UNIT-IV AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

FEW DISTINCT ADVANTAGES AS COMPARED TO OTHER MODES OF

TRANSPORT
1. Rapidity: Air transport maintains the highest speed. Designs have been finalized for
supersonic jets which travel faster than sound.
2. Continuous journey: Air transport mode is continuous over land and water without
loss of the time unlike other modes of transport.
3. Accessibility: Air transport has the unique ability to open up any regio n that is
inaccessible by other means of transportation.

AGENCIES CONTROLLING NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL AVIATION

There are a number of industrial organizations active in the area of air transport, both at
the international and national levels.
The most important of the international organizations are as follows:
1. International Airport Transport Association (IATA). Its role is to foster the
interests of civil aviation, to provide a forum for industry views and to establish industry
practices.
2. International Civil Airports Association (1CAA). An association of civil airport
authorities established to serve as a forum and focus for the views and interests of civil
airport operators.
3. Institute of Air Transport (IAT). An association of individuals and organizations
with interest in civil aviation.

SURVEYS FOR S I T E S E L E C T I O N O F A I R P O R T
Keeping in view the various factors which influence the site selection, the types of surveys to be
carried out at each site are summarized as follows:
1. T r a f f i c s u r v e y : To determine the amount of air traffic including the anticipated traffic
for future.
2. M e t e o r o l o g i c a l s u r v e y : To determine direction, duration and intensity of wind,
rainfall, fog, temperature and barometric pressure etc.
3. Topographical survey:
a. To prepare contour map showing other natural features such as trees, streams etc.
b. To prepare a map showing such constructed objects as pole lines, building, roads etc.
4. S o i l s u r v e y : To determine soil type and ground water table. This help in the design of
runway, taxiway, terminal building and the drainage system.
5. Drainage survey:
a. To determine the quantity of storm water for drainage. This can be obtained from the
rainfall intensity and the contour maps.
b. To locate possible outlets for drain water in the vicinity of the site.
6. M a t e r i a l s u r v e y : To ascertain the availability of suitable construction materials at a
reasonable cost and the mode of transportation of these materials to the site.

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AIRPORT SITE SELECTION

The factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport
installation:
1. Regional plan
2. Airport use
3. Proximity to other airports
4. Ground accessibility
5. Topography
6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
8. Wind
9. Noise nuisance
10. Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
11. Future development
12. Availability of utilities from town
13. Economic considerations
Regional Plan
The site selected should fit well into the regional plan, thereby forming it an integral
part of the national network of airport.
Airport Use
The selection of sire depends upon the use of an airport i.e. whether for civilian or for
military operations.
Proximity to Other Airports
The site should be selected at a considerable distance from the existing airports so that
the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the movement of aircraft at other
airport. The required separation between the airports mainly depends upon the volume of
air traffic, the type of aircraft and the air traffic control, i e. whether the airports are
equipped with instrumental landing facilities or not.
Ground Accessibility
The site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users. The airline
passenger is more concerned with his door-to-door time. The time to reach the airport is,
therefore, an important consideration. The time required to reach an airport in a passenger
car, from the business or residential centers, should normally not 30 minutes. The best
location is a site adjacent to the main highway. This provides a quick access and
minimizes the cost of an entrance road.
Topography
This includes natural features like ground contours, trees, streams etc. A raised ground
e.g. a hill top, is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport. The reasons are:
1. Less obstruction in approach zones and turning zones
2. Natural drainage, low land may result in flooding
3. More uniform wind
4. Better visibility due to less fog
Obstructions
When aircraft is landing or taking off, it loses or gains altitude very slowly as compared
to the forward speed. For this reason, long clearance areas are provided on either side of
runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or lose altitude.
The areas should be kept free of obstructions. The obstructions may consist of fences,
trees, and pole lines, building and other natural or manmade objects

