different test containers (Volume = 0.001 m3, 1m3, 20m3). It shows that
the maximum reached pressure pmax remains constant, while the steepness of pressure raise varies. KG/D is
defined as the maximum pressure steepness for a container of V=1m3.
After the ignition of an explosive fuel-air-mixture the pressure increases rapidly until
it reaches the maximum explosion pressure pmax, it is more or less equal to the
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moment where all combustible has reacted with oxygen. The pressure now drops,
while the shock wave propagates further and gets damped.
The steepness of the pressure raise can be calculated as the difference in pressure
divided trough the needed time-difference (=dp/dt). The maximum reached
steepness during a test explosion is defined as KG/D. This value is a measure for the
speed in which the pressure grows and plays an important role to estimate the
destructiveness of an explosion. It is expressed in bars per seconds [bar/s].
1.4.1 Influence of surrounding conditions on explosions

Oxygen concentration: As already discussed oxygen is reaction partner for the
combustible to form the explosion-reaction. An enriched oxygen atmosphere will
allow loading more fuel to the volume and hence increasing the impact of an
explosion, or at the same amount of combustible increase the speed of reaction,
which again increases the impact.
Ambient pressure: A higher level of ambient pressure works as a linear

multiplication factor on pmax and KG/D. Therefore higher pressures in vessels will
result in higher destructiveness of explosions.
Ambient temperature: Main effect of an increased temperature level is the increased

chance to ignite an explosion. As discussed the explosion needs first an explosive
atmosphere and second a source of ignition. As higher the surrounding temperature
the less additional energy is needed to ignite the explosion. The temperature in
which the explosion will happen spontaneously, meaning that all energy for ignition
comes from the ambient heat, is called auto-ignition temperature.
1.5 Gas explosions

Explosions based on combustible gases, vapours or mists are called gas
explosions. Main characteristics of gas explosions are:
¾ The maximum explosion pressure is usually in the range of 7 and 8 bars, but
there are also higher values possible (Acetylen 10.5 bar).
¾ Turbulence or higher oxygen concentrations have increasing effect on actual
present pmax and KG.
¾ An increased starting pressure increases the maximum explosions pressure
linearly.
¾ It is important to note that one of the main differences between the dust
explosion and flammable gas hazard is that gas/vapour explosions rarely
happen inside vessels due to a lack of air to support explosions.
¾ As the density of most gases and vapours are heavier than air, they tend to
creep and to accumulate in pits, sewers, basins etc.
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The explosion characteristics for several gases or vapours are listed in the following
table.
Gas / Vapour pmax KG Explosion Limit [Vol-%Air]

[bar] [bar m s-1] lower upper
Aceton 5.8 30 2.5 13
Acetylen 10.5 180 1.5 85
Ethan 6.9 38 2.4 14.7
Ethylendichlorid 6.6 14 6.2 16
Butan 6.8 35 1.4 9.3
Hydrogen 7.1 550 4 77
Table 2: Explosion characteristics of several gases / vapours
These table values are only valid for standard conditions (no turbulence, ideal
explosion concentrations, a starting pressure of 1 bar).
1.6 Dust explosions

Explosions based on combustible dust are called dust explosions. Not all dispersed
dust in air will cause dust explosions. The requirements for a dust, to form an
explosion are:
¾ It must be combustible
(Note that materials which usually burn very weak can ignite easily when they
are in the form of small particles as dust)
¾ The particles need to be fine enough
(usually in the range of 0.5 mm, however even in optically coarser dust there
is very probably a fraction of fine dust contained, which is sufficient for the
ignition)
¾ The dust must be dispersed in the air (surrounded by oxygen) in the right
concentration (see LEL)
Main characteristics of dust explosions are:

¾ The maximum explosion pressure is usually in the range of 6 and 10 bars. For
few exceptions there are also higher values possible (Aluminium dust 13 bar).
¾ Explosion limits vary in the range of 20 - 60 g/m3 up to 2 - 6 kg/m3.
¾ The finer a dust is, the heavier the explosion is. Above 0.4 - 0.5 mm grain-size
an explosion is not possible anymore.
¾ Turbulence influences mainly the KD value and less the maximum explosion
pressure pmax.
¾ Water decreases the danger of combustible dusts only above 20 - 30% water
content.
¾ Dust explosions are unlikely to cause detonations due to the relatively slow
process of combusting solid particles.
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¾ An important aspect of dust explosion avoidance is the limiting of the

possibility of primary explosions, however more important is to reduce the
possibility of a secondary explosion (see chapter 1.6.2).
The explosion characteristics for several gases or vapours are listed in the following
table.
Dust pmax [bar] KD [bar m s-1]
Hard Coal 85
Lignite 150
Organic Pigments 300
Animal Meal 6.9 80
Dried Sewage 6.0 130
Sludge
PetCoke 6.3 80
Aluminum dust 6.5 - 13 16 - 1'900
PE-dust 1.3 - 7.9 4 - 120
Table 3: Explosion characteristics of several dust types
1.6.1 Dust Explosion Classes

