Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Kitchen waste is organic material having the high calorific value and nutritive
value to microbes, that's why efficiency of methane production can be increased by
several orders of magnitude. It means higher efficiency and size of reactor and
cost of biogas production is reduced. Also in most of cities and places, kitchen
waste is disposed in landfill or discarded which causes the public health
hazards and diseases like malaria, cholera, typhoid. Inadequate management of
wastes like uncontrolled dumping bears several adverse consequences: It not
only leads to polluting surface and groundwater through leachate and further
promotes the breeding of flies , mosquitoes, rats and other disease bearing vectors.
Also, it emits unpleasant odour & methane which is a major greenhouse gas
contributing to global warming.

Mankind can tackle this problem(threat) successfully with the help of

methane , however till now we have not been benefitted, because of ignorance of
basic sciences - like output of work is dependent on energy available for doing
that work. This fact can be seen in current practices of using low calorific inputs like
cattle dung, distillery effluent, municipal solid waste (MSW) or sewage, in biogas
plants, making methane generation highly inefficient. We can make this system
extremely efficient by using kitchen waste/food wastes.

In 2003, Dr. Anand Karve (president ARTI) developed a compact biogas

system that uses starchy or sugary feedstock material and the analysis shows that this
system is 800 times more efficient than the conventional biogas plants.

Why this type of plant?

The proper disposal of GCOE JALGAON's Hostel kitchen waste will be done
in eco-friendly and cost effective way. While calculating the cost effectiveness of
waste disposal we have to think more than monetary prospects. The dumping of food
in places and making the places unhygienic can be taken good care of. It adds to the
value of such Biogas plants. Using the natural processes like microorganisms’ kitchen
waste & biodegradable waste viz. paper, pulp can be utilized.

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 Anaerobic digestion is controlled biological degradation process which allows
efficient capturing & utilization of biogas (approximately 60% methane and 40%
carbon dioxide) for energy generation. Anaerobic digestion of food waste is
achievable but different types, composition of food waste results in varying degrees
of methane yields, and thus the effects of mixing various types of food waste and their
proportions should be determined on case by case basis.

1.1 Biogas digester

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a promising method to treat the kitchen wastes.

While Anaerobic digestion for treatment of animal dung is common in rural
parts of developing countries, information on technical and operational feasibilities
of the treatment of organic solid waste is limited in those parts. There are many
factors affecting the design and performance of anaerobic digestion. Some are
related to feedstock characteristics, design of reactors and operation conditions
in real time. Physical and chemical characteristics of the organic wastes are important
for designing and operating digesters, because they affect the biogas production
and process stability during anaerobic digestion. They include moisture content,
volatile solids, nutrient contents, particle size, & biodegradability. The
biodegradability of a feed is indicated by biogas production or methane yield and
percentage of solids (total solids or total volatile solids) that are destroyed in the

2
anaerobic digestion. The biogas or methane yield is measured by the amount of biogas
or methane that can be produced per unit of volatile solids contained in the feedstock
after subjecting it to anaerobic digestion for a sufficient amount of time under
a given temperature which is taken to be laboratory temperature in our case.
In recent times varied technological modifications and improvements
have been introduced to diminish the costs for the production of biogas.
Different Methods have been developed to increase speed of fermentation for
the bacteria gas producers, reduction of the size of the reactors, the use of
starchy, sugary materials for their production , the modification of the feeding
materials for fermentation and the exit of the effluent for their better
employment, as well as compaction of the equipments to produce gas in small
places like back-yard, among others.
Larger facilities operating costs can be reduced, per unit, to the point
that, in the current economic framework, very large Anaerobic Digestion facilities
can be profitable whereas small ones are not this is what is Economics of scale. If
energy prices continue to rise and the demand for local waste treatment increases, this
framework may change.

1.1 Necessity of project

Due to scarcity of petroleum and coal it threatens supply of fuel
throughout the world . Also problem of their combustion led to research in different
corners to get access the new sources of energy, like renewable energy resources.
Solar energy, wind energy, different thermal and hydro sources of energy, biogas are
all renewable energy resources. But, biogas is distinct from other renewable energies
because of its characteristics of using , controlling and collecting organic wastes
and at the same time producing fertilizer and water for use in agricultural
irrigation. Biogas does not have any geographical limitations nor does it require
advanced technology for producing energy, also it is very simple to use and apply.
Deforestation is a very big problem in developing countries like India, most of
the part depends on charcoal and fuel-wood for fuel supply which requires
cutting of forest. Also, due to deforestation it leads to decrease the fertility of land
by soil erosion. Use of dung, firewood as energy is also harmful for the health of the
masses due to the smoke arising from them causing air pollution. We need an eco-
friendly substitute for energy.

3
1.2 Objectives of project
Specific objectives
• Evaluation of the technical performance of the system (gas production, treatment
Efficiency)
• Analysis of the effluent quality,
• Optimization of gas production
• Comparison with conventional plants
• Effect of different parameters viz.
* Temperature
* PH
* Total & volatile solid concentration
* Alkalinity
* C: N Ratio
• To increase the production by using
* Additives
* Nutrients
* Nitrogen source
• Check optimization of gas production at lab scale and field scale.
• Evaluation of the economic feasibility and the social acceptance by the users.

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 Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 History
ARTI - appropriate rural technology of India, pune (2003) has
developed a compact biogas plant which uses waste food rather than any cow
dung as feedstock, to supply biogas for cooking. The plant is sufficiently compact
to be used by urban households, and about 2000 are currently in use - both in
urban and rural households in Maharashtra. The design and development of
this simple, yet powerful technology for the people, has won ARTI the Ashden Award
for sustainable Energy 2006 in the Food Security category. Dr. Anand Karve
(ARTI) developed a compact biogas system that uses starchy or sugary
feedstock (waste grain flour, spoilt grain, overripe or misshapen fruit, non edible
seeds, fruits and rhizomes, green leaves, kitchen waste, leftover food, etc). Just 2
kg of such feedstock produces about 500 g of methane, and the reaction is completed
with 24 hours. The conventional biogas systems, using cattle dung, sewerage, etc. use
about 40 kg feedstock to produce the same quantity of methane, and require about 40
days to complete the reaction. Thus, from the point of view of conversion of feedstock
into methane, the system developed by Dr. Anand Karve is 20 times as efficient
as the conventional system, and from the point of view of reaction time, it is
40 times as efficient. Thus, overall, the new system is 800 times as efficient as the
conventional biogas system.
Hilkiah Igoni studied the effect of total solid concentration of municipal solid
waste on the biogas produced in an anaerobic continuous digester. The total solids
(TS) concentration of the waste influences the pH, temperature and
effectiveness of the micro organisms in the decomposition process. They
investigated various concentrations of the TS of MSW in an anaerobic
continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) and the corresponding amounts of
biogas produced, in order to determine conditions for optimum gas production. The
results show that when the percentage total solids (PTS) of municipal solid waste in
an anaerobic continuous digestion process increases, there is a corresponding
geometric increase for biogas produced. A statistical analysis of the relationship
between the volume of biogas produced and the percentage total solids
concentration established that the former is a power function of the latter,

5
indicating that at some point in the increase of the TS, no further rise in the volume of
the biogas would be obtained.
Kumar et al., (2004) investigated the reactivity of methane. They concluded
that it has more than 20 times the global warming potential of carbon dioxide and that
the concentration of it in the atmosphere is increasing with one to two per cent per
year. The article continues by highlighting that about 3 to 19% of anthropogenic
sources of methane originate from landfills.
Shalini singh et al. (2000) studied the increased biogas production using
microbial stimulants. They studied the effect of microbial stimulant aquasan and
teresan on biogas yield from cattle dung and combined residue of cattle dung and
kitchen waste respectively. The result shows that dual addition of aquasan to
cattle dung on day 1 and day 15 increased the gas production by 55% over un-
amended cattle dung and addition of teresan to cattle dung : kitchen waste (1:1) mixed
residue 15% increased gas production.
Lissens et al. (2004) completed a study on a biogas operation to increase the
total biogas yield from 50% available biogas to 90% using several treatments
including: a mesophilic laboratory scale continuously stirred tank reactor, an up
flow biofilm reactor, a fibre liquefaction reactor releasing the bacteria Fibrobacter
succinogenes and a system that adds water during the process. These methods were
sufficient in bringing about large increases to the total yield; however, the study was
under a very controlled method, which leaves room for error when used under varying
conditions. However, Bouallagui et al. (2004) did determine that minor influxes
in temperature do not severely impact the anaerobic digestion for biogas production.
As Taleghani and Kia (2005) observed, the resource limitation of fossil
fuels and the problems arising from their combustion has led to widespread
research on the accessibility of new and renewable energy resources. Solar,
wind, thermal and hydro sources, and biogas are all renewable energy
resources. But what makes biogas distinct from other renewable energies is its
importance in controlling and collecting organic waste material and at the same time
producing fertilizer and water for use in agricultural irrigation. Biogas does not
have any geographical limitations or requires advanced technology for
producing energy, nor is it complex or monopolistic.