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Visibility
Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should
therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions, such as fog, smoke and haze.
Wind
Runway is so oriented that landing and takeoff is done by heading into the wind. Wind,
data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity of wind should be collected over minimum
period of about five years. This helps in proper orientation of runway and influences the
shape of the site needed for the development of airport.
Noise Nuisance
The extent of noise nuisance depends upon type of engine propulsion and the gross
weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute with jet engine aircrafts. Therefore,
the site should be so selected that the landing and takeoff paths of the aircrafts pass over
the land which is away from residential or industrial development. Sometimes buffer zone
may have to be provided between the take off end of a runway and a nearby residential
area. If buffer zone cannot be provided, some acoustical barrier may have to be installed.
Grading, Drainage and Soil Characteristics
Grading and drainage play an important role in the construction and maintenance of
airport which in turn influences the site selection. Area of airport should have minimum
gradient for drainage purpose. The possibility of floods at the valley sites should be
investigated.
Sites with high water tables should be ignored. The most desirable type of soil for
airport construction is the one which contains a reasonable amount of previous material
such as gravel, sand of decomposed granite combined with a suitable natural binder.
Future Development
Considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future, more number
of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic. Similarly, more facilities
may be required for processing of passengers, baggage and cargo and for shelter of
aircraft.
Availability of Utilities from Town
An airport has to be provided with facilities like water supply, sewer, telephone,
electricity etc. In the selection of site, the availability of these utilities from the town
should be given due consideration.

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AEROPLANE COMPONENT PARTS

The schematic diagram of an aero plane with its various component parts is given

1 Engine
2 Propeller
3 Fuselage
4 Wings
5 Three controls
6 Flaps
7 Tricycle under-carriage
Engine
The main purpose of an aircraft engine is to provide a force for propelling the aircraft
through the air.
Aircraft can be classified according to their propulsion as follows:
1. Piston engine
2. Turbo jet
3. Turbo fan or Turbo prop
4. Rocket
These are briefly discussed below:
Piston engine: It is powered by gasoline fed reciprocating engine and is driven by
propeller. In this system, the engine rotates a shaft with a considerable amount of torque.
These conventional aircraft engines are suitable to operate at low altitudes and moderate
speeds. They have been improved upon by the jet engine aircraft .
Turbo jet: The principle of jet propulsion is very simple. Take a balloon and fill it
with air. Close the open end with a thread and leave it on a table. The bal loon stays
stationary. Now remove the thread. The air is forced out of the open end and the b alloon
starts wandering across the room vigorously first and slowly later, until it becomes flat and
motionless
Propeller
This is provided in the conventional /piston engine aircrafts as well as in turbo prop
engines. When engine and propeller are in front, the machine is described as a tractor
type. Sometimes, but not very often the engine and airscrew are behind the wing and this
is known as a pusher installation. The propeller usually has two or more blades which are

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driven round in a circular path. The blades deflect air backwards with acceleration and
thus impart forward thrust to the aero plane.
Fuselage
It forms the main body of the aircraft and provides for the power plant, fuel, cockpit,
passengers, cargo etc. It must be large enough to give sufficient space and yet be as
small as possible in order to reduce the wind resistance.
Wings
The purpose of an aircraft wing is to support the machine in the air when the engine has
given it the necessary forward speed. To understand the principle of lift, let us consider an
inclined plane held in the wind as shown in Figure below. The force P caused upon it, is
indicated in magnitude and direction by the lines OR. This force we will now regard as a
resultant and split into two components OM and ON. The vertical component OM, whose
magnitude is equal to P Cos α, is known as the lift component. The horizontal component
ON, whose magnitude is equal to P Sin α is known as the drag component It is desirable to
have the lift component greater than the drag component and more the difference is
between the two, the more effective is the lilting ability of the plane.

Three Controls
There are three axes about which an aircraft in space may move. These axes and the
possible aircraft movements are shown in Figure below. The movement of aircraft about
the X axis is called lateral or rolling movement. The movements about Y and Z axes are
called pitching and yawing movements respectively. To control these movements, the
airplane is provided with three principal controls, viz., (i) elevator (ii) rudder and (iii)
aileron.