According to the KG value, dust can be assigned to different dust classes:
Dust Explosion Class KSt [bar m s-1] Remarks

St 0 0 dust of non-burning materials, very rarely
St 1 1 - 200 > 80% of all industrial dusts
St 2 201 - 300 10%
St 3 > 300 very rarely
Table 4: Dust explosion classes
All types of mineral coals as well as the majority of lignites, Petcoke and dried
sewage sludge belong to explosions class St1.
1.6.2 Primary and Secondary Explosions

The concentrations needed for a dust explosion are rarely seen outside of process
vessels, hence most severe dust explosions start within a piece of equipment (such
as mills, mixers, screens, dryers, cyclones, hoppers, filters, bucket elevators, silos,
aspiration ducts, and pneumatic transit systems). These are known as Primary
Explosions.
Secondary explosions are caused (in this context) when lying dust is disturbed by
the primary explosion and forms a second dust cloud which then is ignited by the
heat released from the primary explosion. The problem is that small amounts of
lying dust occupy very little space, but once disturbed can easily form dangerous
clouds.
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Example: A 1 mm layer of dust of 500 kg/m3 can give rise to a 5 m deep cloud of
100 g/m3 dust.
Dust Cloud formed Heat from primary explosion

ignites dust cloud
Blast wave
Primary Explosion Secondary Explosion
Figure 1-4: Primary and secondary explosion
There can be large series of explosions triggered in this manner, leading to

devastating effects if there is a lot of lying dust that is disturbed. Hence the amount
of lying dust must be minimized to the best possible extent.
1.7 Hybrid Mixtures Explosion

Mixtures of dust/air and gases or vapours are called hybrid mixtures. Impregnated
saw dust can e.g. form such mixtures. Characteristics of hybrid mixtures are:
¾ Explosion key figures, mainly the KD are significantly higher. The effect on the
pmax is not as strong but still present.
¾ Hybrid mixtures can explode although the dust and gas/vapour concentrations
are below the explosion limits.
¾ The ignition energy is lower (since gases / vapours are usually easier to
ignite).
Hybrid mixtures are therefore much more dangerous than regular dust mixtures!
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[bar]
Hybrid Mixtures: Pmax, KD

Explosion Pressure
Methan Concentration in the Air

5
Ì 7 Vol-%
PVC dust without methane
} 5 Vol-%
X 3 Vol-%
{ 1 Vol-%
¬ 0 Vol-%
[bar/s]
Pressure Increase dp/dt
250
0 PVC Dust Concentration

500 [g/m3]
Figure 5: Explosion key figures of hybrid mixtures at different methane concentrations
[g/m3]
Hybrid Mixtures: Lower Explosion Limit
Lower Explosion PVC

Limit (LEL) of
Propane Cellulose
150 S Pea Meal
Minimum Ignition Temperature
PVC
100
50
Pea Meal
Cellulose
Propane Concentration in the Air
Figure 6: Lower explosion limits of hybrid mixtures vs. propane concentration
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1010
Hybrid Mixtures: Minimium Ignition Temperature
9
10
Lower Explosion
Limit (LEL) of
Mono-Azo-Pigment PY1 (Hansagelb) (M-20)
108 Propane Cellulose (M-27)
¡ PE (M-125)
T PVC (M-20)
Minimum Ignition Temperature
107
S PVC (M-125)
106
M = Median - μm
105
104 Propane, turbulent
103
102
101
1 Propane Concentration
Figure 7: Minimum ignition temperature of hybrid mixtures vs. propane concentration
1.8 Pipe explosion
1.8.1 Atmospheric Explosion

Atmospheric explosions mainly occur at the tanks breathing opening. During tank
filling or thermal heating vapours emitting from the tank can be ignited by an
ignitions source and result in an atmospheric - deflagration type - explosion.
Due to the overpressure expansion in all directions, this deflagration is accompanied

by pressures only of several few bars and the flame front propagation velocities are
in the range of some 10 m/s.
After ignition of the vapours, it is likely that the vapours continue to flow due to
continuing pumping in operations or thermal heating taken place. In such a case, the
flame will continue to burn at the breathing opening of the tank (Endurance
burning). The flame arrester has to be designed to absorb and dissipate the
continuous input of energy due to long term burning so that the ignition temperature
beyond the flame arrester is not reached.
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Figure 8: Endurance burning
1.8.2 Volume Deflagration

A volume deflagration is an explosion happening in a closed volume without
expansion possibilities. The flame front is propagating from the ignition source
towards the unburned gases. Due to the volume expansion of the burnt gases, the
unburnt gases are pre-compressed and the flame is accelerated. The flame front
velocity increases and reaches values up to 100 m/s. Maximum explosion pressures
are in the range of 8 bar (see also chapter 0 and 1.6).
1.8.3 Pipe Explosion