6
 Murphy, McKeog, and Kiely (2004) completed a study in Ireland analyzing
the usages of biogas and biofuels. This study provides a detailed summary of
comparisons with other fuel sources with regards to its effect on the environment,
finical dependence, and functioning of the plant. One of the conclusions the study
found was a greater economic advantage with utilizing biofuels for transport rather
than power production; however, power generation was more permanent and has less
maintenance demands.
Thomsen et al. (2004) found that increasing oxygen pressure during wet
oxidation on the digested bio-waste increased the total amount of methane yield.
Specifically, the yield which is normally 50 to 60% increased by 35 to 40%
demonstrating the increased ability to retrieve methane to produce economic
benefits.
Carrasco et al. ( 2004) studied the feasibility for dairy cow waste to be
used in anaerobic digestive systems. Because the animal's wastes are more
reactive than other cow wastes, the study suggests dairy cow wastes should be
chosen over other animal wastes.
Jantsch and Mattiasson (2004) discuss how anaerobic digestion is a
suitable method for the treatment of wastewater and organic wastes, yielding
biogas as a useful by-product. However, due to instabilities in start-up and
operation it is often not considered. A common way of preventing instability
problems and avoiding acidification in anaerobic digesters is to keep the organic
load of the digester far below its maximum capacity. There are a large number of
factors which affect biogas production efficiency including: environmental
conditions such as pH, temperature, type and quality of substrate; mixing; high
organic loading; formation of high volatile fatty acids; and inadequate alkalinity.
Jong Won Kang et al (2010) studied the On-site Removal of H2S from
Biogas Produced by Food Waste using an Aerobic Sludge Bio-filter for Steam
Reforming Processing. They show that A biofilter containing immobilized aerobic
sludge was successfully adapted for the removal of H2S and CO2 from the biogas
produced using food waste. The biofilter efficiently removed 99% of 1,058 ppmv
H2S from biogas produced by food waste treatment system at a retention time of
400 sec. The maximum observed removal rate was 359 g-H2S/m3/h with an
average mass loading rate of 14.7 g-H2S/m3/h for the large-scale biofilter. The large-

7
scale biofilter using a mixed culture system showed better H2S removal
capability than biofilters using specific bacteria strains. In the kinetic analysis, the
maximum H2S removal rate (Vm) and half saturation constant (Ks) were calculated
to be 842.6 g-H2S/m3/h and 2.2 mg/L, respectively. Syngas was generated by the
catalytic steam reforming of purified biogas, which indicates the possibility of high
efficiency electricity generation by SOFCs and methanol manufacturing.
Taleghani and Kia, (2005) outlined the economic, and social benefits of biogas
production. The economic benefits were as follows
1. Treatment of solid waste without long-term follow-up costs usually due to
soil and water pollution.
2. Increased local distribution of fertilizer, chemical herbicides, and pesticide
demand.
3.Generation of income through compost and energy sales
(biogas/electricity/heat) to the public grid.
4. Improved soil/agriculture productivity through long-term effects on soil
structure and fertility through compost use.
5. Reduction of landfill space and consequently land costs.
The social and health effects associated with biogas include
1. Creation of employment in biogas sector.
2. Improvement of the general condition of farmers due to the local availability of
soil-improving fertilizer.
3. Decreased smell and scavenger rodents and birds.

2.2. Biogas plant classification according to feed

The reactor is the place where any substrate is digested. The classification of
reactors is based on the mixing of fluid (substrate and sludge) in the reactor. We will
discuss here only the completely stirred, non stirred and batch reactor. In addition to
these reactors many combinations of these reactors and additions are available;
however these reactors are not feasible in the targeted countries, because of its
complexity and high financial and human capital input. There are various types of
systems. Concerning the feed method, mainly two different forms can be
distinguished:

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 1. Batch plants
2. Continuous plants
• CSTR(Completely mixed tank reactor system)
• Plug flow
• Fed batch (accumulation) system

2.2.1 Batch plants

These plants are filled and then emptied completely after a fixed retention
time. Each design and each fermentation material is suitable for batch filling, but
batch plants require high labor input. As a major disadvantage, their gas-output is not
steady in time.
2.2.2 Continuous plants
These are fed continuously. The CSTR and plug flow systems are
characterized by automatic overflow when new material is filled in. Therefore, the
substrate must be fluid and homogeneous. Continuous plants are suitable for rural
households as the necessary work fits well into the daily routine. Gas production is
constant.
A CSTR system is characterized by a continuous feeding rate and a complete
mixture of bacteria and substrate and at constant loading rate, a constant gas
production rate is achieved in time. The plug flow system is continuously fed and the
feed passes through the reactor in a horizontal direction and concentration reduces
from left to right. CSTR system Plug flow. In developed countries, such as the
Netherlands, active stirring is applied to mix the contents of the digester with the
added substrate, so called Completely Stirred Reactor (CSTR). The concentration of
the degraded substrate is the same in the reactor as at the outlet of digested substrate
as a result of stirring.
These types of reactors have different implication for the hydraulic and sludge
retention time and subsequently the loading rate of substrate and the volume of the
reactor. The hydraulic retention time (HRT) refers to the time water and bacteria
remain in the reactor and the sludge retention time (SRT) refers to the time the
substrate is in the reactor. The volume of the reactor necessary to produce enough gas
for cooking depends on the HRT, SRT and the loading rate of substrate. The
implication of these aspects on the volume is described on the next section. CSTR
system, plug flow systems and system based on a similar set up always need an

9
additional storage for the digestate, to overcome periods that digested manure cannot
be applied on the field on low temperature countries this can be as long as 5-6
months.
2.3 Biogas plants classification according to dome type
In developing countries there are several digesters in operation, the most
familiar is the fixed dome digester, in addition the floating dome digester and bag
digester are found in many developing countries. These types of digesters are
respectively explained next.
2.3.1. Fixed dome digester
The fixed dome digester is the most popular digester, its archetype was
developed in China. This is CSTR type digester. The digester comes in various types,
notably the Chinese fixed dome, Janata model and Janata II model (Jalla, 1988),
Deenbandu and CAMARTEC.

2.1. Fixed dome plant Nicarao design

1. Mixing tank with inlet pipe and sand trap. 6. Entry hatch with gastight seal
2. Digester. 7. Accumulation of thick sludge.
3. Compensation and removal tank. 8. Outlet pipe.
4. Gasholder. 9. Reference level.
5. Gaspipe.. 10. Supernatant scum

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Characteristics & function of fixed dome digester
A fixed dome digester is a closed dome shaped digester. The waste (manure,
dung, huma excrement) is fed to the digester. After that the methanogenic bacteria
‘digest’ the waste and produce biogas and slurry (digested waste). The gas is captured
in the gasholder and the slurry is displaced in the compensating tank. The more gas is
produced, the higher the level at the slurry outlet will be. The level of slurry in the
digester depends on the loading rate, gas production and consumption. During gas
production slurry is pushed back sideways, displaced to the compensation tank. When
gas is consumed slurry enters back into the digester from the compensation tank. As a
result of these movements, a certain degree of mixing is obtained of slurry of different
ages; therefore this design approaches a mixed digester reactor (Stalin, 15 2007). In
such a reactor the HRT is the same as the SRT. The volume of the sludge filled part of
the digester is therefore equal to the retention time of the sludge times the flow rate.
The gasholder is adapted to fit the gas requirement of the end-user (family). Important
to consider is the daily pattern of cooking. The longer period between the meals, the
more gas is produced in between meals and subsequently the larger the gasholder
should become.
A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an
immovable, rigid gas-holder and a displacement pit, also named ‘compensation tank’.
The gas is stored in the upper part of the digester. When gas production commences,
the slurry is displaced into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the
volume of gas stored, i.e. with the height difference between the two slurry levels. If
there is little gas in the gasholder, the gas pressure is low.
The fixed dome digester is relatively inexpensive. It is simple, has no moving
parts and has therefore a long lifespan, up to 20 years (GTZ, 1999). The plant is
suitable for cold climates because most part is beneath the ground level. Therefore the
plant is protected against low temperatures occurring during night and in cold
seasons. The temperature within the digester is lower during daytime and higher
during nighttime (GTZ, 1999). This fluctuation is beneficial for the methanogenic
bacteria and subsequently for the biogas production.

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Gas Holder
The top part of a fixed-dome plant (the gas space) must be gas-tight. Concrete,
masonry and cement rendering are not gas-tight. The gas space must therefore be
painted with a gas-tight layer (e.g. ’Water-proofer’, Latex or synthetic paints). A
possibility to reduce the risk of cracking of the gas-holder consists in the construction
of a weak-ring in the masonry of the digester. This "ring" is a flexible joint between
the lower (water-proof) and the upper (gas-proof) part of the hemispherical structure.
It prevents cracks that develop due to the hydrostatic pressure in the lower parts to
move into the upper parts of the gas-holder.

2.2. Chinese Fixed Dome Plan 2.3. Fixed Dome Plant CAMARTEC Design

Types of fixed-dome plants

1. Chinese fixed-dome plant is the archetype of all fixed dome plants. Several
million have been constructed in China. The digester consists of a cylinder
with round bottom and top.
2. Janata model was the first fixed-dome design in India, as a response to the
Chinese fixed dome plant. It is not constructed anymore. The mode of
construction lead to cracks in the gasholder - very few of these plant had been
gas-tight.
3. Deenbandhu, the successor of the Janata plant in India, with improved design,
was more crack-proof and consumed less building material than the Janata
plant. with a hemisphere digester
4. CAMARTEC model has a simplified structure of a hemispherical dome shell
based on a rigid foundation ring only and a calculated joint of fraction, the so-
called weak / strong ring. It was developed in the late 80s in Tanzania.

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Advantages of the digester
1. Relatively cheap and durable
2. Construction is labor intensive (local employment opportunities)
3. No moving parts
4. Well insulated
Disadvantages
1. High technical skills are required for a gas tight construction
2. Special sealant is required for the gasholder
3. Gas leaks occur when not designed well
4. Difficult to construct in bedrock
5. Amount of gas available for cooking is hard to detect
6. Enormous structural strength required for construction (Sharma et al, 1991)
Experiences for the China biogas program teaches us that special attention is
required when constructing a fixed-dome digester. It Is advised to construct such a
plant under the supervision of experienced biogas technicians. This should not be
taken lightly. Experience from Pakistan showed that the Chinese dome model failed
most cases as a result of low gas pressure due to persistent leakage problems and
seepage problems. Cleary, the design has many favorable aspects, but its success is
dependent on the input of high technical manufacturing.
2.3.2 Floating dome digester
Floating dome digesters are mainly found in India and this is semi CSTR type
reactor. A floating dome digester is shown below.