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Elevator: It consists of two flaps capable of moving up and down through an angle of 50’
to 60*. They are hinged to a fixed horizontal surface (called a stabilizer) placed at the
extreme rear of the fuselage. It controls the pitching or up and down movements of the
aircraft.
Rudder: It consists of a streamlined flap hinged to a vertical fine provided at the tail end of
the fuselage. It can be moved right or left of the vertical axis through an angle of about
30°. It is utilized for the turning or yawing movement of the aircraft. If the pilot desires to
point the nose of the aero plane to the right, he moves the rudder to the right of the vertical
axis.
Aileron: It is a hinged flap which is fixed in the trailing edge of the wing near the wing
tip, as shown in Figure. The effect of pulling the aileron down is to increase the camber
and angle of incidence of the wing. This results in an increased lift under the wing. The
function of aileron is not only to enable the pilot to balance the aeroplane when it is tilted
by a gust of wind.
Flaps: These are somewhat similar to ailerons and are used for increasing the lift on
aerofoils. Like the other three controls, this can also be operated by the pilot from his
cabin. They are fitted only to the inner portion of the wing as shown in Figure and are so
arranged that the flaps on each side are pulled down together.
Tricycle Under-Carriage
It is a structure to support the aircraft while it is in contact with the ground. It has two
principal functions to perform as listed below:
To absorb landing shocks: When an aircraft lands, it always touches the ground with certain
vertical velocity. Thus a given amount of energy has to be dissipated during the
touchdown. It is one of the functions of the undercarriage to do this as smooth as possible.
To enable the aircraft to manoeuvre on ground: For this, wheels are required over which the
aircraft may run and carry the entire weight of the aircraft. The major portion of the total
load is carried by two main gears which are provided in the fuselage or in the wings near
the junction of fuselge or in the wings. Therefore, the third wheel, which is provided near
the tail or the nose, carries very small portion (about 10%) of the total load.
When the third wheel is kept at the tail, it keeps the nose up and the wi ngs are at greater
angle of incidence. In the event of powerful wind, the aircraft may lift off the ground or
be pushed backwards even when the aircraft is stationary and the engine is not working.
Tail wheel is, therefore, not preferred. If the third wheel is kept at the nose, it keeps the
noise in the down position and the wing angle is reduced. The wing does not create any
appreciable lift. It is for this reason that the nose wheel is preferred even though it is
slightly inconvenient for the loading of the passengers and goods.

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AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS
Aircraft characteristics are of prime importance to the airport planner and designer. The
following characteristics need to he studied:
1 Type of propulsion
2 Size of aircraft
3 Minimum turning radius
4 Minimum circling radius
5 Speed of aircraft
6 Capacity of aircraft
7 Aircraft weight and wheel
8 Jet blast
configuration
9 Fuel spillage
0 Noise
0
Types
0 of Propulsion
0 The size of aircraft, its circling radius, speed characteristics, weight carrying capacity,
0noise nuisance etc. depend upon the type of propulsion of the aircraft. The performance
0characteristics of aircrafts, which determine the basic runway length, also depend upon
0the type of propulsion .All these affect the planning and design of airports has been
0discussed in the following articles.
0Size of Aircraft
1 The sizes of aircraft involves following important dimensions:
0Wing span (ii) Fuselage length (iii) Height (iv) Distance between main gears, i.e. gear
tread (v) Wheel base and Tail width. The wing span decides the width of taxiway,
separation clearance between two parallel traffic ways, size of aprons and hangars, width
of hangar gate etc. The length of aircraft decides the widening of taxiways on curves
width of exit taxiway, sizes of aprons and hangars etc.
Minimum Turning Radius

In order to decide the radius of taxiways, the position of aircrafts in loading aprons and
hangars, it is very essential to study the geometry of the turning movement of aircrafts.
The turning radius of an aircraft is illustrated in the fig. The distance of the farther wing
tip from the centre of rotation represents the minimum turning radius. Theoretically, the
maximum angle of rotation is 90°. Corresponding to this, turning radius would be absolute
minimum, the condition which causes skidding of one of the main gears thereby producing
excessive tire wear. To keep the tire-wear of the main gears within reasonable limits, the
maximum angle of rotation of the nose gear has been limited by the manufacturers. For
example, for a large turbo jet this angle is between 50° to 60°.