The effect of an explosion within a closed volume is drastically increased, if the
shape of the volume is a pipe. Due to the acceleration occurring along the pipe axis,
much higher flame front velocities and pressures occur.
If explosive vapour or gas mixtures are ignited in a pipe, a deflagration can develop
into a (stable) detonation if the pipe work and run-up length are appropriate:
Deflagration Zone: L/D < 20

Just after the ignition point, the explosion is a deflagration and the flame front speed
is slower than the pressure waves. Due to the acceleration occurring along the pipe
axis, flame front velocities up to 500 m/s and pressures in axial direction of 30 bar
(the static average pressure, important design criteria, remains under 10 bar) result.
Overdriven Detonation Transition Zone: L/D > 20
Due to the continuously increase of burnt gases, unburnt gases are stronger
compressed. As consequence of high pressure, temperature and turbulence, the
flame front is accelerated. The increased compression in the pressure waves leads
to temperatures above the auto ignition level. In this transition zone - it begins at a
pipe geometry ratio L/D of greater than 20 - an overdriven detonation is generated.
The flame front is propagating at supersonic speed and pressure above 100 bar
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occurs. But the explosion process is unstable and the overdriven detonation is just a
short lived phenomenon.
Stable Detonation Zone: L/D >> 20

Pipe explosions change into stable detonations after a transition zone. In the
detonation region which is again stable, axial pressures of over 80 bar and radial
pressure waves of 10 -30 bar are reached. Flame speed over 2000 m/s have been
observed. The pressure shock wave moves rapidly in the direction of unburnt
mixture and compresses the mixture to a point of auto ignition. Thus, the flame front
reaches a higher speed than the pressure wave, resulting in a pressure shock wave
traveling at supersonic speed results (Mach waves).
Combustion Deflagration Overdriven Stable Detonation Protected

chamber Detonation Detonation flame container
(permanent ignition (Transition zone) arrester
source
L/D > 20 L/D >> 20
v = flame front velocity p = shock wave pressure

(due to volume expansion of burned gases)
Figure 9: Pipe Explosion: Deflagration and Detonation
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2. EXPLOSION PROTECTION
This chapter focuses on the field of “explosion protection”. Since the impact of
explosion is usually so high and so destructive, the best practise is to avoid
explosions. Measures and actions, which serve the goal not to let an explosion
happen, are summarized as explosion prevention.
Sometimes it is not possible by all technical and organisational measures to

eliminate the risk of explosions completely. In this case measures shall be taken to
limit the damage or impact of explosions.
It becomes clear, explosion protection deals always with assessment of risks and
probabilities. Therefore the risk assessment is a crucial part of explosion protection.
Equipment and countermeasures shall be selected according to the risk of
explosions.
2.1 Overview
Explosion protecting measures can be classified as follows:
Prevention Measures to eliminate at least one factor of the

explosion triangle
¾ Ignition Source
³ Organization Measures / Personnel Training (Smoking bans, anti-static
boots, guidelines for welding work, anti-sparking tools, cell phone bans,
bans for use of other non-Ex-certificated electrical equipment and tools)
³ Ex-protected Equipment & Electrical Installations (according to Ex-Zone)
³ Grounding & Bridging
³ Grounding of Trucks
³ Measures against flame front propagation: Flame Arresters (static
systems), Shut-off gates (dynamic systems)
³ Temperature Sensor for Seals / Bearings, Container content
³ Flame, Heat or Smoke Detectors
¾ Oxygen Concentration
³ Inertisation (N2 / CO2-Blanketing)
¾ Fuel Concentration
³ Gas Evacuation / Ventilation
³ High Tank Filling Degree
³ Bright Tank Color
³ Tank Insulation, Tank Cooling
³ Dedusting
³ Housekeeping
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Fighting / Limiting Damage Measures that do not prevent explosion but help
to reduce their destructiveness
¾ Fire
³ Fire Extinguisher
³ External Sprinkler
³ Internal Sprinkler
³ Foam Dosage
³ ARGONITE extinguishing system
¾ Explosion
³ Explosion Pressure Resistant Construction
³ Explosion Pressure Shock Resistant
³ Explosion Pressure Venting Measures VDI Guidelines No. 3673
³ Explosion Suppression System
Bold-italic terms will be discussed in the following.
2.2 Inertisation
Dust and gas explosions can be effectively prevented through inertisation, i.e. the
replacement of the oxygen in the air by a non-combustible gas, particularly CO2 or
N2, if it can be ensured that the inert gas atmosphere will be maintained as long as
the combustible is present in the system.
This must not necessarily mean that all air has to be replaced. The goal is only to
prevent the presence of an ignitable fuel-oxygen mixture. The replacement of have
the air with nitrogen would lead to a final oxygen concentration of 10.5%. This
oxygen concentration is already far below most of the critical oxygen-concentrations,
which allows an explosion to happen.
Example: The minimum O2 concentration which is needed for an explosion with