2.4. Floating Dome Type Biogas

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 The ideal situations for a community based biogas digester recommends a
central collection area for the plant substrate, be it animal manure, excrete or
food/vegetable waste. Here lies the first area of logistical headache which calls for
organizational skills from the responsible community. Studies by SRE (Sustainable
Rural Energy) for a Community based biogas plant in Haor (Wetland) area involved
providing all the families in the community an improved sanitary latrine which was
connected to a central digester. According to SRE “a beneficiary committee has been
formed and this community is entrusted with the responsibility of proper of proper
operation and maintenance of the system.
Characteristics of floating dome digester
The operation of a floating dome digester is not that different from a fixed
dome digester. The produced gas is collecting in a movable steel drum, the gasholder.
The steel drum is guided by a guide frame. When gas is consumed the drum sinks.
Slurry is pushed out of the digester after the digestion. In contrast to the fixed dome
digester, a floating drum digester is not a mixed reactor like fixed dome, but here also
some mixing take place due to gas production and removal of gas.

Advantages
1. The operation of the plant is easy to understand and operate
2. Gas drum is air tight provided the drum is de-rusted and painted regularly
3. Constant gas pressure as a result of the weight of the drum
Disadvantages
1. Steel drum is relatively expensive and needs regularly maintenance
(priming, painting, coating)
2. Steel drum can get stuck
A low cost option is to use a balloon as a gas holder instead , which is attached
to the digester. A disadvantage is the susceptibility to physical damage.
2.3.3 Bag digester/ Balloon plants
A balloon plant or also referred to as a bag digester is a plastic or rubber bag
combining the gas holder and digester. This is a plug-flow type reactor. Gas is
collected in the upper part and manure in the lower part; the inlet and outlet are
attached to the skin of the bag. The pressure of the gas is adjustable by laying stones
on the bag. The next picture shows a bag digester as used in Bolivia on the Altiplano.

14
 2.5. Bag digester in Bolivia.
These bags have a limited life span of 3-5 years. In China red mud bags, a
byproduct from the production of aluminum is used since 1983 with success.
However, the effective life span was also limited to 3-5 years. The Bolivia Biogas
Program, Viviendas autoenergéticas” constructed bag digesters on the Altiplano, a
barren area at an altitude of 4000 meters.

Advantages
1. Low costs
2. Simple technology
3. Uncomplicated cleaning
Disadvantages
1. Short life-span
2. Susceptible to physical damage
3. Hard to repair
4. Need for high quality plastic/PVC
5. Difficult to insulate
2.3.4 VACVINA Plant
The biogas production technology is mostly suited for animal husbandry waste
and human excreta. The input to the biodigester comes through a ditch attached
through a siphon system, connecting the wastes from the animal shed to the
biodigester. The biodigester is a rectangular structure with a volume capacity of 5 m3.
It could be placed

15
next to or below the animal shed. The output of the digester goes through a PVC
exhaust pipe. The plastic bags used to collect biogas and used as a cooking fuel

2.6. VACVINA Plant

2.4 Production process

A typical biogas system consists of the following components:
(1) Manure collection
(2) Anaerobic digester
(3) Effluent storage
(4) Gas handling
(5) Gas use
Biogas is a renewable form of energy. Methanogens (methane producing
bacteria) are last link in a chain of microorganisms which degrade organic material
and returns product of decomposition to the environment.
Principles for production of biogas
Organic substances exist in wide variety from living beings to dead organisms
. Organic matters are composed of Carbon (C), combined with elements such as
Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S) to form variety of organic
compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins & lipids. In nature MOs
(microorganisms), through digestion process breaks the complex carbon into smaller
substances.

16
There are 2 types of digestion process :

 Aerobic digestion.
 Anaerobic digestion.
2.4.1. Aerobic Digestion:
The digestion process occurring in presence of Oxygen is called Aerobic
digestion and produces mixtures of gases having carbon dioxide (CO2), one of the
main "green houses "responsible for global warming.
2.4.2. Anaerobic digestion
The digestion process occurring without (absence) oxygen is called Anaerobic
digestion which generates mixtures of gases. The gas produced which is mainly
methane produces 5200-5800 KJ/m3 which when burned at normal room temperature
and presents a viable environmentally friendly energy source to replace fossil fuels
(non-renewable).
It is also referred to as biomethanization, is a natural process that takes place
in absence of air (oxygen). It involves biochemical decomposition of complex organic
material by various biochemical processes with release of energy rich biogas and
production of nutrias effluents.
Biological process (Microbiology)
1. Hydrolysis
2. Acidification
3. Methanogenesis

1. Hydrolysis
In the first step the organic matter is enzymolysed externally by extracellular
enzymes, cellulose, amylase, protease & lipase, of microorganisms. Bacteria
decompose long chains of complex carbohydrates, proteins & lipids into small chains.
For example, Polysaccharides are converted into monosaccharide. Proteins are split
into peptides and amino acids.

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 2. Acidification
Acid-producing bacteria, involved this step, convert the intermediates of
fermenting bacteria into acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. These bacteria are
anaerobic and can grow under acidic conditions. To produce acetic acid, they need
oxygen and carbon. For this, they use dissolved O2 or bounded-oxygen. Hereby,
the acid-producing bacteria creates anaerobic condition which is essential for the
methane producing microorganisms. Also , they reduce the compounds with low
molecular weights into alcohols, organic acids, amino acids, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulphide and traces of methane. From a chemical point, this process is
partially endogenic (i.e. only possible with energy input), since bacteria alone are not
capable of sustaining that type of reaction.
3. Methanogenesis
(Methane formation) Methane-producing bacteria, which were involved in
the third step, decompose compounds having low molecular weight. They utilize
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and acetic acid to form methane and carbon dioxide.
Under natural conditions, CH4 producing microorganisms occur to the extent that
anaerobic conditions are provided, e.g. under water (for example in marine
sediments),and in marshes. They are basically anaerobic and very sensitive to
environmental changes, if any occurs. The methanogenic bacteria belongs to the
archaebacter genus, i.e. to a group of bacteria with heterogeneous morphology
and lot of common biochemical and molecular-biological properties that
distinguishes them from other bacteria. The main difference lies in the makeup of
the bacteria's cell walls.

Symbiosis of bacteria
Methane and acid-producing bacteria act in a symbiotic way. Acid producing
bacteria create an atmosphere with ideal parameters for methane producing
bacteria (anaerobic conditions, compounds with a low molecular weight).
On the other hand, methane-producing microorganisms use the intermediates
of the acid producing bacteria. Without consuming them, toxic conditions for the
acid-producing microorganisms would develop. In real time fermentation processes

18
the metabolic actions of various bacteria acts in a design. No single bacteria is able to
produce fermentation products alone as it requires others too.

2.7 Floating Dome Biogas Plant

2.8 Fixed dome type biogas plant

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 2.9. Flow chart of anaerobic digestion

2.5. Characteristics and properties of Biogas

Biogas is produced by bacteria through the bio-degradation of
organic material under anaerobic conditions. Natural generation of biogas is an
important part of bio-geochemical carbon cycle. It can be used both in rural and
urban areas.
2.5.1 Characteristics of biogas
Composition of biogas depends upon feed material also. Biogas is about 20%
lighter than air has an ignition temperature in range of 650 to 7500C.An odourless &
colourless gas that burns with blue flame similar to LPG gas. Its caloric value is 20
Mega Joules (MJ) /m3 and it usually burns with 60 % efficiency in a conventional
biogas stove.

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Component Concentration (by volume)

Methane (CH4) 55-60 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 35-40 %

Water (H2O) 2-7 %

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 20-20,000 ppm (2%)

Ammonia (NH3) 0-0.05 %

Nitrogen (N) 0-2 %

Oxygen (O2 ) 0-2 %

Hydrogen (H) 0-1 %

2.1. Composition of biogas

This gas is useful as fuel to substitute firewood, cow-dung, petrol, LPG,
diesel, & electricity, depending on the nature of the task, and local supply conditions
and constraints.
Biogas digester systems provides a residue organic waste, after its anaerobic
digestion that has superior nutrient qualities over normal organic fertilizer, as it is in
the form of ammonia and can be used as manure. Anaerobic biogas digesters also
function as waste disposal systems, particularly for human wastes, and can,
therefore, prevent potential sources of environmental contamination and the spread
of pathogens and disease causing bacteria. Biogas technology is particularly
valuable in agricultural residual treatment of animal excreta and kitchen refuse
(residuals).
2.5.2 Properties of biogas
1. Change in volume as a function of temperature and pressure.
2. Change in calorific value as function of temperature , pressure and water
vapour content.
3. Change in water vapour as a function of temperature and pressure.

