TROPOSHERIC POLLUTION

AND REACTIONS
OUTDOOR (AMBIENT) AIR
POLLUTION
Topic 2
 LESSON OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, students will be able to:

1. Define and explain what is pollution.

2. Name and give examples of the different
categories of air pollutants.
3. Explain and interpret current terminologies
used in air pollution.
 OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION
• Pollution is any addition of matter or
energy that degrades the environment for
humans and other organisms.
• Most air pollutants are gaseous but some
are aerosols, which consist of tiny
particles of solid or droplets of liquids
suspended in the air.
• There are several ways to categorize air
pollutants.
https://goo.gl/images/gxGnXy
https://goo.gl/images/YknKtV
 Categories of Air Pollutants
1. They can be categorized according to
their source, whether natural
(unregulated) or anthropogenic or
man-made (regulated)
*2. They can also be categorized according
to the way in which they are formed in
the atmosphere, primary or secondary
pollutants.
 Categories of Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are usually classified
according to the way in which they are
formed in the atmosphere.
1. Primary pollutants
2. Secondary pollutants
 Primary Pollutants
• Pollutants that are emitted directly into the
atmosphere by natural events or human
activities.
• These include carbon monoxide, volatile
organic compounds, particulate matter,
sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.
 Secondary Pollutants
• Primary pollutants may react with one
another in the presence of sunlight to form
new compounds that are known as
secondary air pollutants.
• Secondary air pollutants can also form
from reactions with substances that occur
naturally in the atmosphere.
• Examples include O3, most NO3- and
SO42- salts, hydrogen peroxides,
aldehydes and PAN.
 Criteria Air Pollutants
• The U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and other countries has a category of air pollutants
known as criteria air pollutants.
• Criteria air pollutants' is a term used internationally
to describe air pollutants that have been regulated
and are used as indicators of air quality. The
regulations or standards are based on criteria that
relate to health and/or environmental effects.
• The U.S EPA has established air quality
standards for six principal air pollutants (thus they
are called criteria air pollutants)
• These include NO2, O3, SO2, particulate matter
(PM), CO and Pb.
• In addition, certain compounds with high toxicity are
known as hazardous air pollutants or air toxics.
U.S. Criteria Air Pollutants Standard
Air Pollutant Concentration
CO 9 ppm (8-hr average)
SO2 0.03 ppm (annual mean)
NO2 0.053 ppm (annual mean)
O3 0.08 ppm (8- hr average)
Pb 1.5 ug/m3 (3 mth average)
PM10 150 ug/m3(24-hr average)
PM2.5 65 ug/m3 (24-hr average)

_______Other Common Pollutants_________________

Benzene No standards set (current
levels below 2.5 ug/m3
VOCs No standards set but reductions needed
to reduce ground-level ozone.
European Union Air Quality Objectives
Air Pollutant Concentration
CO 10 mg/m3 (8-hr average)
SO2 125 ug/m3( (24-hr average)
NO2 40 ug/m3(annual mean)
O3 120 ug/m3 (8- hr average)
Pb 0.5 ug/m3 (3- mth average)
PM10 50 ug/m3(24-hr average)
PM2.5

_______Other Common Pollutants_________________

Benzene 5.0 ug/m3
RECOMMENDED MALAYSIAN AIR QUALITY
GUIDELINES (RMAQG)

There are no ambient air quality standards in

Malaysia. The Malaysian government, however,
established ambient air quality guidelines in 1988.

Pollutants addressed in the guidelines

• include ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, total suspended
particles, particulate matter under 10
microns, lead and dust fall.
 RECOMMENDED MALAYSIAN AIR QUALITY
GUIDELINES (RMAQG)
Pollutants Averaging Time ppm ug/m3

Photochemical/Tropospheric 1 hr 0.10 200

ozone 8 hr 0.06 120

Carbon Monoxide 1 hr 30 35
8 hr 9 10

Nitrogen Dioxide 1 hr 0.17 320

24 hr 0.04

Sulfur Dioxide 1 hr 0.13 350

24 hr 0.04 105
 RECOMMENDED MALAYSIAN AIR QUALITY
GUIDELINES (RMAQG)
Pollutants Averaging Time ppm ug/m3

Particulate Matter (PM10) 24 hr 150

1 Year 50

Total Suspended 24 hr 260

Particulate (TSP) 1 Year 90

Lead 3 month 1.5

Dust fall 1 Year 133

mg/m2/day
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Produced when organic materials such as
gasoline, coal, wood and trash are burnt with
insufficient oxygen.
• Any process that involves the burning of fossil
fuels has the potential to produce carbon
monoxide.
• The single largest source of CO is the
automobile.
• The remainder comes from other processes that
involve burning (power plants, industry, burning
leaves etc)
 CO
• Although increased fuel efficiency and the use of
catalytic converters have reduced carbon dioxide
emissions per kilometer driven, CO remains a problem
because the number of automobiles on the road and the
number of kilometers driven have risen.
• In urban areas, as much as 90% of CO is from motor
vehicles.
• In many parts of the world, automobiles are poorly
maintained and may have inoperable pollution control
equipment, resulting in even greater amounts of carbon
monoxide.
• Fortunately, CO is not a persistent pollutant. It readily
combines with oxygen to form CO2.