ordinary milled Petcoke is approx. 14%. However, this concentration can
vary in accordance with the composition and the dust fineness of the
actual Petcoke.
A safety margin of at least 2% O2 is required, the maximal permissible limit of

oxygen concentration as a rule is therefore:
Combustible Max O2 concentration

Mineral coal 12%
Petcoke 12%
Dried sewage sludge 11%
Lignite 10%
Solvents 8%
Important: Inert gas operation alone can effectively prevent the occurrence of
explosions but not of smoldering.
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Inertisation can e.g. be achieved by introducing hot inert gases such as the kiln
exhaust from cement kilns or hot gases from a combustion chamber.
If the inert gas atmosphere can be maintained with absolute certainty through
appropriate design and interlocking of the installation for as long as combustible is
present in the system, design related protection measures become in principle
redundant.
Inertisation is only possible in closed devices with low gas exchange rates.
2.3 Explosion Pressure Resistant Construction

Explosion pressure resistant construction can withstand the maximum occurring
explosion pressure whereby a certain amount of minor damage to the installation
and only no leakage or flame exit is accepted. However, in the event of an accident
the installation is again operational within a short time.
All combustible conveying installation parts as well as the adjacent equipment and
sealing elements must be designed to resist the maximal explosion pressure (e.g. 9
bar expected in the case of coal or lignite dust).
Explosion pressure resistant construction, i.e. the dimensioning of the installation

section to resist maximal explosion pressure, are mainly applicable where pressure
venting methods cannot be used at all or only with difficulty, for geometrical reasons.
2.4 Explosion Pressure-Shock Resistant

Pressure-shock resistant design means that the installation might be completely
damaged after an explosive incident, but it does not burst (no leakage, no flame
exit). If such a deformation of the container is accepted, the maximum permissible
explosion pressure may be up to 50% above its design value
Explosion pressure-shock resistant x 1.5 = Explosion pressure resistant
Example: A design for 6 bar static overpressure is required for an expected

maximum explosion pressure of 9 bar.
2.5 Explosion Pressure Venting Measures

In a broader sense explosion venting means all measures that serve to open
temporarily or permanently the previously closed installation in a safe direction, at
the beginning or after a certain spreading of an explosion. The purpose of this is to
prevent any overstressing of the mechanical equipment beyond its pressure shock
resistance. The strength of the equipment does not have to be designed for Pmax,
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but only for the reduced explosion pressure Pred. A deformation of the container may
again be acceptable, but it must not burst.
Venting Opening
Pressure in Vessel
Pred
time
Figure 2-1: A vented dust explosion, Pred is the vessel strength
The explosion pressure venting technique operates in the following manner: When
the dynamic response pressure of the pressure venting installation is reached,
predetermined breaking points, rip foils or doors open to vent the shock wave
outdoors, mainly by means of amply dimensioned discharge channels. Immediately
after the pressure venting system responds an increase in the temporal rate of
pressure rise can often be observed which is due to the higher turbulence caused
during the venting of the shock wave. The pressure rise then quickly stops at Pred..
If the method of explosion venting is applied not only the inserts of the containers
such as filter cloths etc. must be considered but the expected recoil forces as well.
Example: With a pressure venting area of 1 m2, a reduced explosion pressure of 2

bar, and under the assumption that the shock wave escapes with the
velocity of sound, a thrust of approx. 15 t acts upon the housing to be
protected. This must be properly supported or else the container may be
torn from its foundations.
All combustible dust conveying components that are not in themselves designed to
be explosion pressure resistant, such as cyclone, filters, pulverized fuel silos, etc.
are to be provided with properly dimensioned devices for explosion pressure
venting. Thereby containers and all interconnected aggregates such as bin vent
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filters, etc. must be dimensioned in pressure shock resistant design to withstand the
reduced explosion pressure.
Explosion venting openings within a particular building must be connected to

properly dimensioned exhaust channels leading into the open. In order to prevent an
explosion originating in the mill spreading into the filter via the conduit pipe, the
conduit pipe must be equipped with an explosion vent in front of its connection to the
filter. This measure is not required for pneumatic conveying systems as in this
design the dust concentration is normally above the explosion limit. In addition, the
minimal ignition energy is significantly higher under the operating conditions of
pneumatic conveying than it is in the case of stirring-up combustible dust in
containers.
The area containing the vent opening for explosion pressure venting must not be
accessible to anyone when the installation in operation.
2.5.1 Hazards Caused by Venting