21
2.6 Factors affecting yield and production of biogas
Many factors affecting the fermentation process of organic substances
under anaerobic condition are,

 The quantity and nature of organic matter

 The temperature
 Acidity and alkanity (PH value) of substrate
 The flow and dilution of material

Energy Content 6-6.5 kWh/m3

Fuel Equivalent 0.6-0.65 l oil/m3 biogas

Explosion Limits 6-12 % biogas in air

Ignition Temperature 650-750 0C

Critical Pressure 75-89 bar

Critical temperature -82.5 0C

Normal Density 1.2 kg/m3

Smell Bad eggs

2.2 General features of biogas

2.7 Benefits of biogas technology

 Production of energy.
 Transformation of organic wastes to very high quality fertilizer.
 Improvement of hygienic conditions through reduction of pathogens.
 Environmental advantages through protection of soil, water, air etc.
 Micro-economical benefits by energy and fertilizer substitutes.
 Macro-economical benefits through decentralizes energy generation and
environmental protection.

22
2.8 Hydrogen sulphide
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is particularly harmful when biogas is used in
internal combustion engines. Its chemical reactions and those of its combustion
product - sulphur dioxide - lead to corrosion and wear on engines. The only practical
way of removing the hydrogen sulphide on a small scale is by dry desulphurization,
using ferrous substances. Locally available, iron-containing soil is suitable for use as
the purifying agent in Developing Countries. This chapter contains a detailed
description of criteria for designing the purification chamber. It also presents the basic
steps for manufacturing the purifying agent or absorbent.
2.8.1 Physical and chemical properties of hydrogen sulphide
Hydrogen sulphide is a colourless, very poisonous gas. It is inflammable, and
forms explosive mixtures with air (oxygen) H2S has a characteristic shell of "rotten
eggs", apparent only in a small concentration range (0.05 - 500 ppm). It is soluble in
water, forming a weak acid. A combustion product of H2S is SO2, which makes the
exhaust gases very corrosive (sulphuric acid) and contaminates the environment (acid
rain). H2S is very poisonous (comparable to hydrogen cyanide): with a lower toxic
limit of 10 ppm. 1.2 - 2.8 mg H2S per litre of air (0.117%) kills instantly, 0.6 mg H2S
per litre of air (0.05%) kills within 30 minutes to one hour. H2S changes the red blood
pigment; the blood turns brown to olive in colour. The transport of oxygen is
hindered. The person suffocates "internally". The symptoms are irritation of the
mucous membranes (including the eyes), nausea, vomiting, difficulty in breathing,
cyanosis (discoloration of the skin), delirium and cramps, then respiratory paralysis
and cardiac arrest. At higher concentrations immediate respiratory paralysis and
cardiac arrest are the only symptoms. Even if a person survives poisoning, long term
damage to the central nervous system and to the heart may remain.
2.8.2 The origins of hydrogen sulphide in biogas plants
Hydrogen sulphide is formed in the biogas plant by the transformation of
sulphur-containing protein, which can be from plants and fodder residues. However,
when animal and human faces are used, bacteria excreted in the intestine" are the
main source of protein. Inorganic sulphur, particularly sulphates, can also be
biochemically converted to H2S in the fermentation chamber. While plant material
introduces little H2S into biogas, poultry droppings introduce, on average, up to 0.5
volume percent of H2S, cattle and pig manure about 0.3 volume/percent. Protein-rich

23
waste (e.g. molasses, etc.) can produce large amounts of hydrogen sulphide (up to 3
vol. %). Inorganic sulphates (from salty, stall rinse water or diluting water) also
produce considerable H2S.
2.8.3 The effect of H2S on the biogas plant and the gas-utilization equipment
Dissolved H2S is contained in the fermentation slurry, and when dissolved in
high concentrations can be toxic to the bacteria in the slurry. It can inhibit the
production of biogas and cause its composition to alter. This can be remedied by
putting less sulphur-rich material in the plant or diluting with water. In less serious
cases, stir vigorously to drive H2S out of the slurry. The presence of H2S gas in biogas
makes it corrosive to metal parts: iron and galvanized parts are subject to surface
attack, although not to major corrosion. The effect on non-ferrous metals in
components, such as pressure regulators, gas meters, valves and mountings, is much
more serious.
The combustion product, SO2 combines with water vapour and badly corrodes
the exhaust side of burners, gas lamps and engines. Burning biogas in stoves and
boilers can also result in damage to the chimney.
2.8.4 The odour of biogas
Adequate desulphurization of biogas causes it to lose its characteristic,
warning smell. This increases the danger of unnoticed leaks from pipes or equipment.
SO2 formed during combustion pollutes the environment by creating "acid rain". Even
small concentrations of SO2 in the atmosphere damage plants. Its concentration in the
soil slowly causes land which is lacking in lime to become acidic. These effects
should be negligible when biogas is used in rural areas in Developing Countries, since
only small amounts of biogas are produced.
As noted, the desulphuring of biogas is necessary for its use in gas engines.
Under some circumstances it is expedient to desulphur for boders. Desulphurization is
also required when the biogas is produced from sulphur-rich materials. If people are
not adversely affected, desulphuring is not required when biogas is burned openly.
2.8.5 Determination of the H2S content of biogas
The H2S content of the purified gas can be measured to check the
effectiveness of the desulphuring process. In the laboratory, the H2S content of gases
is usually measured iodometrically, using cadmium acetate. However, the necessary
techniques are too involved for application in the field.

24
 A simple way to determine the presence of H2S in biogas is a test with lead
acetate paper: when a piece of paper soaked with lead acetate solution is held in the
gas stream for a short time, the presence of H2S colours the strip black. The difficulty
with this method is its high sensitivity, since a small amount of H2S is not an
indication of greatly reduced efficiency of the desulphurization. Simple desulphuring
plants may still possess an adequate purifying performance.
Another method for detecting H2S is with an alcoholic solution of iodine, such
as often available in first aid kits. A small amount of biogas is carefully introduced
into the iodine solution. If H2S is present the reddish brown solution will decolour,
causing a milky turbidity.
The test-tube method is a very exact and simple method of determining the
H2S concentration in biogas. Suitable tubes are available for measuring the
concentration in both raw and purified gas. However, the gas detector apparatus and
the individual test tubes are relatively expensive. Also, the test tubes can only be
preserved for a limited time. This method is only expedient in the regional biogas
extension service or similar advisory services. The apparatus can then be used to
provide empirical field values for individual plants. The intervals for recharging the
purifying agent can then be laid down. As yet there is no simple, cheap, test method
available. For this reason a close control of the desulphuring plant is strongly
recommended.
2.8.6 Methods for removing H2S from biogas
Of the many processes traditionally and presently employed that have been
used for large-scale desulphurization of gases, only the so-called "dry" process is
suitable on a smaller scale for biogas plants. The desulphuring of biogas is based on a
chemical reaction of H2S with a suitable substance, such as quicklime, slaked lime in
solid form, or slaked lime in liquid form. The process using quick or slaked lime has
not been applied on a large scale for a long time, because the large amount of odorous
residue that is produced cannot be satisfactorily disposed of. Large concentrations of
CO2 which are present in biogas make the satisfactory removal of H2S difficult: the
CO2 also reacts with the quick and slaked lime and uses it up quickly. The Ca(HCO3)2
formed reacts with Ca(SH)2 which is formed by the reaction of H2S with Ca(OH)2
thus resulting in the recurrence of H2S. A large scale biogas plant in Germany, with
the co-generation of heat and power, has recently been constructed, using a lime

25
purifier, but the results of long term tests are not yet available. In as far as enough
lump quicklime is available in the countries concerned, this process could be
considered for desulphurization. The apparatus for utilizing quicklime corresponds in
construction and function to that used for the desulphurization with iron- containing
substances.
Ferrous materials in the form of natural soils or certain iron ores are often
employed to remove H2S. The ferrous material is placed in a closed, gas-tight
container (of steel, brickwork or concrete). The gas to be purified flows through the
ferrous absorbing agent from the bottom and leaves the container at the top, freed
from H2S.
The absorbing material must contain iron in the form of oxides, hydrated
oxides or hydroxides. This process terminates, of course, after some time. The greater
part of the iron remains as a sulphide.
2.8.7 Regeneration
However, by treating the sulphided absorbent with atmospheric oxygen, the
iron can be returned to the active oxide form required for the purification of the gas.
The used absorbent can, therefore, be "regenerated". This regeneration cannot be
repeated indefinitely. After a certain time the absorbent becomes coated with
elementary sulphur and its pores become clogged.
Purifying absorbents in gasworks (coke plants) acquire a sulphur content of up
to 25% of their original weight,there are three different dry desulphuring processes
available.
Without regeneration
The purification chamber consists of a box or drum. The absorbent is placed
inside it on several, intermediate trays (sieve floors) to ensure that the depth of the
absorbent is not more than 20-30 cm. The biogas is fed in at the bottom of the box,
flows through the absorbent and leaves the purification chamber at the top, freed from
H2S. When the absorbent becomes loaded with iron sulphides, the gas leaving the
chamber contains more and more H2S. The chamber is then opened at the top, the
trays with the spent absorbent are removed, and then fresh absorbent is placed on the
trays. After the air in the purification chamber has again been displaced with biogas
the gas connection to the user is re-opened.