➢ How does a catalytic converter work?

 CATALYTIC CONVERTER
• A catalytic converter is a vehicle emissions control device which
converts toxic byproducts of combustion in the exhaust of an internal
combustion engine to less toxic substances by way
of catalysed chemical reactions.
• The specific reactions vary with the type of catalyst installed. Most
present-day vehicles that run on gasoline are fitted with a “three
way” converter, so named because it converts the three main
pollutants in automobile exhaust.
• The three main pollutants are carbon monoxide, unburned
hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen. The first two are
converted to two new molecules. This happens through
an oxidizing reaction which converts carbon monoxide (CO)
and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) to CO2 and water vapor.
• The last pollutant (oxides of nitrogen) is converted to three new
molecules. This happens through a reduction reaction which
converts oxides of nitrogen (NOx) to CO2, nitrogen (N2)
and water (H2O).
 Health effects of CO
• CO is dangerous because it binds to the hemoglobin in
the blood and makes the hemoglobin less able to carry
oxygen.
• CO is most dangerous in enclosed spaces where it is not
diluted by fresh air entering the space.
• Several hours of exposure to air containing only 0.001%
of CO can cause death.
• Since CO remains attached to hemoglobin for a long
time, even small amounts tend to accumulate and
reduce the blood’s oxygen carrying capacity.
• The amount of CO produced in heavy traffic can cause
headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision.
• Cigarette smoke is also an important source of carbon
monoxide.
CO Detector
 Particulate Matter (PM)
• PM consists of minute (10 microns and smaller)
solid particles and liquid droplets dispersed into
the atmosphere.
• The EPA has set standards for particles smaller
than 10 microns (PM10) and 2.5 microns (PM2.5).
• Most of the coarse particles (greater than 2.5
microns) are primary pollutants such as dust and
carbon particles that are released into the air.
• Roads, agricultural activities, construction sites,
industrial processes and certain smoke particles
from fires are primary sources of coarse
particles.
➢ What is a micron?
 MICRON
• A metric unit of length = 10⁻⁶ meter. The
approved SI term for the micron's length is
micrometer (symbol, μm).
• Nonetheless, “micron” is still the term most
commonly used in certain fields, including
semiconductor fabrication. It is often used
in describing the sizes of particles retained
by air and water filters, the range of
wavelengths of light to which an optical
instrument responds, and in machining.
 Particulate Matter
• Fine particles (less than 2.5 microns) are
mostly secondary pollutants that form in
the atmosphere from interactions of
primary air pollutants.
• Sulfates and nitrates formed from sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides are examples
of fine particulates.

)
COARSE AND FINE
PARTICLES
•Coarse dust particles (PM10) are
2.5 to 10 micrometers in diameter.
Sources include crushing or
grinding operations and dust stirred
up by vehicles on roads.
•

