Kaysons Education Fundamentals and Functions

Chapter
Fundamentals and
1 Functions
Day 1
Fundamentals
Basic Definitions
(i) Natural numbers:-
N= {1, 2, 3, 4, ………}
(ii) Integers:-
Denoted by I or Z. {……., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ……..}
(a) Positive integers by
(b) Negative integers by
(c) Non-negative integers: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,……….}=whole numbers
(d) Non-positive integers: {…….., -3, -2, -1, 0}
(iii) Rational Numbers:-
All the numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are integers and are called
rational numbers and their set is denoted by Q.

(1) Every integer is a rational number as it could be written as

(2) All recurring decimals are rational numbers.

(iv)Irrational Numbers:-
Those values which neither terminate nor could be expressed as recurring decimals
are irrational numbers. i.e. , it cannot be expressed as p/q form, and are denoted by
(i.e., complement of Q).

(v) Real Numbers:-

The set which contain both rational and irrational are called real and is denoted
by R.

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Kaysons Education Fundamentals and Functions

Self Efforts

1. Sum of two rational numbers is:

(a) rational (b) irrational
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these

2. Sum of two irrational umbers is:

(a) rational (b) irrational
(c) real (d) none of these

3. Product of two rational numbers is:

(a) always rational (b) rational or irrational
(c) always irrational (d) none of these

4. If a is an irrational number which is divisible by b then the number b:

(a) must be rational (b) must be irrational
(c) may be rational or irrational (d) none of these

Answer

1. Rational 2. Real 3. Always rational 4. Must be irrational

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Kaysons Education Fundamentals and Functions

CLOSED AND OPEN INTERVALS

(i) Open-open interval:-

Illustration

Solution

This solution can be graphed on a real line as;

(ii) Open –closed interval:-

(iii) Closed-open interval:-

(iv) Closed-closed interval:-

Illustration
Solve the following equations:

Solution

“as we know the inequality sign changes, if multiplied by (-ve)”

Hence, the solution set of the given in equation is ].

Modulus or Absolute Value Function

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Kaysons Education Fundamentals and Functions

Illustration

Solution

Which means, x is at a distance of 2 units from 0 which is certainly 2 and -2.

Illustration

Solution

As |x| is always positive or zero it can never be negative.

Illustration

Solution

It means that x is the number, which is at distance less than 2 from 0.

Illustration

Solution

Which shows no solution.

As L.H.S. is non-negative and RHS is negative or |x|<-2 does not possess any
solution.
Illustration

Solution

We knows here L.H.S. 0 and R.H.S < 0

i.e., above statement is true for all real x.

(as we know that non-negative number is always greater than negative.)
Illustration

Solution
It means that x is the number which is at distance greatest than 2 from 0.

Generalised Results
(i):- For any real number x, we have

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Kaysons Education Fundamentals and Functions

(ii):- For any real number x, we have

(iii):- If a > 0 then:

(iv):- If a < 0 then:

(v):- |x + y| = |x| + |y|

(vi):-

(vii):-
(viii):-

Illustration

Solution

Illustration

Solution

i.e., the distance covered is between 1unit to 3 units.

Hence, the solution set of the given in equation is

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Kaysons Education Limit

Chapter
ggg Limit
2
Day 1

Basic concept
Enquiry:-why do we want to know the limit of a function?
Consider a function . The function f(x) is defined at all points except at x = a
because at x = a, f(x) = 0/0 which is indeterminate in the language of mathematics hence we want
to know what value does f(x) approach as x approaches a. Graph of is
shown in fig. 1. Circle at point (a, 2a) means that the point is excluded from the graph of the
function. It is for this reason we define limit’s get rid of manipulation or simplification constraint
of function. So the mineral
We write

Fig (I)
(i):- Limit of function f(x) is said to exist as then,

(Limit exist, at x = a) (Limit does not exist, at x = a)

Fundamental algebraic operation on limits of function

Let

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Kaysons Education Limit

(ii):-

Provided f is continuous at .
Standard limits
(a):-

(b):-

(c):-

(d):-

(e):-

(f):-

(g):-

(h):-

Indeterminate forms

Sandwich theorem
Let f, g, h be three continuous functions such that f < g < h is an open interval containing ‘a’ and
suppose

Then,

Also exists and is equal to l.