26
With regeneration
The spent, sulphide-containing absorbent can also be regenerated by exposing
it to oxygen. This can either be done by taking the used absorbent out of the chamber
and exposing it to the air, or inside the purification chamber by simply sucking
ambient air through it.
Since regeneration inside the chamber requires precautions against the
formation of unwanted and dangerous air-gas mixtures and would require powerful
fans, regeneration outside the chamber is usually preferred. The absorbent that is to be
regenerated is spread out on the ground in as thin a layer as possible. From time to
time it is turned over with a shovel. After a few days it is ready for use again. This
regeneration process can be repeated up to ten times, after which the absorbent is
finally spent.
Simultaneous regeneration and loading Simultaneous regeneration and loading
of the absorbent is a special case. Here, a small amount of air is added to the biogas,
so that sulphide formation and regeneration occur at the same time and place. The
absorbent acts effectively as a catalyst. Expensive gas-measuring and mixing
equipment is required for this process, however, so that it is not suitable for small
biogas plants.
Alongside the traditional, commercially available absorbents, certain
substitutes can be used. Various tropical and subtropical soils contain sufficient iron
in a suitable form, but must be prepared to obtain the proper purifying characteristics.
The material must be loose, porous, moist and granular. The raw soil has to be ground
and mixed with a filler and water to obtain a homogeneous texture. Using two or more
purification chambers, connected in series, ensures a continual production of purified
gas, and allows a good capacity utilization. The spent absorbent can be disposed of
safely by burying it. Various factors must be considered in calculating the dimensions
of the purification chambers. A certain maximum flow speed should not be exceeded.
The gas volume to be purified, per unit time, determines the cross section of the
purification chamber. The chamber volume, and hence, the amount of absorbent,
determine the operating time for the purification process before regeneration or
exchange of the absorbent. A calculation procedure simplifies working out the
dimensions of the desulphuring unit.

27
2.9 Membrane separation
Membrane separation is based on the principle of different particle size or the
affinity of molecules for the membrane material. The biogas is pressurized and led
through a membrane, and CO2 permeates through a membrane more easily than CH4.
This results in a high pressure CH4 rich stream and a low pressure CO2 rich stream.
An important downside of membrane separation is that the CO2 stream still contains
methane (~10-15%). In case the CO2 stream is emitted to the atmosphere this results
both in a loss of usable energy (CH4) which also happens to be a very potent
greenhouse gas. This stream can also be used to recover the energy and prevent
methane emissions.

2.10 Process scheme for membrane separation

H2S either needs to be removed before or after the membrane separation. In

case it is done after the membrane separation the gas stream that needs to be treated
smaller.

28
 Chapter 3

DESIGN OF BIOGAS PLANT

3.1. Structural design for inlet pit
The inlet pit is not an essential feature of the digester, as the design for any
model can be adapted to include it. However, the KT2 provides the best design
solution – the inlet tank is flat bottomed and the pipe is raised slightly above the flat
base allowing grit and stones to settle just below the intake. The use of a plug at the
pipe ensuring no gas or heat escapes through the inlet tank (although the amount
would be minimal) and no foreign bodies enter the digester. This feature also allows
slurry to be held in the mixing tank to heat in the sun where it can later be fed into the
digester at an optimum temperature.
The VACVINA model introduces slurry into the digester through a siphoned
inlet. A siphoned inlet is more susceptible to clogging. In addition, it has no mixing
tank making it harder to use when dealing with cow manure. The slurry is introduced
at the top of the digester and the outlet is located near the top of the tank. Since fresh
material is lighter than digested material, the probability of fresh slurry not being fully
digested and leaving the digester prematurely is high. The inlet is perpendicular to the
outlet and almost at the centre of the wall. This can cause the slurry to be stagnant in
areas in the digester, where it is not being ‘pushed’ through, and reduce the effective
volume of the digester.
The Chinese Dome model has a pipe inlet for material from the latrines and all
other slurry is to be fed straight into the digester. The circular inlet pit passes through
the concrete dome, weakening the structure of the dome, increasing the potential for
failure and cracking of the structure. The design suggests the inlet pipe from the
latrines penetrates through the digester to the centre point. Although it is
advantageous to introduce slurry to the bottom of the pit to ensure the material is
continually ‘churned’ and therefore digests properly, the positioning of the pipe is
disadvantageous. The pipe is subject to pressure from the slurry around it and can
corrode away with time given it is situated directly in the slurry. It can also impede
the movement of the slurry from inlet to outlet. New material entering the digester
will be lighter and will be more likely to pass straight through to the outlet without
being fully digested, given the configuration of where the material enters and leaves
the digester.

29
3.2. Structural design for gasholder and digester
In the fixed dome designs, the whole dome needs to be gastight, at least up to
the lowest slurry point level. Cracks in the masonry or concrete arise where the
external and internal (tensile) stresses are highest. A dome shape, or curved surface
can support heavier loads than a flat slab of the same material and thickness as shown
in the figure below.

3.1. Shape and load-bearing capacity, where a thicker arrow represents a larger
force.
Therefore, from the designs of all five models we can see the VACVINA
model first out of six diagrams is more susceptible to cracks as it is constructed from
flat slabs whereas the other four models have a dome or cylindrical digester.

3.2. Stress patterns for same volume - Different shapes

Different shapes have different stress patterns under the same load (a and b).
The round shape has lower stresses. The angular shape has high stresses and many
stress peaks. Different shapes are often loaded differently. In a vaulted shape, the
loads acting in different directions are more reliably balanced than with a vertical wall
(c and d).

30
 The KT2 and Deenbandhu fare better than the Chinese and GGC models in
this case as they both have a dome structure that forms both the digester and
gasholder whereas the latter only have a dome structure for the gasholder and a
cylindrical structure for the digester. Components under compression are less likely to
suffer from cracks. If constructed properly, when the gas space of the fixed dome is
under pressure, the forces will be evenly distributed at every point and therefore, will
be less likely to crack.
3.2.1. Design calculations of digester [2]
Cooking
Size of household=12 persons
Quantity of required for cooking per person = 0.227m3
Therefore required gas per day per household = 0.227x 12 = 2.7 m3 of gas
Plant Capacity
For the purpose of this project fixed type of biogas plant is preferred.
The digester volume is given by the formula,

Vd = Vf x tr ……………………………... (1)
Where, Vd = Digester Volume
Vf = Volume of fluid in digester

tr = Hydraulic retention time

But also,
𝑀
𝑉𝑓 = ……………………………….. (2)
𝛹
Where, M = Mass of dry input
= Density of dry material in input.
Density of dry dung in fluid is given by, 𝛹 = 50 Kg/m3.
From Equation (2),
Volume of daily slurry charge, Vf = mass / density
Now, 1 Kg of kow dung contains 0.18 kg of dry dung
Therefore, 50 Kg contains = 50 x 0.18
= 9 Kg of dry weight of dung per day.
Since, water percentage in fresh dung is 82%

31
 9
Volume of fluid, Vf =
50

= 0.18 m3 / day
Let, the hydraulic retention time be 40 days.
From Equation (1), Volume of digester,
Vd = 0.18 × 35 = 6.3 m3
Actual digester volume, = 1.1 ×Vd (10 % more to provide disengagement of gas)

Therefore, Actual digester volume = 1.1 × 6.3 = 6.93 m3≈ 7 m3

Gas production rate for tropical climate range is 0.4 to 0.5 m3 per day.
Taking 0.4 m3 per day, for fulfilling requirement of 2.7 m3,
2.7
Digester volume = = 6.75 m3 ≈ 7 m3 digester volume is adequate.
0.4
3.2.2. Digester Dimensions [3]
General shape of digester dome is hemisphere.
2
Thus, volume of hemisphere = 𝜋 𝑅3
3
Volume of digester = 7 m3
7 = 2.0944 × R3
R3 = 3.3422
R = 1.5 m
R = 5 ft.

3.3 Design of Biogas Plant

32
3.3. Design for bottom slab of digester
The bottom slab has to carry the weight of the digester walls, the slurry inside
it, and in the case of the fixed-dome designs the weight of the earth on the dome. The
slab distributes these loads onto the ground beneath it. The larger the foundation the
less settlement there is, as the load is more evenly distributed. In addition to having a
well structure base, the ground beneath the base needs to be equal, well compacted
and consistent – however this is a construction technique and not a factor of the model
design. A curved (shell formation) base, as used in the Dome models, provides the
best load bearing capacity owing to its shape. The conical shaped base can carry
higher loads than a flat-bottomed base. The base supports the vertical load from the
digester dome wall and only part of the horizontal load depending on the ‘protrusion’
of the base beyond the limit of the wall
In the case of the VACVINA and Chinese Dome there is minimal horizontal
load on the base from the wall because the wall is vertical. However, for the Chinese
Dome, there is a similar horizontal loading pattern where the dome meets the vertical
walls. The horizontal forces from the concrete dome are only countered by the
backfill material. Poor compaction of backfill can result in structural damage.
3.4. Structural design for manhole
The main purpose of a manhole is to allow access to the digester so that it may be
cleaned or repaired and with some designs, it has a function during construction. Both
the
Deenbandhu and GGC are designed so the digester can be accessed through the outlet
tank. However, the outlet tank needs to be emptied in order to gain access to the
digester. In terms of ease of use, both models have advantages and disadvantages - the
Deenbandhu model provides easier access to the digester from the outlet tank for
removing grit. It is possible to stand at the outlet tank and ‘rake out’ the grit as the
base of the digester is almost at the same level as that of the outlet tank – however, the
actual opening for the Deenbandhu is smaller than that of the GGC. The Deenbandhu
has an arched frame opening, providing support to the rest of the dome above it – it is
more structurally stable than the opening created in the GGC, which is rectangular.
There is also the possibility to provide have manholes at the top of the
digester, which are sealed to prevent gas leaks. However, they affect the strength of
the dome structure, as the openings create inherent weaknesses and a latent risk of gas

33
leakage. The digester does not have to be completely emptied of slurry to carry out
inspections and maintenance. The Chinese Dome model has two access points –
through the outlet and through the manhole on the dome – both of which are similar in
size and smaller than the access points for the KT2, Deenbandhu and GGC models.
3.5. Structural design for slurry outlet
Slirry outlet can be designed with an outlet pipe from the digester, for the
digested slurry, which leads to a storage or overflow pit, whereas the other three
models have no pipe and the outlet tank is directly attached to the digester. A pipe is
more advantageous when trying to conserve heat within the digester – this is not a
priority in India, where temperatures are on average high. Sometimes outlet tank is
below ground level. During flooding, water is more likely to enter into the chamber.
The tank is dome shaped to withstand higher loads and less material is
required to construct it. However, owing to the shape, as mentioned previously, more
expertise is required to construct it. The pressure in the digester increases when gas is
created and this ‘pushes’ the displaced slurry into the outlet tank (also known as the
overflow pit or compensation tank). In turn, when gas is being used, the difference in
slurry level between the digester and overflow pit provides pressure to push out the
gas when it is released.
The VACVINA plant does not have this feature and gas does not leave the
digester as readily it is not under the same pressure. Therefore, there is no pressurized
flow of gas to any appliances from the external gasholder.
Outlet slurry tank is constructed above the ground level but the level of tank is
below the level of inlet tank. This ensures that slurry after fermentation process does
not backflow in the inlet tank. Also due to level difference the slurry flow can be
uniformly maintained.