Note: Venting does minimize the probability of large equipment destroying
explosions, but does provide some hazards:
³ Ejection of flames from vent opening
³ Emission of blast waves from the vent opening
³ Reaction forces on the equipment, induced by the venting process
³ Emission of solid objects (parts of the vessel, vent covers, etc)
³ Indoor venting can lead to secondary explosions
³ Fireballs can be ejected
The larger the vent and the lower the force required breaching it, the more
hazardous it is, as this increase the chance of unburnt dust being ejected, which
could then burn in the plant area as a fireball. Using vent ducts (ducts of the same
area as the vent) can minimize some of these problems by allowing the explosion to
take place in a sealed area, but take up a great deal of space and still require the
pressure to be relieved somewhere else (at the end of the duct).
2.5.2 Underpressure Protection

After venting an explosion in very large enclosures such as pulverized fuel silos
through explosion flaps, considerable underpressure can develop inside the silo due
to dynamic effects and due to cooling down of the hot gases remaining in the silo
after the explosion. As re-closing, re-usable explosion doors are preferred to rupture
discs (open rupture discs support the development of fires after an explosion), and
under-pressure protection valve has to be foreseen.
2.5.3 Limitation: Explosions from Ducts into Containers

If an explosion strikes from a duct into a container, and in doing so the residual dust
deposited there is stirred up with great turbulence and ignited, the reaction within the
duct and the adjacent container can develop into a detonation of such dimensions
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that the resulting pressures can amount to 50 times the original pressure,
accompanied by a combustion front traveling at supersonic speed, so that any relief
or suppression installation is too sluggish in action. However, such events are,
fortunately, relatively rare in coal operations.
However, if the principles of design related explosion protection are to be

consequently pursued, every duct conveying combustible dust in an explosive
concentration and whose length exceeds five times its diameter must be
safeguarded by an explosion vent placed ahead of its inlet into a container (such as
a filter). Through this any explosion originating in the pipeline will be vented so that
the protective measures taken with respect to the adjacent container can be
designed in accordance with the criteria of an explosion starting in the container
itself.
Figure 2-2: Venting of a duct in front of a precipitator
2.6 Explosion Suppression

In the explosion suppression techniques, the shock wave preceding the combustion
front or the infrared radiation of the combustion area is detected by a device which
quickly distributes extinguishing agents under a propellant pressure of 60 to 120 bar
by means of detonator-operated valves. With a programmed dynamic response
pressure threshold (Pdyn) of the detectors, the maximal explosion pressure is again
lowered to a reduced level (Pred).
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Figure 2-3: Explosion suppression
Techniques of explosion suppression can basically replace all the previously

mentioned methods. However, in practical experience it has been seen that in
pulverizing plants, the costs involved in the consequent application of explosion
suppression techniques are significantly higher than they are for explosion pressure
venting techniques and explosion pressure resistant construction methods, both with
respect to procurement and maintenance of the sensitive equipment.
Thus applicability of explosion suppression may be primarily limited to existing,

insufficiently protected plants whose retrofitting in accordance with alternative
protection techniques would be entirely uneconomical.
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3. REGULATIONS AND EU-DIRECTIVES

In this chapter only one international regulation about explosion protection is
discussed, namely the European ATEX regulation. It is effective and legally binding
for the market in the European Union.
What does that mean for Holcim group companies outside Europe? The measures
described in this chapter are not necessarily legally binding. The actual situation in
each and every country is not determinable for HGRS. However the ATEX
regulations give a guideline for good practice. Most probably the national regulations
are not as strict as the ATEX regulations. Following the ATEX- measures means
therefore being on the “safe side”. It is an HGRS recommendation to set the ATEX-
measures in place, regardless what national regulations ask for (as long as they are
not stricter).
3.1 Overview of ATEX Directives

In Europe is since July 2003 the ATEX directive in place, which regulates how to
deal with explosive atmospheres. The Name ATEX is derived from the French
expression ATmosphère EXplosive (=explosive atmosphere), which basically means
that the present mixture of fuel and air would lead to an explosion, as soon as an
ignition source comes up.
The ATEX directives consist of two parts:

¾ The equipment directive 94/9/EC or ATEX 95 (before 2003 it was named ATEX
100a) with the official title:
“Equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive
atmospheres”
¾ Directive workplace directive 99/92/EC or ATEX 137 with the official title:
“Minimum requirements for improving the safety and health protection of workers
potentially at risk from explosive atmospheres”
The two directives are also named “the manufacturer directive” (ATEX 95) and “the
end user directive” (ATEX 137). This describes pretty much what they are about and
for whom they are relevant. ATEX 95 describes what conditions a piece of
equipment must fulfil to be installed in a place where an explosive atmosphere can
occur. It is therefore mainly relevant for manufacturer of equipment.
ATEX 137 describes what measures must be taken to guarantee a safe workplace
around explosive atmospheres. It is therefore relevant for companies, which have a
process that might lead to explosive atmospheres.
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3.2 What is an explosive atmosphere?