Some important expansions
(i):-

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Kaysons Education Limit

(ii):-

(iii):-

(iv):-

(v):-

(vi):-

(vii):-

(viii):-

(ix):-

(x):-

(xi):-

Following strategies should be born in mind for evaluating the limits:

(a):- Factorization
(b):- Rationalization or double rationalization
(c):- Use of trigonometric transformation, appropriate substitution and using standard limits.

Factorization method

Illustration

Solution
The given limit

Illustration

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Kaysons Education Limit

Solution
The given limit

Rationalization Method

Illustration

Solution

Illustration

Solution
Because the fractional power of (10-x) is 1/3, hence we have to multiply and divide the
expression by such expression so that each terms become free from radicals (fractional powers).
Hence if we think
. The suitable terms is .
As (a-b) . Now see below
The given limit

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Kaysons Education Limit

Based on standard formula

Illustration

Solution

Illustration

Solution

Illustration

Solution

Dividing Nr and Dr by (x-1) we get the limit

(Using summation of x terms of G.P.)

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Kaysons Education Continuity and Differentiability

Chapter Continuity and

3 Differentiability
Day 1

Continuity of a function
A function f(x) is a said to be continuous at x=a; where a domain of f(x)
If

Graphical View
(i) and exists but
are not equal.
Here,

and exists but are

not equal.
Thus, f(x) is discontinuous at x = a.
It does not matter whether f(a) exists or not.

Illustration

If

Solution
Here,

RHL at x = 0, let x = 0 + h
i.e.,

Again, LHL at x = 0,
Let x = 0-h
i.e.,

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Kaysons Education Continuity and Differentiability

But f(0) = 0
Therefore,

Thus, f(x) is discontinuous at

Graphically:-
Here,

Thus,

Hence, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 0

Illustration

Solution
Here,

But f(1) = 0/0 (in determined form)

f(1) is not defined at x = 1
Hence, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 1
Graphically
Which shows,

But f(1) is not defined.

So, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 1.

Illustration
Discuss the continuity of
Solution
We know could be plotted
as;

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Kaysons Education Continuity and Differentiability

Thus, could b plotted

as;

Which clearly represents graph is breaked at

{- tan 1, 0, tan 1}
f(x) is not continuous when

Continuity at end points

Let a function is defined on [a, b].
Then the function f(x) is said to be continuous at the left end x = a if

If f(x) is said to be continuous at the right end x = b if,

Kinds of Discontinuity
Let the point x = a be the limit point in the domain of definition of y = f(x).
Discontinuity of 1st kind: In this kind of discontinuity the RHL and LHL of the function )
are existent (i.e. are finite and definite) at x = a and if
(i) Then f(x) is said to have first kind
removable discontinuity. This kind of discontinuity can be removed by putting

(ii) Then f(x) is said to have find kind non-

removable discontinuity.
The value is called jump discontinuity of f(x) at
x = a.
Discontinuity of 2nd kind: If at least one of and is
non –existent or infinite then f(x) is said to have discontinuity of 2nd kind at x = a.
Illustration
Show the function,

has non-removable discontinuity at x = 0.

Solution
We have,

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Kaysons Education Continuity and Differentiability

RHL at x = 0, let x = 0 + h

Again, LHL at x = 0, let x = 0-h

Thus, f(x) has non-removable discontinuity.

Illustration

has discontinuity of second kind at x = 0.

Solution
Here,

Which shows function has discontinuity

of second kind.

Graphically
Here, the graph is broken at x = 0 as
Therefore, f(x) has discontinuity of second kind.

Jump discontinuity
A function f(x) is said to have a jump discontinuity at a point x = a if,

And f(a) may be equal to either of previous limits.

Illustration

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Kaysons Education Continuity and Differentiability

[ ] denotes greatest integer has jump discontinuity at all integer values.

Properties of continuity function

Theorem (i): If the functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a point x = a then the sum
is also continuous at that point x = a.
Proof : Since f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a point x = a we can write

Now

Thus, the function is continuous.