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Minimum Circling Radius

There is certain minimum radius with which the aircraft can take turn in space. Th is
radius depends upon the type of aircraft, air traffic volume and weather conditions. The
radii recommended for different types of aircrafts are as follows:
1. Small general aviation aircraft’s under UFR conditions.=1.6 km
2. Bigger aircrafts say two piston engines under VFR conditions. = 3.2 km
3. Piston engine aircrafts under IFR conditions.= 13 km
4. Jet engine aircrafts under IFR conditions.=-80 km
The two nearby airports should be separated from each other by an adequate distance so
that the aircrafts simultaneously landing on them do not interfere with each other.
Speed of Aircrafts
The speed of aircraft can be defined in two ways viz. cruising s p e e d or ground speed and
air speed. Cruising speed is the speed of aircrafts with respect to the ground when the
aircraft is flying in air at its maximum speed. Air speed is the speed of aircraft relative to
the wind. Thus, if the aircraft flying at a speed of 500 kmph and there is a head wind of
50 kmph, air speed will be 450 kmph.
Aircraft Capacity
The number of passengers, baggage, cargo and fuel that can be accommodated in the
aircrafts depends upon the capacity of aircraft. The capacity of aircraft using an airport
has an important effect on the capacity of runway systems as well as that of the pa ssenger
processing terminal facilities.
Weight of Aircraft & Wheel Configuration
Weight of the aircraft directly influence the length of the runway as well as the
structural requirements i.e. the thickness of the runway, taxiway, apron & hangars.
Jet Blast
At relatively high velocities, the aircrafts eject hot exhaust gases; the velocity of jet
blast may be as high as 300 kmph. This high velocity causes inconvenience to the
passengers travelling in the aircraft. Since, the bituminous (flexible) pavements a re
affected by the jet blast, therefore, it is desirable to provide cement concrete pavement
Fuel Spillage
At loading aprons and hangars, it is difficult to avoid spillage completely, but effort
should be made to bring it within minimum limit. The bituminous (flexible) pavements are
seriously affected by the fuel spillage and therefore, it is essential that the areas of
bituminous pavements under the fueling inlets, the engines and the main landing gears are
kept under constant supervision by the airport authorities.
Noise
Noise generated by aircraft creates problems in making decisions on layout and capacity.
The correct assessment of future noise patterns to minimize the effect of surrounding
communities is essential to the optimal layout of the runways.

AIRPORT OBSTRUCTIONS
ZONING LAWS

Zoning laws are the laws decided according to the type of obstruction, in aircraft landing/takeoff
and these laws are follows in airport planning.

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CLASSIFICATION OF OBSTRUCTIONS
Obstruction to safe air navigations are broadly divided into the following two categories:
1. Objects protruding above certain imaginary surfaces,
2. Objects exceeding their limiting heights above the ground surface in approach zones and
turning zones.

Imaginary Surfaces:
Types of imaginary surfaces are as follows.
1. Take-off climb surface
2. Approach surface
3. Inner horizontal surface
4. Conical surface
5. Transitional surface
6. Outer horizontal surface

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Take-off climb surface

The take-off climb area shall be established beyond the end of runway or clearway for each
runway.
Take off climb surface comprises of,
1. An inner edge, horizontal and perpendicular to the centre line of runway and located either
at a specified distance beyond the end of the runway or at the end of the clearway when such
is provided.
2. Two sides originating from the ends of the inner edge, diverging uniformly at a specified
rate along the take-off track at a specified final width.
3. An outer edge horizontal and perpendicular to the specified take-off track
Approach Surface
The approach surface shall be established from the smaller ends of runway strip for each
runway direction intended to be used for the landing of aeroplanes.
It comprises of the following.
1. An inner edge of specified length, horizontal and perpendicular to the extended
centre line of the runway and located at a specified distance before the threshold.
An elevation of the inner edge shall be equal to that of the mid point of the
threshold.
2. Two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge and diverging uni formly at a
specified rate from the extended centre line of the runway.

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3. An outer edge which is parallel to the inner edge.