34
 Chapter 4
CONSTRUCTION OF BIOGAS PLANT
4.1 Construction Site Selection
The following points should be kept in mind when deciding on a site for biogas
plant construction.
1. For proper function of the plant, the optimal temperature has to be maintained
in the digester. Therefore, a sunny site should be selected to keep the digester
near 35 0C (95 0Fahrenheit). This is more important in the higher elevations
year-round while generally a concern in the winter only for the lower elevation
sites.
2. To make plant operation easier and to avoid wastage of raw feedstock the
plant must be as close as possible to the feedstock supply (toilet, animal pen,
compost pits, etc.) and water source. If a readily available supply of feedstock
or water or both is not available then the biogas plant should not be installed.
3. Gas pipe length should be kept as short as possible. A longer pipe increases
the risk of gas leaks because of the increased number of joints; the cost of a
longer pipe is also a factor. The main gas valve should be opened and closed
before and after each use, therefore the plant should be as close as possible to
the point of use to facilitate proper operation.
4. The edge of the foundation of the plant should be at least two meters away
from any other structures to avoid risk of damage during construction.
5. The plant should be at least 10 meters away from groundwater wells or surface
water bodies to protect water from pollution.
4.2 Site Layout
After selection of the plant size and site location, the site layout is marked on
the ground surface with wooden stakes, rocks, chalk or other materials. To mark the
plant a small peg is stuck in the ground at the planned centre of the digester. A cord
the radius of the digester is attached to the peg. The circumference can be marked by
rotating the end of the cord in circular fashion. A suitable arrangement must then be
marked for the inlet tank, inlet-pipe(s), outlet-chamber, compost-pits and gas piping.
After the site layout is marked, the engineer should review the selected location again
to ensure the best site has been chosen and will not interfere with other activities
normally performed at the planned biogas plant.

35
4.3 Selection of Construction Materials
4.3.1. Cement
The cement to use in the plant construction must be of high quality Portland
cement from a brand with a known reputation. It must be fresh, without lumps and
stored in a dry place. Bags of cement should never be stacked directly on the floor or
against the walls to protect the cement from absorbing moisture before use.
4.3.2 Sand
Sand for construction purpose must be clean. Dirty sand has a very negative
effect on the strength of the structure. If the sand contains 3% or more impurities by
volume, it must be washed. The quantity of impurities especially mud in the sand can
be determined by a simple test using a bottle and clean water. For the test, the bottle is
half-filled with sand, filled with clean water, and then stirred vigorously. Allow the
bottle to sit stationary to allow the sand to settle. The particles of sand will settle first
while mud particles will settle last. After 20-25 minutes, compare the thickness of the
mud layer to the sand inside the bottle are; the percent of mud should be less than 3%
of the overall volume. Course and granular sand can be used for concrete work
however fine sand is necessary for plastering work.
4.3.3 Gravel
Gravel size should not be too big or too small. Individual gravel diameter
should not be greater than 25% of the thickness of concrete product where it is used.
As the slabs and the top of the dome are not greater than 8 cm (3") thick, gravel
should not be larger than 2 cm (0.75") in size. Furthermore, the gravel must be clean.
If it is dirty, it should be washed with clean water.
4.3.4 Water
Water is mainly used for preparing the mortar for masonry, concrete and
plastering work. It is also used to soak bricks/stones before using them. Water is also
used for washing sand and aggregates. It is advised not to use water from ponds and
irrigation canals for these purposes, as it is usually too dirty. Dirty water has an
adverse effect the strength of the structure; hence, water to be used must be clean.
4.3.5 Bricks
Bricks must be of the best quality locally available. When hitting two bricks
together, the sound must be crisp or clean. They must be well baked and regular in

36
shape. Before use, bricks must Biogas be soaked for few minutes in clean water. This
will prevent the bricks from soaking moisture from the mortar after laid in place.
4.3.6 Cobble Stones
If cobble-sized stones, 7.5-30 cm (3-12”) in diameter are used for masonry
work, they must be clean, solid and of good quality. Cobbles should be washed if they
are dirty.
4.4. Excavation
The pit depth is indicated under dimension 'E'. The excavation work should
only be started after deciding the location of manhole and outlet tank. For safety, the
pit wal1s should be vertical and stepped from the ground surface by one meter away
from the centre of the excavation for each meter the depth is excavated. Excavated
soil should be placed at least one meter away from the edge of the dig so it does not
fall inside the pit during construction. The pit bottom must be levelled and the earth
must remain untouched.

4.1. Digging of Pit 4.2. Finishing of Pit

If the design depth cannot be achieved because of hard rock or high
groundwater, the design will need to be modified to a smaller plant or wider digester
or combination of both. It is not recommended to construct the biogas plant at or
below the groundwater table elevation. The earth base of the excavation is then
compacted using mechanical or manual tools.
4.5. Construction of Digester Main Chamber
The digester foundation is placed using cobbles and gravel as aggregate then
filled with concrete. The foundation should be 15 cm thick and allowed. The
foundation is necessary to sustain the load applied by vertical walls and the side walls.
Foundation also sometimes supports the weight of earth. At the centre of the pit, a
37
straight bamboo stick must be placed in an exact vertical position. The vertical
bamboo stick will be used during the construction as a field-expedient guide to ensure
symmetry of the biogas plant.

4.3. Construction of dome 4.4. Completed dome

A nail is attached to the vertical bamboo. This is done to allow space for
plastering. After the Foundation has cured for at least two days, the round wall is
constructed. The first two rows of bricks must be positioned side by side so that
7.5cm (3”)wide base is made. It is essential that first row be placed on a firm,
untouched and level foundation. Subsequent rows of bricks are positioned on their
lengths so that the wall thickness is maintained at 7.5cm (3”) wide. It is not necessary
to build in support columns or pillars in the wall however, the backfilling between
wall and pit-side must be compacted with great care. Backfilling should be done no
sooner than 12 hours following brick course placement to allow mortar to cure. Earth
should be well compacted by adding water and gentle ramming along the
circumference of the digester. Poor compaction will lead to cracks in round-wall and
dome. A vertical 3/4” diameter 15cm length barrel with the welded horizontal metal
rod above 6cm from one end is fixed in the concrete at the top of the dome as shown
in fig 4.4

4.6 Plasters and Coats for Digester and Gas-Holder

In Industrialized countries, most of the new digesters are built of gas-tight
concrete or steel. Additives are mixed into the concrete to render it gas-tight. If
existing concrete vessels are used, their gas-tightness has to be checked. Often, they
have not been built from gas-tight concrete or cracks have formed over time which

38
allows the gas to escape. It is important to check the digester and piping system for
gas-tightness prior to putting the biogas unit in service.

4.5 Inside plaster of the gastight section of a fixed dome digester

If leakage is detected only during operation, the digester has to be emptied,
cleaned and plastered again. Rectifying a leakage before the initial filling is a lot
cheaper. In developing countries, digesters are usually masonry structures. The
plastering has to be watertight up to the lowest slurry level and gas-tight from the
lowest gas level upwards (gas-holder). The plaster has to resist moisture and
temperatures up to 60°C reliably. The plaster must be resistant to organic acid,
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. The undercoat must be absolutely clean and dry.
After the plastering has been done the inside of dome which generally comes
in contact of gas during storage is painted with the oil paint color. These paints are
free from fire- or health hazards. Only those dispersion paints should be used which
are explicitly recommended for underwater use and which form a gas-tight film.
4.7 Outlet Chamber Construction
The Outlet Chamber excavation and manhole is completed concurrently with
the digester vessel and the manhole shares a common foundation with the digester
vessel. The manhole of the Outlet Chamber is near the digester wall. The depth of
excavation is less than the digester vessel measured from the top of digester floor by
taking the dimension minus the thickness of the digester floor. The earth behind the
manhole and under the outlet floor must be well compacted to prevent cracks in
Outlet Chamber walls.

39
 The outlet floor and the top of the walls must be level. The walls will be
vertical and finished with a smooth layer of cement plaster mix: 1 part cement, 3 parts
sand. Outside of the walls must be supported with sufficient compacted earth up to the
overflow level to avoid cracks. The Outlet Chamber walls should slightly higher
elevation than the surrounding ground to reduce chances of surface water entering the
outlet during the rainy season.

4.6 Construction of outlet tank 4.7 Completed Outlet Tank

The level of outlet chamber must be below the level of inlet chamber so that
the flow of slurry can take place from inlet to outlet and slurry does not flow
backward in inlet tank after fermentation.