Similarly, we can prove the following theorems
Theorem (ii): The product to two continuous functions is a continuous function.
Theorem (iii): The ratio of two continuous functions is a continuous function, provided the
denominator does not vanish at the point under consideration.
Theorem (iv): If u = g(x) is continuous at x = a and f(u) is continuous at the point u0=g(a), then
the composite function f{g(x)} is continuous at the point x = a.

Illustration
Discuss the continuity of the function,

Solution
We have,

We know that,

for we have

Again for , we have

Here, as

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Kaysons Education Differentiation

Chapter
4 Differentiation
Day 1

Introduction
Consider a function
Now if x is incremented by a value ∆ x then the value of y also changes by ∆ y.

Thus the change in value of y, is,

The derivative of function at a point (x, y) is the slope of the tangent of the function at
that point.

Hence the derivative of the function is found by the above method

The fundamental method to find derivatives of a function with respect to x is called the
First principle to find derivatives of a function
Note:
This method is also known as:
1. differentiation by definition
2. differentiation y abinitio

Illustration
Differentiation of cos x from first principles
Solution
Let

Then

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Kaysons Education Differentiation

Illustration
Differentiation of cot x from first principles
Solution
Let

Then

Illustration

Solution

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Kaysons Education Differentiation

Illustration

Solution

Illustration
Find the derivative of
Solution

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Kaysons Education Differentiation

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Kaysons Education Differentiation

Self Efforts

A
n
s
w
e
r
Answer

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Kaysons Education Application and Derivatives

Chapter
Application and Derivatives
5
Day 1

Derivative as a rate measurer

Derivative as the time rate of change
If a variable quantity u is some function of time , then a small change in time will
have a corresponding change in u. Thus, the average rate of change is When limit
is applied, the rate of change becomes instantaneous and we get the rate of change with
respect to time at the instant t
Hence, it is clear that the rate of change of any variable quantity is its
derivative with
respect to time.
The d. c. of y with respect to x i.e. is nothing but the rate of increase of y relative to x.
Related rates
In many practical problems, it has been found that several variables are related by an expression.
The time rate of change of certain variables are known and the time rates of change of others are
to be found. In such cases first of all a relation between the variables is established. Then we
differentiable the relation with respect to time. On differentiation we get a resulting equation
containing known and unknown rates. The value of known rates are substituted and thus we obtain
unknown rate.

Illustration
If the radius of a circle be increasing at a uniform rate of 2 cm/sec, find the rate of increase of area,
at the instant when the radius is 20 cm.
Solution
Given

Now, area of a circle is given by

Differentiating w. r. to time t we get

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Kaysons Education Application and Derivatives

Illustration
If r be the radius S the surface and V the volume of a spherical bubble, prove that
(i)

(ii)

Solution
(i)

(ii)
Thus,

Illustration
Water is dripping out from a conical funnel of semi-vertical angle /4 at the uniform rate of 2
cm2/sec in its surface area through a tiny hole at the vertex in the bottom. When the slant height of
the water is 4 cm, find the rate of decrease of the slant height of the water.
Solution
Let VAB be a conical funnel of semi-vertical angle /4.At any time t the water in the cone also
forms a cone. Let r be its radius, l be the slant height and S be the surface area.
Then,

In we have

The surface area S is given by

It is given that

Putting l = 4, we get

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Kaysons Education Application and Derivatives

Thus, the rate of decrease of the slant height is cm/sec.

Illustration
A man 1.6m high walks at the rate of 30metres per minute away from a lamp which is 4m above
the ground. How fast is the man’s shadow lengthening.
Solution
Let PQ = 4m be the height of the pole and AB = 1.6m be the height of the man.
Let the end of the shadow is R and it is a distance of l form A when the man is at a distance x
from
PQ at some instant.
Since are similar
We have,

Illustration
A man is moving away from a tower 41.6m high at the rate of 2m/sec. Find the rate at which the
angle of elevation of the top of tower is changing, when he is at a distance of 30m from the foot of
the tower. Assume that the eye level of the man is 1.6m from the ground.