Inner Horizontal Surface (IHS)
It is the surface located in a horizontal plane above an aerodrome and its surrounding.
The shape of the IHS need not necessarily be circular. The raidus or outer limits of IHS
shall be measured from airport reference point (ARP) or points established for such
purposes.
Runway length(m) IHS
600 Circle of radius 4900m from ARP
900-1500 3900m From ARP
>1500 ISH shall be a composite pattern which consist of two
circular arcs centered at the two runway ends with a
radius of 4000m from ARP
>5000 IHS shall be a composite pattern which consists of two
circular arc centered at the two runway ends with a
radius of 4000 m. These arcs shall be joined tangentially
to form an elliptical shape.

Conical Surface
It extends upwards and outwards from the periphery of the inner horizontal surface.
The limits of the conical surface shall comprise the following:
1. A lower edge coincident with the periphery of the inner horizontal surface.
2. An upper edge located at a specified height above the inner horizontal surface.
3. The slope of the conical surface shall be measured in a vertical plane perpendicular
to the periphery of the inner horizontal surface.
Transitional Surface
It is a complex surface along the side of the strip and part of the side of approach surface
that slopes upwards and outwards to the inner horizontal surface.
The limits of a transitional surface shall comprise:
1. A lower edge beginning at the intersection of the side of approach surface with the
inner horizontal surface and extending down the side of the approach surface to the
inner edge of the approach surface and from there it extends along the length of the
strip parallel to the runway centre line.
2. An upper edge located in the plane of the inner horizontal surface. The slope of the
transitional surface is measured in a vertical plane at right angles to the centre line
of the runway. The slope shall be (1: 7) where the length of runway is 900 m and
above. For the runways of length less than 900 m, the slope shall be (1: 5).
Outer Horizontal Surface (OHS)
1. It is not proposed to establish OHS for aerodromes with runways of length less than
900 m.
2. It is circular in plane with centre located at ARP.
3. Where the longest runway is more than 900 m in length but less than 1500 m, the
OHS shall extend to 9900 m from the ARP.
4. For airports where the length of the longest runway is 1500 m or more, the OHS
shall extend to 15,000 m from the ARP.
5. The height of OHS is 150 m above the ARP elevation. The constructions protruding
above this surface shall not be permitted.

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APPROACH ZONE

1. During landing, the glide path of an aircraft varies from a steep to flat slop e.
2. But during take-off, the rate of climb of aircraft is limited by its wing l oading and
engine power.
3. For this a wide clearance area is required , known as approach zones are required
on either side of runway along the direction of landing and take -off of aircraft.
Over this area, the aircraft can safely gain or lose altitude.
4. The whole of this area has to be kept free of obstructions.
5. The plan of approach zone is the same as that of the approach surface. The only
difference between the two is that while approach surface is an imaginary surface,
the approach area indicates the actual ground area.

CLEAR ZONE
The inner most portion of approach zone which is the most critical portion from
obstruction view-point is known as clear zone. Its configuration and dimensions are shown
in Figure.

The purchase of land in this zone is recommended for the effective implementation of
zoning laws. It is not necessary to grade this area, but all obstructions are removed.
Naturally a level area is preferred, but it is not essential. Fences, ditches and other minor
obstacles are permitted.

TURNING ZONE
If during the take off, the engine fails or the pilot selects to land for any reason, the
aircraft will have to take a turn and come in line with runway before landing. The area of
airport other than the approach area, which is used for turning operations of aircraft is
called turning zone. Since in turning zone the aircraft operates at a considerably low
height, it has to be ascertained that this area is also free from obstructions.
The following discussion pertains to the turning zone of instrumental runway:

1. Any object located with a distance of 4.5 km from the runway reference point shall
be considered as an obstruction, if its height is more than 51 m above the
established airport elevation or above the ground whichever is higher.
2. Any object which is located beyond a distance of 4.5 km (3 statute miles) from the
runway reference point shall be considered as obstruction if its height above 51 m
increased by more than 30 m for each additional 1.5 km (one statute mile) distance
from the airport reference point or if it exceeds ISO m within a distance of 15 km
(10 statute miles) from the runway reference point.
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RUNWAY DESIGN

RUNWAY ORIENTATION
Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The head wind i.e.
the direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and take-off provides
greater lift on the wings of the aircraft when it is taking -off. As such the aircraft rises
above the ground much earlier and in a shorter length of runway. During landing, the
head wind provides a braking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop in a smaller
length of runway. Landing and take-off operations, if done along the wind direction,
would require longer runway.