In the ATEX 95 directive (and also in the ATEX 137 directive) an explosive
atmosphere is defined as a mixture:
¾ of flammable substances in the form of gases, vapours, mists or dusts;
¾ with air;
¾ under atmospheric conditions (Temperature -20 to 60°C, pressure 0.8 to 1.1
bar, oxygen concentration 20.7 to 21.2 %volumetric)
¾ in which, after ignition, the combustion spreads to the unburned mixture
3.3 Summary of ATEX 95 (Directive 94/9/EC)
Scope of directive
¾ The directive applies to equipment which fulfils the following three
preconditions:
a) it has its own effective source of ignition;
b) it is intended for use in a potentially explosive atmosphere;
c) it operates under normal atmospheric conditions.
¾ Duties are placed on the manufacturer/supplier side of the equipment
¾ To place such equipment on the European market, official certification is
needed. The equipment will be marked with the standardized “Ex” symbol (see
picture). This symbol is also referred to as “ATEX” marking and is integrated in
the CE declaration of conformity.
The explosion protection concept of this directive works on the following principle:
¾ Make sure that the equipment is not producing any kind of ignition source
such as a high temperature surfaces, sparks from mechanical impact, sparks
from electrostatic effects, or others.
¾ By eliminating the ignition source from the explosive triangle, an explosion will
not occur even there is an explosive atmosphere present (due to other
circumstances, which have nothing to do with the equipment itself)
¾ There are 3 different equipment categories (1, 2 and 3) which pay respect to
the likelihood that an ignition source may occur even under malfunctioning of
the equipment. (Category 1 provides the highest safety).
¾ The 3 equipment categories are defined in agreement with the zone concept
of ATEX 137. As lower the likelihood that an explosive atmosphere is present
the higher the equipment category. (Zone 0 and 20 are the zones with the
highest risk for an explosive atmosphere and need equipment category 1)
¾ The end user can see which category the equipment fulfils by a standardised
labelling on the type plate. The code is explained in the Annex.
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The specific marking on equipment, which is Warning sign for locations where explosive
explosion protected according to ATEX 95. atmospheres may occur (ATEX 137)
(Mainly meaning that this equipment will not
serve as source of ignition for an explosion)
Figure 1: Explosion marking and warning sign according to ATEX guidelines.
3.4 Summary of ATEX 137 (Directive 99/92/EC)

Scope of directive
¾ Guarantee a safe workplace for employees working in areas where an
explosive atmosphere might occur.
¾ Duties are placed on the side of the employer (=company which deals with
processes that might lead to explosive atmospheres.)
¾ It applies not to companies which produce, handle or transport explosives or
chemically unstable substances, since there exist other (stronger) regulations.
Concept of explosion protection strategy
¾ The employer shall take technical and organisational measures based on the
following principles (in order of priority, a) is first priority)
a) prevent the formation of an explosive atmosphere
b) avoid the ignition of explosive atmospheres
c) mitigate the effects of an explosion
Summary of duties on company-side (measures to be taken):

¾ Elaborate a risk assessment for the whole plant. (new and existing
installations) which pays respect to…
a) the likelihood that an explosive atmosphere will occur
b) the likelihood that potential ignition sources will be present
c) possible interactions between the used substances, the process and the
infrastructure (installations and equipment)
d) the magnitude of potential damages
¾ Classify all areas where a explosive atmosphere might occur into zones
according to the likelihood that an explosive atmosphere will be present
¾ Use appropriate equipment in the particular zones, which is certified according
to ATEX 95.
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¾ Define work orders for the particular zones to ensure the safety of the workers.
This must include:
a) instructions on special tools and procedures (for example spark proof)
b) rules when to work under supervision (for high risk work)
¾ Install warning signs where explosive atmospheres may occur (according to
the zone plan)
¾ Elaborate an explosion protection document (EPD) and keep it up to date. The
following points must be written down in the EPD:
a) considerations and results of risk assessment
b) classification of zones according to likelihood concept
c) work orders for particular zones
3.5 Zone plan and equipment selection
As described above, the ATEX 137 asks for a zone plan for endangered areas
according to the likelihood concept. According to the zone plan the right equipment
must be selected, which is certified after ATEX 95.
In the following the concept of the zone plan is described.
3.5.1 Classification of zones
Every area, where an explosive atmosphere might occur must be classified as one
of three zones. The three zones differ from each other according to the likelihood
that an explosive atmosphere might occur. Safe areas, where the risk of explosive
atmospheres can be excluded, are defined as “no zone”
There are two systems of zones. Explosive atmospheres due to
¾ …gases, mists and vapors are classified into zone 0, zone 1 and zone 2
¾ …dust are classified into zone 20, zone 21 and zone 22
¾ Whereas zone 0/20 are the zones with the highest risk for an explosive
atmosphere
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Flammable Classified Likelihood of presence for an Presence of explosive