Solution
Let AB be the tower. Let at any time t, the man be at a distance of x meters from the tower AB and
let be the angle of elevation at that time.
Then,

We are given that dx/dt = 2m/sec. Therefore

When x = 30, from (i) we have

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Kaysons Education Application and Derivatives

So,

Substituting cosec2 = 25/16 in (ii), we get

Thus, the angle of elevation of the top of tower is changing at the rate of 4/125 radians/sec.

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Kaysons Education Application and Derivatives

Self Efforts

(i). A balloon which always remains spherical, is being inflated by pumping in 900 cubic centimeters of
gas per second. Find the rate at which the radius of the balloon is increasing when the radius is 15 cm.

(ii). A man 160 cm tall, walks away from a source of light situated at the top of a pole 6 m high, at the rate
of 1.1 m/sec. How fast is the length of his shadow increasing when he is 1 m away from the pole?

(iii). A ladder 13 m long leans against a wall. The foot of the ladder is pulled along the ground away from
the wall, at the rate of 1.5 m/sec. How fast is the angle between the ladder and the ground is changing
when the foot of the ladder is 12 m away from the wall.

(iv). If and x increases at the rate of 4 units per second, how fast is the slope of the curve
changing when

(v). Find an angle , which increases twice as fast as its sine.

(vi). Sand is being poured onto a conical pole at the constant rate of 50 cm 3/minute such that the height of
the cone is always one half of the radius of its base. How fast is the height of the pile increasing when the
sand is 5cm deep.

(vii). A kite is 120 m high and 130 m of string is out. If the kite id moving away horizontally at the rate of
52 m/sec, find the rate at which the string is being paid out.

(viii). A particle moves along the curve Find the points on the curve at which the y-
coordinate is changing twice as fast as the x-coordinate.

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Chapter
Tangents and Normals
6
Day 1

Basic definition
Slope (Gradient) of a line
The trigonometrical tangent of the angle that a line
makes with the positive direction of x-axis in
anticlockwise sense is called the slope or gradient of
the line .

Slope of a line in terms of coordinates of any two points on it

Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two points on a line. Then its slope m is given by

Slope of a line when its equation is given

The slope of a line whose equation is ax+by+c= 0 is given by

Angle between two lines

The angle between two lines having slopes m1 and m2 is given by

When two line are parallel, their slopes are equal.

Two lines of slopes m1 and m2 are perpendicular, then

Equation of a straight line

The equation of a straight line passing through a point (x1, y1) and slope m is

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Illustration
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point (at2, 2at)
Solution
The equation of the given curve is

Differentiating (i) with respect to x, we get

So, that equation of the tangent at (at2,2at) is

And, the equation of the normal at is

Illustration
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to 16x2 + 9y2 = 144 at the point (x1, y1) where x1 = 2
and y1 > 0
Solution
The equation of the given curve is

Since (x1, y1) lies on (i), therefore

So, the given point is

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Now,

[Differentiating with respect to x.]

So, the equation of the tangent at

And, the equation of the normal at

Illustration
Find the equation of the tangent line to y = 2x2 + 7 which is parallel to the line 4x – y + 3 = 0.
Solution
Let the point of contact of the required tangent line be (x1, y1)
The equation of the given curve is y = 2x2 + 7
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get

Since the line 4x – y + 3 = 0 is parallel to the tangent at (x1, y1).

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Now,

So, the coordinates of the point of contact are (1, 9). Hence, the required equation of the tangent
line is

Illustration
Find the equation of tangent to the curve which is perpendicular to the line x +
14y + 4 = 0.
Solution
Let the coordinates of the point of contact be (x1, y1).
Then

The equation of the curve is

Differentiating with respect to x, we get

Since the tangent at (x1, y1) is perpendicular to the line x + 14y + 4 = 0,

Therefore,

When

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

When

So, the coordinates of the points of contact are (2, 18) and (-2, -6)
The equation of the tangent at (2, 18) is

The equation of the tangent at (-2, -6) is

— —

Illustration
Show that the curve and 4xy = k cut at right angles, if k2 = 512.
Solution
Curve are 4x = y2 …………….(i) and 4xy = k ………………………(ii)
Eliminating y we get,