CROSS WIND COMPONENT AND WIND COVERAGE

It is not possible to obtain the direction of wind along the direction of the centre
line of runway throughout the year. On some day of the year or hour of the day, the
wind may blow making certain angle with the centre line of runway.
If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway centr e line, its component
along the direction of runway will be V cos θ and that normal to the runway centre
line will be V Sin θ where V is the wind velocity. The normal component of the wind
is called cross wind component and may interrupt the safe landing and take-off of the
air-crafts.
The maximum permissible cross wind component depends upon the size of
aircraft and the wing configuration.
For small aircrafts, the cross wind component should not exceed 15 kmph
For mixed traffic it should not exceed 25 kmph
For big aircrafts cross wind component should not exceed 35 kmph
The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains
within the limits as specified above is called wind coverage.
According to FAA, the runway handling mixed air traffic should be so planned
that for 95 per cent of time in a year, the permissible cross wind component does not
exceed 25 kmph.

WIND ROSE
The wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented by a
diagram called wind rose.
The wind data should usually be collected for a period of at least 5 years and preferably
of 10 years, so as to obtain an average data with sufficient accuracy.

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As far as possible, these observations should be taken at or near -site selected, since the
wind conditions may vary considerably with location particularly in hilly regions.

 Percentage of time during which wind intensify, is less than 6 4 kmph is 100—86.5 =13
5 percent. This period is called calm period and does not influence the operation of
landing or take-off because low wind intensity.

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 A typical wind data is given in Table. In this table, the duration of wind for any
one direction covers an angle of 22.5 degrees as shown in fig.
 It is assumed that the wind may come from any point within the 22.5 degree
sector. It is possible the wind for a particular location have not been recorded. In
such cases the data from two or more of the nearest wind recording station should
be used to fix up the wind characteristics of the site.
 Wind rose diagram can be plotted from the data of Table 6.1. It helps in analyzing
the wind data and obtaining the most suitable direction of the runway.

Wind rose diagram can be plotted in two types as follows:

Type I: Showing direction and duration of wind
Type II: Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
Type I Wind Rose

 In this type of wind rose, the radial lines indicate the wind direction and each
circle represents the duration of wind. From the Table
 It is observed that the total percentage of time in a year during which the wind
blows from north direction is 10.3 percent. This value is plotted along the north
direction in the wind rose diagram.
 Similarly other values are also plotted along the respective directions.
 All plotted points are then jointed by straight lines to form Rose diagram as shown
in Figure.
 The best direction of runway is usually along the direction of the longest line on
wind rose diagram.
 In Figure the best orientation of runway is thus along NS direction.
 If deviation of wind direction up to (22.5°+11.25°) from the direction of landing
and take-off is permissible, the percentage of time in a year during which the
runway can safely be used for landing and take-off, will be obtained by summing
the percentages of time along NNW, N, NNE, SSE, S and S SW directions. This
comes to 57.0 percent.

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 Calm period, i.e., the percentage of time during which wind intensity is less than 6 .4
kmph is also added to the above period.
 The total percentage of the time therefore comes to 57.0 + 13.5 = 70.5. This type of
wind rose does not account for the effect of cross wind component.

Type II Wind Rose

 The wind data is taken from Table 6.1. Each circle represents the wind intensity to
same scale.
 The values entered in each segment represent the percentage of time in a year
during which the wind, having a particular intensity, blows from the respective
direction.

The procedure for determining the orientation of runway is described below:

 Draw three equiv. - spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a way
that the distance between the two nearby parallel lines is equal to the permissible
cross wind component.
 In Figure 6.3, the permissible cross wind component is 25 kmph.
 Place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a way that the
central line passes through the centre of the diagram.
 With the centre of wind rose, rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a position
that the sum of all the values indicating the duration of wind, within the two outer
parallel lines, is the maximum.
 The runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by the central line.