substance zone explosive atmosphere atmosphere during 1 year
gas, vapor, mist 0 present continuously or for long mor than 1000 hours
periods, frequently
gas, vapor, mist 1 likely to occur in normal operation, 10 - 1000 hours

occasionally
gas, vapor, mist 2 not likely to occur in normal less than 10 hours
operation, only shortly
dust 20 present continuously or for long mor than 1000 hours

periods, frequently
dust 21 likely to occur in normal operation, 10 - 1000 hours

occasionally
not likely to occur in normal
dust 22 less than 10 hours
Figure 2: Overview of classification zones according to the likelihood concept for dust and gas explosions
3.5.2 Selection of equipment in different zones
Areas classified into zones must be protected from effective sources of ignition. The
equipment used in zoned areas must meet the requirements of the ATEX 95-
directive. As higher the risk of an explosion in a zone is, the better the equipment
must be protected from being a source of ignition.
¾ Zone 0 and 20 requires category 1 marked equipment
¾ zone 1 and 21 requires category 2, or lower marked equipment
¾ zone 2 and 22 requires category 3, or lower marked equipment
The difference of the 3 equipment categories can be summarized as the chance that
the equipment serves as a source of ignition. For higher categories also malfunction
of the equipment is taken into account. The following table gives an overview.
Figure 3: Requirements for equipment, which is designed for the different explosion zones
Not all equipment which is suited for explosive atmospheres from dust is
automatically suited for explosive atmospheres from gases. Therefore two classes
of equipment categories exist:
¾ G for equipment in explosive atmospheres from gas, mists and vapors (G1, G2
and G3)
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¾ D for equipment in explosive atmospheres from dust (D1, D2 and D3)

The final matrix for the right selection of equipment is therefore the following:
Flammable Equipment Classified Presence of explosive Likelihood of presence for an

substance category zone atmosphere during 1 year explosive atmosphere
gas, vapor, mist G1 0 mor than 1000 hours present continuously or for
long periods, frequently
gas, vapor, mist G2 1 10 - 1000 hours likely to occur in normal

operation, occasionally
gas, vapor, mist G3 2 less than 10 hours not likely to occur in normal
dust D1 20 mor than 1000 hours present continuously or for

long periods, frequently
dust D2 21 10 - 1000 hours likely to occur in normal

operation, occasionally
not likely to occur in normal
dust D3 22 less than 10 hours
Figure 4 Overview of different explosion zones and suited equipment category
It becomes clear that the selection of equipment can only be done correctly if a
proper risk assessment has been carried out. The direct result of the risk
assessment is the zone plane, which estimates in which areas how often an
explosive atmosphere is present.
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4. APPENDIX A: EQUIPMENT LABELLING AND ATEX MARKING

Every machine or equipment which is brought to the European market needs a CE
marking, which is placed on the type plate of the equipment. If the equipment fulfils
ATEX 95 specifications this is expressed in a special code on the type plate next to
the CE marking. In the following this code is explained
The following picture shows an example of a type plate of an explosion protected

equipment.
Ex-Symbol Protection Type Temperature Class
II 2G EEx ed IIC T4
Certificate Center Equipment Group Equipment Category Explosion Group
in the following called Group in the following called Category
Figure 4: Example of type plate for ATEX approved equipment
4.1.1 Equipment Group

Group I
¾ comprises equipment intended for use in the underground parts of mines, and
to those parts of surface installations of such mines, likely to become
endangered by firedamp and/or combustible dust
Group II
¾ comprises equipment intended for use in other places likely to become
endangered by explosive atmospheres.
4.1.2 Equipment Category
Caution: Remarks only valid for group II, group I is out of concern.
An Ex-Zone type is defined by the temporal probability for the presence of an
explosive atmosphere. In a certain Ex-zone, only equipment assigned to the specific
category, is allowed to be installed. There is a distinction between gas and dust
zones.
Gas:
¾ Ex-Zone 0 requires Category 1 G
explosive atmosphere occurs permanently or often (> 1'000 h/a)
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explosive atmosphere occurs periodically (10 - 1'000 h/a)
explosive atmosphere occurs unperiodically or only for a short time (< 10 h/a)
Dust:
¾ Ex-Zone 20 requires Category 1 D
explosive atmosphere due to combustible dust occurs permanently or often (>
1'000 h/a)
explosive atmosphere due to combustible dust occurs periodically (10 - 1'000
h/a)
explosive atmosphere due to combustible dust occurs periodically (10 - 1'000
h/a)
4.1.3 Explosion Group