Put in (i)

Point of intersection is

Differentiating (i) with respect to x, we get

Differentiating (ii) with respect to x, we get

As curves are at right angles from (iii) and (iv) ,we have

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Cubing we get

Illustration
Show that the condition that the curves

Should intersect orthogonally is that

Solution
Let (x1, y1) be the point of intersection of the curves. Then

Differentiating (i) with respect to x, we get

Differentiating (ii) with respect to x, we get

The two curves will intersect orthogonally, if

Subtracting (iv) from (iii), we obtain

Dividing (viii) by (vii) we get

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Self Efforts

(i) Find the equation of normal to the curve y = sin2x at the point (π⁄3, 3⁄4).

(ii) At what point on the curve x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y + 1 = 0 is he tangent patrallel to y – axis?

(iii) Show that the curves 2x = y2 and 2xy = k cut at right angles, if k2 = 8.

(iv) Show that the curves x = y2 and xy = k cut at right angles, if 8k2 = 1

(v) Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve x = 1 – cosθ, y = θ – sinθ at θ = π⁄4.

(vi) Find the equations of tangents to the curve y = x3 + 2x + 6 which are perpendicular to the
line x + 14y + 4 = 0

(vii) Find the equation of tangent to the curve

show that the sum of its intercepts on axes is constant.

(viii) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve

(ix) Find the points on the curve y = x3 – 2x2 – 2x at which the tangent lines are
parallel to the line y = 2x – 3.

(x) Find the equation of tangent to the parabols y2 = 8x which is parallel to line
4x – y + 3 = 0

(xi) Prove that curve (x⁄a)n + (y⁄b)n = 2 touches the straight line

(xii) In the curve x = a[cost + ln tan (t⁄2)], y = a sin t, show that the portion of the
tangent between the point of contact and the x – axis is of constant length.

(xiii) Prove that the sum of intercepts of the tangent to the curve
the coordinate axes is of constant length.

(xiv) xm yn = am+n. prove also that the portion of the tangent intersecepted between the
axes is divided at its point of contact in caostant ratio.

(xv) Show that the angle between the tangents at any point P and the line joining P to origin O

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

is the small at all points of the curve ln (x2 + y2 ) = k tan-1(y⁄x).

(xvi) Prove that the cuves y = e–ax sin bx and y = e–ax touch at the points for which

(xviii) Find the angle of intersection curve y2 = 16x and 2x2 + y2 = 4

(xix) Find the angle of intersection curve

Answer

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Day 2

Advance Level
Illustration
Find the angle of intersection of the curves
Solution
For intersection point of the given curves

While for the 2nd curve

Hence if be the acute angle of intersection of the curves, then

The obtuse angle between the curves at

the angle of intersection will be same as at because both the functions are
even.

Illustration
Find the acute angles between the curves at their points of
intersection.
Solution
For intersection point of the given curves

Hence the points of intersection are

Let us discuss at the point
In the small vicinity of

For the first curve

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

For the second curve

Hence, if be the acute angle of intersection of the curve, then

Illustration
Find the equation of the tangents drawn to the curve from the point (1, 2).
Solution
Let the drawn from (1, 2) meets the curve at
Now,

Hence, the tangent at is given by

The tangent (i) passes through (1, 2)

Also, lies on the given curve

Hence

Adding (ii) and (iii) we get,

When

⇒ β is imaginary

When

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Thus the points are

And slopes are respectively

Equations of tangents are therefore

And

Illustration
ax + by = 1 is a normal to the parabola y2 = 4px then prove that
Solution
Let the normal is drawn at the point so that
Now,

Hence, the equation of the normal is

Comparing (1) with ax + by = 1we have

From first two expressions

From first and second expressions

Illustration
For the curve xy = c2, prove that the portion of the tangent intercepted between the co-ordinate
axes is divided at the point of contact.
Solution

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Let the tangent is drawn at the point on the curve so that

Now,

Thus the equation of tangent is

It is clear that the tangent line cuts x and y axes at A (2α, 0) and B(0, 2β) respectively and the point
(α, β) is mid-point of AB

Illustration
Prove that the segment of the tangent drawn to the curve intercepted between
the co-ordinate axes is of constant length.
Solution
Let the tangent is drawn at the point (α, β) on the curve so that

Now,

Hence, the equation of the tangent is

When

When

AB = C = constant.