4.8. Construction of Inlet Tank

The Inlet Tank is constructed to mix feedstock and water. This can be
constructed with or without a mixing device. Installation of a mixing device is
preferable because not only it makes plant operation easier but it also improves the
quality of mix.
When a mixer is installed, it has to be firmly attached to the structure, easy to
operate, effective in the mixing process and the steel parts in contact with the feeds
tock should be galvanized.

40
 4.8. Construction of Inlet Tank 4.9. Completed Inlet Tank
The top of the structure should not be more than one meter above ground level
and both inside and outside of the tank must be covered with a smooth layer of plaster
(Mix: 1:3 cement, sand). The finished bottom of the Inlet Tank must be at least 5 cm
above the Outlet Chamber overflow level. The position of the inlet pipe must be such
that a pole or rod can be inserted through it to the digester vessel without obstructions.
This will allow the operator to clear blockages in the inlet pipe. For the same reason
the inlet pipe must be without bends. Even if a mixing device is not installed, the inlet
pit should be round in shape as this is a more economical use of material and easier
for hand mixing. The pipe diameter should not be too large otherwise it may cause
backflow in inlet chamber regardless of level difference in inlet and outlet.

41
 Chapter 5
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF BIOGAS PLANT
The biogas plant will be a quality system if the engineer, mason and plumber
follow the construction manual instructions. A well-planned, constructed and
maintained plant will benefit the owner for their investment, ultimately provide
positive return and meet their expectations. This may persuade his relatives and
neighbors to invest in a biogas plant while a poorly constructed plant will do harm to
the reputation of biogas technology. As described in the introduction, this model of
biogas plant is designed to be low maintenance system. The biogas plant will last
from 20 to 50 years if properly maintained.
The following items are important for the engineer designing and providing
services for biogas plant owners. Operators in Afghanistan may not have the
education or literacy to comprehend or understand the following O&M guidance for
a fixed-dome biogas digester and therefore require training directly by the engineer
installing the biogas plant for optimal performance.
5.1. Inputs and their characteristics.
Any biodegradable organic material can be used as inputs for processing inside
the biodigester. However, for economic and technical reasons, some materials are
more preferred as inputs than others. If the inputs are costly or have to be purchased,
then the economic benefits of outputs such as gas and slurry will become low. Also, if
easily available biodegradable wastes are used as inputs, then the benefits could be of
two folds:
(a) Economic value of biogas and its slurry; and
(b) Environmental cost avoided in dealing with the biodegradable waste in some
other ways such as disposal in landfill.
One of the main attractions of biogas technology is its ability to generate
biogas out of organic wastes that are abundant and freely available. In many countries
it is the cattle dung that is most commonly used as an input mainly because of its
availability. Since different organic materials have different bio-chemical
characteristics, their potential for gas production also varies. Two or more of such
materials can be used together provided some basic requirements for gas production
or for normal growth of methanogenesis are met. Some characteristics of these inputs
that have significant impact on the level of gas production are described below.

42
5.2. Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio.
The relationship between the amount of carbon and nitrogen present in
organic materials is expressed in terms of the Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio. A C/N
ratio ranging from 20 to 30 is considered optimum for anaerobic digestion. If the C/N
ratio is very high, the nitrogen will be consumed rapidly by methanogens for meeting
their protein requirements and will no longer react on the left over carbon content of
the material. As a result, gas production will be low.
On the other hand, if the C/N ratio is very low, nitrogen will be liberated and
accumulated in the form of ammonia (NH4). NH4 will increase the pH value of the
content in the digester. A pH higher than 8.5 will start showing toxic effect on
methanogen population. Animal waste, particularly cattle dung, has an average C/N
ratio of about 24.
The plant materials such as straw and sawdust contain a higher percentage.
The human excreta has a C/N ratio 8. C/N ratio of Some organic materials is as low as
8. C/N ratios of some of the commonly used materials are presented.

Raw materials C/N Ratio

Duck dung 8
Human excreta 8
Chicken dung 10
Goat dung 12
Sheep dung 19
Cow dung 24
Water hyacinth 25
Elephant dung 43
Straw(maize) 60
Straw(rice) 70
Straw(wheat) 90
Saw dust Above 200

5.1 C/N ratio of various materials

43
 Materials with high C/N ratio could be mixed with those of low C/N ratio to
bring the average ratio of the composite input to a desirable level. In China, as a
means to balance C/N ratio, it is customary to load rice straw at the bottom of the
digester upon which latrine waste is discharged.
5.3. Dilution and consistency of inputs.
Before feeding the digester, the feedstock, especially fresh cattle dung, has to
be mixed with water at the ratio of 1:1 on a unit volume basis (i.e. same volume of
water for a given volume of dung). However, if the dung is in dry form, the quantity
of water has to be increased accordingly to arrive at the desired consistency of the
inputs (e.g. ratio could vary from 1:1.25 to even 1:2). The dilution should be made to
maintain the total solids from 7 to 10 percent. If the dung is too diluted, the solid
particles will settle down into the digester and if it is too thick, the particles impede
the flow of gas formed at the lower part of digester. In both cases, gas production will
be less than optimum.
For thorough mixing of the cow dung and water (slurry) a steel mixer can be
fitted in the inlet tank of a digester. It is also necessary to remove inert materials such
as stones from the inlet before feeding the slurry into the digester. Otherwise, the
effective volume of the digester will decrease.
5.4. Slurry management.
Slurry is the residue of inputs that comes out from the outlet after the substrate
is acted upon by the methonogenic bacteria in an anaerobic condition inside the
digester. After extraction of biogas (energy), the slurry (also known as effluent)
comes out of digester as by-product of the anaerobic digestion system. It is almost
pathogen-free stabilized manure that can be used to maintain soil fertility and enhance
crop production. Slurry is found in different forms inside the digester as mentioned
below:
1. A light rather solid fraction, mainly fibrous material, which float on the top
forming the scum
2. A very liquid and watery fraction remaining in the middle layer of the digester
3. A viscous fraction below which is the real slurry or sludge
4. Heavy solids, mainly sand and soils that deposit at the bottom.

44
 There is less separation in the slurry if the feed materials are homogenous.
Appropriate ratio of urine, water and excrement and intensive mixing before feeding
the digester leads to homogeneous slurry.

5.5. pH value.
The optimum biogas production is achieved when the pH value of input
mixture in the digester is between 6 and 7. The pH in a biogas digester is also a
function of the retention time. In the initial period of fermentation, as large amounts
of organic acids are produced by acid forming bacteria, the pH inside the digester can
decrease to below 5. This inhibits or even stops the digestion or fermentation process.
Methanogenic bacteria are very sensitive to pH and do not thrive below a value of 6.5.
Later, as the digestion process continues, concentration of NH4 increases due to
digestion of nitrogen, which can increase the pH value to above 8. When the methane
production level is stabilized, the pH range remains buffered between 7.2 to 8.2.
5.6. Temperature.
The methanogens are inactive in extreme high and low temperatures. The
optimum temperature is 35 0C. When the ambient temperature goes down to 10 0C,
gas production virtually stops. Satisfactory gas production takes place in the
mesophilic range, between 25 0C to 30 0C. Proper insulation of digester helps to
increase gas production in the cold season. When the ambient temperature is 30 0C or
less, the average temperature within the dome remains about 4 0C above the ambient
temperature.
5.7. Loading rate.
Loading rate is the amount of raw materials fed per unit volume of digester
capacity per day. In general conditions, about 6 kg of dung per m3 volume of digester
is recommended in case of a cow dung plant. If the plant is overfed, acids will
accumulate and methane production will be inhibited. Similarly, if the plant is
underfed, the gas production will also be low.
5.8. Retention time.
Retention time (also known as detention time) is the average period that a
given quantity of input remains in the digester to be acted upon by the methanogens.
In a cow dung plant, the retention time is calculated by dividing the total volume of
the digester by the volume of inputs added daily. Considering the tropical climatic

45
conditions, a retention higher the temperature, the lower the retention time. time of 50
to 60 days seems desirable. Thus, a digester should have a volume of 50 to 60 times
the slurry added daily. However, for a night soil biogas digester, a longer retention
time (70-80 days) is needed so that the pathogens present in human feces are
destroyed. The retention time is also dependent on the temperature and up to 35
degrees C, the higher the temperature, the lower the retention time

5.1 Retention Time Vs Biogas Yield Graph

5.9. Determination of volatile fatty acids (VFA)
The monitoring of VFA facilitates evaluation and optimisation of the AD
process. The measurements concern the spectrum and the concentration of short-chain
fatty acids. Continuous measurement is difficult to carry on site, due to difficulty of
analysis methods. A correct evaluation of the actual process biology is difficult even
in laboratory, due to the time passing between taking the sample and performing the
analysis in the laboratory. Many manufacturers of biogas plants and consulting
companies offer VFA analysis within their contracting commitments. As an
alternative or in addition to VFA monitoring, the concentration of chemical oxygen
demand (COD) can be monitored continuously.
5.10. Toxicity
Mineral ions, heavy metals and the detergents are some of the toxic materials
that inhibit the normal growth of pathogens in the digester. Small quantity of mineral
ions (e.g. sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium and sulphur) also
stimulates the growth of bacteria, while very heavy concentration of these ions will
have toxic effect. For example, presence of NH4 from 50 to 200 mg/l stimulates the
growth of microbes, whereas its concentration above 1,500 mg/l produces toxicity.

46
 Chapter 6
ANALYSIS OF GAS PRODUCED
6.1. Syringe method for gas analysis
Syringe method was used for the measurement of amount of methane and
carbon dioxide in our gas produced. A syringe fitted with flexible tube and dilute
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution was used for carbon dioxide percentage
estimation, since NaOH absorbs CO2 but does not absorbs methane.
Procedure
1. Prepare 100 ml of dilute sodium hydroxide solution by dissolving
granules of NaOH in about 100 ml of water.
2. Take 20-30 ml sample of biogas produced during experiment into the
syringe (initially fill syringe with H2O to reduce air contamination) and put
end of the tube into the NaOH solution, then push out excess gas to get a 10
ml gas sample.
3. Now take approximately 20 ml of solution and keep the end of the tube
submerged in the NaOH solution while shaking syringe for 30 seconds.