Fine particles (PM2.5) are 2.5

micrometers in diameter or smaller,
and can only be seen with an
electron microscope. Fine particles
are produced from all types of
combustion, including motor
vehicles, power plants, residential
wood burning, forest fires,
agricultural burning, and some
industrial processes
 Health and other effects of
Particulate Matter
• Reduced visibility
• PM of asbestos is carcinogenic and can
cause cancer.
• Particles can accumulate in the lung and
interfere with their ability to exchange
gases.
• Sulfuric, nitric and carbonic acids, which
irritate the lining of our respiratory system,
frequently are associated with particulates.
)
 Sulfur Dioxide
• SO2 is a compound of sulfur and oxygen
that is produced when sulfur-containing
fossil fuels are burned.
S + O2  SO2
• There is sulfur in coal and oil and this
sulfur combines with oxygen when fossil
fuels are burned.
• More than 50% of SO2 comes from
industries and power plants.
Health and other effects of SO2
• SO2 has sharp odor
• Causes headaches, sore throats and nausea.
• Irritates respiratory tissue
• Aggravates asthmatic conditions
• Reacts with water, oxygen and other materials to
form sulfur containing acids.
• These acids can become attached to particles
that when inhaled, are very corrosive to lung
tissue.
• These acid containing particles are also involved
in acid deposition.
 Oxides of Nitrogen
• Burning of fossil fuels produces a mixture of nitrogen-
containing compounds commonly known as oxides of
nitrogen.
• The two most common molecules are nitrogen monoxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
• The primary molecule produced is nitrogen monoxide
(NO)
N2 + O2  2NO
• But nitrogen monoxide can be converted to nitrogen
dioxide in the air.
2NO + O2  2NO2
 Oxides of Nitrogen
• Primary source of nitrogen oxides is the
automobile engine which accounts for more than
50% of oxides of nitrogen released.
• Catalytic converters significantly reduce the
amount of NO released from internal combustion
engines.
• However, the increase in the number of cars and
the kilometers driven, still has an impact in the
amount of nitrogen oxides produced.
Health and other effects of NO2
• NO2 is a highly reactive, reddish brown
gas which is a secondary pollutant.
• Causes respiratory problems
• Component of acid precipitation
• Important in the production of mixture of
secondary air pollutants called smog
(especially ozone).
 Lead, Pb
• At one time, primary source of airborne lead was
from additives in gasoline. Lead was added to
gasoline to help engines run more
efficiently.Currently, 80% of the gasoline sold in
the world is unleaded.
• Another major source of lead is paints. Many
older homes have paints that contain lead, since
various lead compounds are colourful pigments.
Dust from flaking paint, remodeling or demolition
is released into the environment. Some young
children chew on painted surfaces and often eat
paint chips.
• Today, however, industrial sources such as
metal smelters and manufacturers of batteries
account for about 80% of lead emissions.
Health and other effects of lead
• Lead can enter our bodies when we inhale
airborne particles or consume lead that
was deposited on surfaces.
• Lead accumulates in the body and causes
a variety of health effects including mental
retardation and kidney damage.
 Tropospheric/ Photochemical Ozone
• Highly reactive, irritating gas with an unpleasant odor that
forms in the troposphere as a major component of
photochemical smog.
• Ground-level or troposheric ozone is produced in the
presence of sunlight when nitrogen dioxide breaks down to
nitrogen monoxide and atomic oxygen:
NO2  NO + O*
O* + O2  O3

Atomic oxygen is extremely reactive and will react with

molecular oxygen in the air to form ozone.
Health effects of ground-level ozone
• Breathing problems
• Coughing
• Eye, nose and throat irritation
• Aggravates chronic diseases such as asthma,
bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease.
• Reduces resistance to colds and pneumonia
• May speed up lung tissue aging.
Other effects
• Can damage plants (destroys chlorophyll), and
trees.
• Damages rubber, fabrics and paints.
 AIR QUALITY MONITORING STATIONS

• Located at Strategic Places :

• Residential;
• Industrial;
• Commercial; and
• Traffic
 Air Quality Monitoring Stations

Automatic Manual
 Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)
The United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) developed
the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) to provide accurate, timely and
easily understandable information about daily levels of air pollution.

The index provides a uniform standard of measuring pollution levels for

the major air pollutants:

• PM10 (particulate matter less than 10 microns in size; 1 micron =

1/1,000th of 1 mm or 1 x 10-6 m);
• sulphur dioxide;
• ozone;
• carbon monoxide;
• nitrogen dioxide.
 PSI
The PSI value gives an indication of the air
quality as shown:
PSI Value PSI Descriptor
0 to 50 Good
51 - 100 Moderate
101 - 200 Unhealthy
201- 300 Very Unhealthy
Above 300 Hazardous
 Air Quality Index (AQI)
• In the US, PSI is no longer in use, having
been replaced by the AQI, which is more
sensitive. For example, particulate matter
with an aerodynamic diameter less than
2.5 micrometres (PM2.5) is a sub index,
replacing the less sensitive PM10
component of the PSI.
Air Pollutant Index (API) In Malaysia

• In 1989, the Department of Environment

(DOE) formulated a set of air quality
guidelines, termed Recommended
Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines
(RMAQG) for air pollutants, defining the
concentration limits of selected air
pollutants which might adversely affect the
health and welfare of the general public.
 Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia