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Kaysons Education Tangents and Normals

Self Efforts

(i) The equations of those tangents to 4x2 – 9y2 = 36 which are perpendicular to the straight
line 5x + 2y – 10 = 0, are

(ii) The distance between the origin and the tangent to the curve y = e2x + x2 drawn at the
point x = 0 is

(iii) the point of intersection of the tangtents drawn to the curve x2 y = 1 – y at the points
where it is met by the curve xy = 1 – y, is given by
(a) (0, –1) (b) (1, 1) (c) (0, 1) (d) none of these
(iv) The point on the cuve 3y = 6x – 5x3 the normal at which passes through the origin is
(a) (1, 1⁄3) (b) (1⁄3, 1) (c) (2, –28⁄3) (d) (–1, –1⁄3)
(v) the tow curves x3 – 3xy2 + 2 = 0 and 3x2 y – y3 = 2
(a) cut at right angles (b) touch each other
(c) cut at an angle π⁄3 (d) cut at an angle π⁄4
(vi)For the curve x = t2 – 1, y = t2 – 1 the tangent line is perpendicular to x-axis where

(vii)The angle of intersection of the curves, y = x2 & 6y = 7 – x3 at (1,1), is

(a) π⁄4 (b) π⁄3 (c) π/2 (d) none of these
2
(viii) The normal to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c at the point t1 meets the curve again at t2 then

(ix) The tangent to curve y = emx at the point (00, 1 meets the x-axis at
(a) (–m, 0) (b) (1⁄m, 0) (c) (–1⁄m, 0) (d) (m, 0)
x⁄a
(x) For the curve y = be , the
(a) Subtangent is constant (b) Subnormal is constant
(c) Subnormal ∝ (ordinate) (d) Subtangent ∝ (ordinate)2

Answer
(i) d (ii) a (iii) c
(iv) a (v) a (vi) a
(vii) c (viii) a, b (ix) c
(x) a, c

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Kaysons Education Monotonicity

Chapter
7 Monotonicity
Day 1

Monotonic function
Monotonous behavior i.e. in the sense of ascending (increasing) or descending (decreasing). There
are two types of monotonic function.
(i) Increasing function
It can be further studied under two subtopics
(i) Strictly increasing function-
A function f (x) is known as strictly increasing function in its domain if
i.e. for the smaller inprt we have smaller output and
for higher value of input we have higher output.
Nature of derivative of function
We know that

Hence,

may also be zero but only at

finite number of points and not in an
interval.
(ii) Non decreasing function
A function f (x) is said to be non decreasing if for

It follows
For AB & CD portions

And for BC,

Hence, as a whole we can say that for non
decreasing functions

Obviously, for this where equality holds

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Kaysons Education Monotonicity

for horizontal path of the graph i.e. in the interval

of BC.
(ii) Decreasing Function
(i)Strictly decreasing function
A function f (x) is said to be strictly decreasing in its domain if it follows
i.e. for smaller value of input we have higher output
and for
higher input we have smaller output.
Nature of derivative
We have,

for strictly decreasing

function. may also be zero but
only at finite number of points.

(ii) Non increasing functions

A function is called non-
increasing if for
For AB & CD
portion
while
for BC portion. It is
clear that for this
case.
Illustration
increases strictly in ‘R’.

is strictly increasing in
and strictly decreasing in

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Kaysons Education Monotonicity

is strictly increasing in
‘R’

is increasing but not

strictly increasing ( i.e. non decreasing)
in ‘R’.

Illustration
Find the interval of increase or decrease of the following functions.

Solution
(a)

When
Since in
Hence the function decreases in the interval and increases when

Illustration
Find the interval in which is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing
Solution
Given,

Using number line method,

Thus, f(x) is strictly increasing for and strictly decreasing for

Illustration
Find the interval in which
Solution

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We have

For f (x) to be increasing, we must have

So, f (x) is increasing on

For f (x) to be decreasing, we must have

So, f (x) is decreasing on (– ∞, 1)

Illustration
Find the interval in which the function

Solution
We have

For f (x) to be increasing, we must have

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So, f (x) is increasing on

For f (x) to be decreasing, we must have

but ln (1 + x) is defind function x < – 1 .