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CHANGE IN DIRECTION OF RUNWAY

It may not be always possible to orient the runway exactly along the direction as
determined from the wind rose. Slight adjustment in the direction may be imperative
because of the following reasons:
Obstructions: For layout of the runway, obstruction free approaches are more essential
than the permissible cross wind component. So if the site having fewer obstructions is
preferred than the site having greater wind coverage.
Excessive grading: The runway orientation may need alternation due to the excessive
grading.
Noise nuisance: If the runway orientation, from the above considerations, is along the
direction, where highly developed residential areas and places of public assembly etc. fall
within the take-off path, it is desirable to change the orientation.

BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH

It is the length of runway under the following assumed conditions at the airport:
1. Airport altitude is at sea level
2. Temperature at the airport is standard (15°C)
3. Runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction
4. No wind is blowing on runway
5. Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
6. There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination
7. Enroute temperature is standard
The basic runway length is determined from the performance chara cteristics of the
aircrafts using the airport. The following cases are usually considered:
1. Normal landing case
2. Normal take-off case
3. Engine failure case
 For jet engine aircrafts, all the three cases are considered.
 For piston engine aircrafts, only the first and the third cases are considered. The
case which works out the longest runway length is finally adopted.
All the three cases are explained below.
Landing case:
 It requires that aircraft should come to a stop within 60 per cent of the landing
distance.
 The runway of full strength pavement is provided for the entire landing distance.

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 UNIT-IV AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Normal take-off case:

 It requires a clearway which is an area beyond the runway and is in alignment with
the centre line of runway.
 The width of clearway is not less than 150 m and is also kept free from
obstructions.

Engine failure case:

 May require either a clearway, or a stopway, or both.

 Stopway is described as an area beyond the runway and centrally located in
alignment with the centre line of runway.

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 UNIT-IV AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

 It is used for decelerating the aircraft and bringing it to a stop during an aborted
take-off. The strength of stopway pavement should be just sufficient to carry the
weight of aircraft without causing any structural damage to the aircraft.
 If the engine has failed at a speed, less than the designated engine failure speed, the
pilot decelerates the aircraft and makes use of the stopway.
 If, however, the engine fails at a speed higher than the designated speed, there is no
other option to the pilot except to continue to take -off. The pilot may later take a
turn in the turning zone and land again for a normal take-off.
 For piston engine aircrafts, full strength pavement is provided for the entire take-
off distance and the accelerate- stop distance.
 As such the designated engine failure speed for the above type of aircrafts is so
chosen by the manufacturer .The basic runway length thus obtained is considered to
base on Balanced Field Concept and is called balanced runway length.

CORRECTIONS FOR ELEVATION, TEMPERATURE AND GRADIENT

The basic runway length, as discussed above, is for mean sea level elevation having
standard atmospheric conditions. Therefore correction for any change in elevation,
temperature and gradient for the actual site of construction should be applied
Correction for Elevation
As the elevation increases, the air density reduces. This in turn reduces the lift on the
wings of the aircraft and the aircraft requires greater grou nd speed before it can rise into
the air. To achieve greater speed, longer length of runway required.
Therefore the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7 per cent per 300
m rise in elevation above the mean sea level.
Correction for Temperature
The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in
elevation.
ICAO recommends that the basic runway length after having been corrected for
elevation should be further increased at the rate of 1 per cent for every l°C rise of
airport reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature at that
elevation.
The temperature gradient of the standard atmosphere from t he mean sea level to the
alt i tude at which the temperature becomes -15.6’C is -0.0065°C per metre. The
temperature gradient becomes zero at the elevations above the altitude at which the
temperature is 15.5°C.
Check for the Total Correction for Elevation plus Temperature
ICAO further recommends that, if the total correction for elevation plus temperature
exceeds 35 percent of the basic runway length, these corrections should then be further
checked up by conducting specific studies at the site by model tes ts.
Correction for Gradient
Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy and as such longer length of
runway is required to attain the desired ground speed.
FAA recommends that the runway length after having been corrected for elevation
and temperature should be further increased at the rate of 20% for every 1 per cent of
effective gradient.
Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between the
highest and lowest points of runway divided by the total length of runway.

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