Ignition on a hot surface occurs in a relatively large „macroscopic“ part of the
mixture (→ chapter "Temperature class). In contrast, the ignition from a spark
spreads in a relatively small „microscopic“ part of the volume.
For the assessment of the ignition by sparks two different laboratory methods are
used:
³ MIC
³ MESG
For the assessment of the ignition of the gases and vapours in a circuit 1 , a
comparative value with methane as reference in a standardized circuit is used. This
comparative value is the minimum ignition ratio, MIC. It is the means used for
classifying gases and vapours within explosion group II in the subgroups II A, II B
and II C.
An analogue value is found when the ease of ignition by a hot gas jet flowing
through a gap is used for the classification. A test apparatus 2 is specified in which a
spherical gas volume of 20 cm³ is enclosed by two hemispheres. They are equipped
with a 25 mm wide flange. This ball-shaped object is placed into a larger vessel and
both spaces are filled with the mixture for which the safe gap is to be determined.
The gap between the 25 mm wide flanges for which ten ignitions inside the ball
volume just fail to ignite the mixture in the outer vessel is a value specific to the
mixture and is called the maximum experimental safe gap, MESG. The MESG is the
1
using a device defined in IEC 60079-11
2
In IEC 60079-1A „Determination of the experimental safe gap“
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width of a gap through which the propagation of a flame is not possible. Every
combustible gas / vapour / dust has its specific MESG.
The processes involved in the prevention or spread of the explosion in the gap are
very complex. Classifying the gases and vapours by the safe gap results
approximately - with a small overlap - in the same classification as that obtained with
the minimum ignition current.
Explosion Group MIC MESG (mm)
Increasing Danger
II A > 0.8 > 0,90 mm
II B1 0,85 mm
II B2 0,75 mm
II B3 0,65 mm
II B 0.45 - 0.8 0,50 mm
II C < 0.45 < 0,50 mm
Table 4-1: Explosion Groups
Every device, which has been approved for a certain MESG / MIC can be used for
any product of that MESG / MIC or any other product with a larger MESG / MIC (e.g.
II C can be used in II A, II B 1-3 and II B).
The safe gap value is of considerable importance for designs of ignition protection
type „Flameproof enclosure“. The value for the minimum ignition current is important
for those of ignition protection type „Intrinsic safety“. For these two types of
protection, the subgroups II A, II B and II C for gases and vapours are relevant. The
information about gases and vapours can also be applied approximately to mists.
For dust, standards for the determination of parameters are already available or are
in preparation.
The minimum ignition energy, a parameter similar to the minimum ignition current, is
determined in accordance with IEC 61241-2-3.
4.1.4 Temperature Class

The surface temperatures of explosion-protected equipment and other technological
objects is designed in such a way that ignition by to hot surfaces is not possible.
Many factors such as size, shape, type and surface quality have an influence on the
ignition temperature. A standard test method is defined in such a way, that a value
very close to the lowest practically possible, is determined.
Gases and vapours are divided into temperature classes according their ignition
temperature.
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Dust in its deposited form (value A) has a different ignition temperature (it is lower
due to worse isolating effects) than in its stirred. cloudy form (value B). The relevant
value is the lowest value of the calculation (A-75°C) und 2/3*B.
The maximum permissible surface temperature of the electrical equipment has to be

lower than the ignition temperature of the mixture. For gases in zone 0 a 20%
safety margin has to be considered additionally. For zone 1 & 2 and for dusts (all
zones) no safety margin needs to be taken into account.
Temperature Ignition temperature Permissible surface temperature of the

classes range of the mixture electrical equipment
Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2
T1 > 450 °C 360 °C 450 °C 450 °C
T2 > 300 - 450 °C 240 °C 300 °C 300 °C
T3 > 200 - 300 °C 160 °C 200 °C 200 °C
T4 > 135 - 200 °C 108 °C 135 °C 135 °C
T5 > 100 - 135 °C 85° 100 °C 100 °C
T6 > 85 - 100 °C not relevant. 85 °C 85 °C
Table 4-2: Temperature Classes
Material Ignition Temperature [°C] Permissible limiting

temperature
procedure A procedure B lowest value of the
calculation (A-75K) und
deposit cloud 2/3*B
Brown Coal 225 380 150
Hard Coal 245 590 170
Pet Coke 280 690 205
Saw Dust 300 400 225
PVC 380 530 305
Laminated Plastic 330 510 255
Unvulcanized Rubber 220 460 145
Aluminium 280 530 205
Table 4-3: Dust Ignition Temperatures
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Table 4-4: Explosion group and temperature classes of different products
4.1.5 Protection Type

The protection type defines how an equipment is constructed, that it is ensured the
equipment can not be basis for an ignition source.
³ Increased Safety (e)

³ Flameproof Enclosure (d)
³ Pressurized Apparatus (p)
³ Intrinsic Safety (i)
³ Oil Immersion (o)
³ Powder Filling (q)
³ Encapsulation (m)
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