Hence function is only increasing function.

Illustration
Determine the value of x for which

Solution
We have,

Clearly,

So, f (x) is increasing on R – {–1}

Illustration
Separate into subintervals in which is increasing or decreasing.
Solution
We have

Now,

Since cosine function is positive in first quadrant and negative in the second and third quadrants.
Therefore, we consider the following cases.
Case I
When

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Chapter
8 Maxima Minima
Day 1

Definition
A function f (x) is said to have a maxima at if f (a) is greatest of all values in the suitably small
neighbourhood of ‘a’, where x = a is an interior point in the domain of f (x). Analytically this means
where h is sufficiently small quantity.
Similarly, a function y = f (x) is said to have a minimum at x = b if f (b) is smallest of all values in the
suitably small neighborhood of ‘b’, where x = b is an interior point in the domain of f (x). Analytically
this means where h is sufficiently small.

Maxima and Minima at end point

Definition
Let a function is defined on [a,b]. Then f(x) has a local maximum at (left end point) if
f and minimum at .

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Similarly, has a local maximum at (right end point) if and minimum at

.
Method of finding extrema of continuous functions
At points of extrema the derivative f’(x) either doesnot exits or if exist it is equal to zero. The points at
which f’(x)=0 or doesnot exist are known as critical points.
1st derivative test
The following test applies to a continuous function in order to get the extrema.
(a)At a critical point
(i) If changes from positive to negative at x0 while moving from left to right,

Then has a local maximum value at

(ii) If changes from negative to positive at while moving from left to right,

Then has a local maximum value at

(iii) If sign of does not change at x0 then has neither a maximum or minimum at

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(b)At a left end point a

If is defined on [a,b].
If , then has a local maximum and If then
has a local minimum at

At a right end point b

If then has a local maximum and If then
has a local maximum at

Remember that in a continuous function maximum and minimum values occur alternately i.e.
between two successive maxima there is one minimum and between two successive minima there
is one maximum.

Illustration
Find the local maxima or local minima, if any of the function

Using the first derivative test.

Solution
We have,

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For a local maximum or a local minimum, we have

Consider

In the right nbd of

Thus changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through

The local minimum values is

Illustration
Find the maxima and minimum value of function,

Solution
We have,

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Thus, 5 is the minimum value of f (x) which it attains at x = – 1.

Since f (x) can be made as large as we please, therefore the maximum value does not exist.

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Chapter
Graphical Transformation
9
Day 1

Some Standard Graphs

Straight Line
(a)
ax + by + c = 0
when x = 0, y = – c ⁄b
when y = 0, x = – c⁄a

(b)
y = mx + c

Quadratic Parabola
The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c is symmetric about the vertical line x = – b⁄2a and it‟s vertex is given by

If a > 0, the parabola opens upward while.

If a < 0, the parabola opens downward.
Find x when y = 0,

(i) When roots are real and unequal (D > 0)

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(ii) When roots are equal (D = 0)

(iii) When roots are imaginary (D < 0)

Circle
(i) is a circle centred at (0,0)
Having radius = a

(ii) is a circle
centred at (-g, -f)

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Ellipse

Hyperbola

Rectangular Hyperbola

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Transformation of Graphs
(a)

where c > 0

Illustration

Solution
We know

(modulus function )
could be
plotted as

upwards by
2 units

Also

downwardsby 2 units.

(b)

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(i) f (x) transforms to f(x – a)

f (x) → f (x – a), a is positive
Shift the graph of f (x) through „a‟ towards right.
(ii) f (x) → f (x+a), a is positive.
Shift the graph of f(x) through „a‟ towards left.
Illustration

Solution
As discussed

Shift the graph of through

„a‟ towards right.

is shifted „2‟ units towards right.

(c)

Stretch the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.

Shrink the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.

Illustration

Solution

We know

Illustration

Solution

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