• Based on the (RMAQG) , the Department

subsequently developed its first air quality
index system, known as the Malaysian
Air Quality Index (MAQI) in 1993.
• An index system plays an important role in
conveying to both decision-makers and
the general public the status of ambient air
quality, ranging from good to hazardous.
 Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
• Application of the index system, particularly in
industralized countries, has demonstrated the
useful role in providing a sound basis for both
the effective management of air quality , as well
as the effective protection of public health.
• In line with the need for regional harmonization
and easy comparison with countries in the
region, the Department revised its index system
in 1996, and the Air Pollutant Index (API) was
adopted. The API system of Malaysia closely
follows the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI)
system of the United States.
 Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
• An air pollution index system normally
includes the major air pollutants which
could cause potential harm to human
health should they reach unsafe levels.
• The pollutants included in Malaysia's API
are photochemical/troposheric ozone
(03), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
dioxide (N02), sulphur dioxide (S02) and
suspended particulate matter less than
10 microns in size (PM10).
 Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
• Generally, an air pollution index system is
developed in easily understood ranges of
values, instead of using the actual
concentrations of air pollutants, as a means for
reporting the quality of air or level of air pollution.
• To reflect the status of the air quality and its
effects on human health, the range of index
values could then be categorized as follows :
good, moderate, unhealthy, very unhealthy
and hazardous.
Malaysian API Status Indicator
 A Guide To Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
• To determine the API for a given time period, the sub-
index (sub-API) for all five pollutants included in the API
system are first calculated.
• The API reported for a given time period represents the
highest API value among all the sub-APIs calculated
during that particular time period. The predominant air
pollutant parameter contributing towards a particular API
value is normally indicated alongside the API value.
• For example, during the 1997 haze episode, the
predominant air pollutant parameter was PM10 and
hence the API values reported were primarily based on
the PM10 sub-index.
• In general, PM10 is the dominant air pollutant in Malaysia
especially in Selangor.
Air Pollutant Index Process Flowchart
 Air Pollutant Index (API)
Indeks Pencemar Udara (IPU)
24/12/2007 (Monday)
Selangor Time (11 am) Time (5.00 pm)
Gombak 33* 37*

Pelabuhan Kelang 52* 51*

Petaling Jaya 35* 36*

Country Heights,Kajang 45* 47*

Shah Alam 43* 44*

Kuala Selangor 32* 31*

* PM10
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
 9/3/2014
NEGERI / KAWASAN/ MASA/TIME MASA/TIME MASA/TIME MASA/TIME MASA/TIME MASA/TIME
STATE AREA 12:00AM 01:00AM 02:00AM 03:00AM 04:00AM 05:00AM

Selangor Banting 121* 125* 129* 133* 134* 135*

Kuala
Selangor 116* 118* 120* 120* 121* 131*
Selangor

Pelabuhan
Selangor 141* 144* 146* 147* 149* 150*
Kelang

Petaling
Selangor 105* 107* 110* 112* 115* 118*
Jaya

Selangor Shah Alam 109* 112* 115* 117* 118* 120*

 9/3/2014
NEGERI / KAWASAN/ MASA/TIME MASA/TIME MASA/TIME MASA/TIME MASA/TIME MASA/TIME
STATE AREA 06:00PM 07:00PM 08:00PM 09:00PM 10:00PM 11:00PM

Selangor Banting # # # # # 130*

Kuala
Selangor 156* 153* 151* 147* 144* 141*
Selangor

Pelabuha
Selangor 162* 161* 159* 160* 160* 158*
n Kelang

Petaling
Selangor 121* 120* 118* 116* 112* 109*
Jaya
Shah
Selangor 124* 123* 121* 118* 118* 116*
Alam
 9/3/2017
12 pm 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm

Selangor Banting 76c 69c 68c

Kuala
Selangor 37* 38* 39* 40* 40* 41*
Selangor

Pelabuhan
Selangor 64c 68c 61* 61* 62*
Kelang

Petaling
Selangor 52* 52* 52*
Jaya

57c
Selangor Shah Alam 61c 62c 54c
 Air Pollutant Index (API)
Indeks Pencemar Udara (IPU)
24/12/2007 (Monday)
Other Areas Time (11 am) Time (5.00 pm)
Putrajaya (W. Persekutuan) 41* 43c

Port Dickson (N.Sembilan) 38* 51c

Bandaraya Melaka 33* 36c

Kemaman (Terengganu) 39c 42c

Indera Mahkota, Kuantan 27* 38c

Miri 18* 18c

* PM10 c = O3 & = more than 1

a=SO2 b = NO2 d = CO pollutant
# = technical
problem
 Air Pollutant Index (API)
Indeks Pencemar Udara (IPU)
16 March 2012
Other Areas Time (11 am) Time (5.00 pm)
Putrajaya (W. Persekutuan) 37* 37*

Port Dickson (N.Sembilan) 52* 52*

Bandaraya Melaka 50* 48*

Kemaman (Terengganu) 47* 46*

Indera Mahkota, Kuantan 39* 38*

Miri 52* 52*

* PM10 c = O3
 Tropospheric Ozone
• During late afternoons or early evenings,
the concentration of ozone increases and
dominates the API readings in some
places.
• In sunlight, oxides of nitrogen and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) from motor
vehicle exhaust and industries react to
form tropospheric ozone.
 Limitations of PSI and API
• The PSI/API emphasizes short term acute health
effects, and does not take into account chronic effects
occurring over months or years.
• Also, the PSI/API reading announced over radio or TV
may not correspond to actual values at the time of the
announcement, because the reading is for the
immediate three hours. Hence, the current condition
can be better or worse than that of the immediate three
hours.
• Finally, the PSI/API does not take into account the
possible synergistic effects when different pollutants
combine together. That is, the adverse health effects of
combinations of two or more pollutants can be worse
than the sum of each of the pollutants separately.