Sr no. Date CH4 % CO2 % H2 S %

1 5/4/13 3 97 Nil
2 9/4/13 7 93 Nil
3 13/4/13 12 88 Nil
4 17/4/13 15 85 Nil
5 21/4/13 18 82 Nil
6 25/4/13 22 78 Nil
7 29/4/13 28 72 Nil
8 3/5/13 32 68 Nil
9 7/5/13 42 58 Nil
10 11/5/13 55 45 Nil

6.1. Experimental values of gas using cow dung

47
5 1

Fig. 6.1. Experimental setup of syringe method

1. NaOH Solution 4. Gas Balloon

2. Syringe 5. Beaker

3. Pipe connecting gas outlet and Balloon

Fig. 6.2. While performing gas analysis

48
 4. Point it downwards and push the excess liquid out, so that syringe plunger
level reaches 10 ml. Now read the volume of liquid, which should be 3-4 ml
indicating about 30-40% of gas absorbed so we can say the balance of 65-60%
is methane.

5. If the flame does not burn properly and you get over 50% methane (a reading
of less than 5 ml of liquid) you must have nitrogen or some other gas present.

Sr. CH4
No
Date mk mW mk/mW Concentration %
Average

1 16/5/13 6 12 58
2 17/5/13 6 12 60
0.5 57.7
3 18/5/13 10 20 55
4 19/5/13 20 40 58
5 20/5/13 20 20 62
6 21/5/13 30 30 60
1.0 61
7 22/5/13 30 30 62
8 23/5/13 30 30 60
9 24/5/13 20 14 58
10 25/5/13 30 20 55
1.5 57.8
11 26/5/13 30 20 58.5
12 27/5/13 35 23 60
13 28/5/13 30 15 54
14 29/5/13 35 18 55
2.0 55
15 30/5/13 35 18 56
16 31/5/13 40 20 55

6.2. Experimental values of gas using kitchen waste

49
 CH4 Concentration Vs mK /mW
62

61 61

60

59
CH4 Concentration %

58
57.7 57.8
57

56

55 55

54

53

52
0.5 1 1.5 2
mk/mw

6.3 CH4 Concentration vs mk / mw

50
 Time of
Burning
Sr. No Date mk mw mK/mW (Morning,
Average
TBM) ,min
1 16/5/13 6 12 48
2 17/5/13 6 12 60
0.5 55.75
3 18/5/13 10 20 55
4 19/5/13 20 40 60
5 20/5/13 20 20 60
6 21/5/13 30 30 75
1.0 67.5
7 22/5/13 30 30 60
8 23/5/13 30 30 75
9 24/5/13 20 14 35
10 25/5/13 30 20 55
1.5 51.25
11 26/5/13 30 20 40
12 27/5/13 35 23 75
13 28/5/13 30 15 50
14 29/5/13 35 18 30
2.0 45
15 30/5/13 35 18 40
16 31/5/13 40 20 60

6.3. Experimental values of time of burning of gas (Morning)

51
 mK /mW Vs Time of Burning (Morning, TBM)
80

70
67.5
Time of Burning (Morning, TBM) , min

60
55.75
50 51.25
45
40

30

20

10

0
0.5 1 1.5 2
mk/mw

6.4. Time of Burning (Morning, TBM) vs mk / mw

52
 Time of
Sr. No Date mk mw mK/mW Burning Average
(Evening, TBE)

1 16/5/13 6 12 40
2 17/5/13 6 12 60
0.5 58.75
3 18/5/13 10 20 70
4 19/5/13 20 40 65
5 20/5/13 20 20 50
6 21/5/13 30 30 70
1.0 71
7 22/5/13 30 30 75
8 23/5/13 30 30 90
9 24/5/13 20 14 30
10 25/5/13 30 20 60
1.5 50
11 26/5/13 30 20 40
12 27/5/13 35 23 70
13 28/5/13 30 15 55
14 29/5/13 35 18 60
2.0 61
15 30/5/13 35 18 65
16 31/5/13 40 20 65

6.4. Experimental values of time of burning of gas (Evening)

53
 mK /mW Vs Time of Burning (Evening, TBE)
80

70 71
Time of Burning (Evening, TBE)

60 61
58.75

50 50

40

30

20

10

0
0.5 1 1.5 2
mk/mw

6.5. Time of Burning (Evening, TBE) Vs mk / mw

54
6.2. Analytical methods and calculations of slurry
6.2.1. Total Solids (TS %)
It is the amount of solid present in the sample after the water present in it is
vaporised. The sample, approximately 10 gm is taken and poured in foil plate and
dried to a constant weight at about 105 o C in furnace.

Final Weight
TS % = × 100
Initial Weight

6.2.2. Volatile Solids (VS %)

Dried residue from Total Solid analysis weighed and heated in crucible for 2hrs at 500
0
C in furnace. After cooling crucible residue is weighed.

VS % = [ 100 – (( VV −V
3
2
−V )
1
)
1
] ×100
Where, V1=Weight of crucible.
V2=Weight of dry residue & crucible.
V3=Weight of ash & crucible (after
cooling)

6.2.3. Volatile fatty acid (VFA)

Volatile fatty acids (VFA's) are fatty acids with carbon chain of six carbons or
fewer. They can be created through fermentation in the intestine. Examples include:
acetate, propionate , butyrate. There are many titration method for VFA measurement.
We had used two method for VFA measurement.
Method 1
1. Take 100 ml sample in beaker
2. Filter the sample.
3. Check pH of filtrate.
4. Take 20 ml of filtrate and add 0.1M HCl until pH reaches 4.
5. Heat in the hot plate for 3 min.
6. After cooling titrate with 0.01M NaOH to take pH from 4 to 7.
7. Amount of HCl & NaOH recorded

Total VFA content in mg/l acetic acid = (Volume of NaOH titrated) × 87.5

55
Method 2
Titration procedure for measurements of VFA and alkalinity according to KAPP :
1. Before analysis, the sample needs to be filtered through a 0.45µm membrane
filter.
2. Filtered sample (20-50ml) is put into a titration vessel, the size of which is
determined by the basic requirement to guarantee that the tip of the pH
electrode is always below the liquid surface.
3. Initial pH is recorded.
4. The sample is titrated slowly with 0.1N sulphuric acid until pH 5.0 is reached.
The added
5. volume A1 [ml] of the titrant is recorded.
6. More acid is slowly added until pH 4.3 is reached. The volume A 2
[ml] of the added titrant is again recorded.
7. The latter step is repeated until pH 4. 0 is reached, and the volume A 3
[ml] of added.
8. A constant mixing of sample and added titrant is required right from
the start
9. minimize exchange with the atmosphere during titration.

Calculation scheme of VFA

A × N × 1000
Alk =
SV
Alk = Alkalinity [mmol/l], also referred to as TIC (Total Inorganic Carbon).
A = Consumption of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4, 0.1N) to titrate from initial pH to
pH 4.3 [ml]. A= A1 + A2 [ml].
N = Normality [mmol/l ].
SV = Initial sample volume [ml].
131340 × N × B
VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × Alk ) − 10.9
20

VFA = Volatile fatty acids [mg/l acetic acid equivalents].

N = Normality [mmol/l]
B = Consumption of sulphuric acid (H2SO4 , 0.1N) to titrate sample from pH
5.0 to pH 4.0 [ml], due to HCO3/CO2 buffer.

56
 B = A2 + A3 [ml]
SV = Initial sample volume [ml]
Alk = Alkalinity [mmol/l]

Calculations of VFA
A × N × 1000 5 × 0.1 × 1000
1. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 10 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 3
VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 10 ) − 10.9
20
= 1970.1-30.8-10.9
= 1928.4 mg/l
A × N × 1000 5.9 × 0.1 × 1000
2. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 11.8 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 4
VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 11.8 ) − 10.9
20
= 2626.8-36.344-10.9
= 2579.566 mg/l
A × N × 1000 7.2 × 0.1 × 1000
3. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 14.4 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 5.2

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 14.4 ) − 10.9
20
= 3414.84-44.352-10.9
= 3359.588 mg/l
A × N × 1000 8.1 × 0.1 × 1000
4. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 16.2 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 5.9

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 16.2 ) − 10.9
20
= 3874.53-49.896-10.9
= 3813.734 mg/l
A × N × 1000 8.9 × 0.1 × 1000
5. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 17.8 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 6.7

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 17.8 ) − 10.9
20
= 4399.89-54.824-10.9
= 4334.166 mg/l
A × N × 1000 10.2 × 0.1 × 1000
6. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 20.4 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 7.5

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 20.4 ) − 10.9
20

57
 = 4925.25-62.832-10.9
= 4851.518 mg/l
A × N × 1000 11.8 × 0.1 × 1000
7. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 23.6 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 8.2

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 23.6 ) − 10.9
20
= 5384.94-72.688-10.9
= 5301.352 mg/l
A × N × 1000 14.1 × 0.1 × 1000
8. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 28.2 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 9.1

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 28.2 ) − 10.9
20
= 5975.97-86.856-10.9
= 5878.214 mg/l
A × N × 1000 16.4 × 0.1 × 1000
9. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 32.8 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 9.8

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 32.8 ) − 10.9
20
= 6435.66-101.024-10.9
= 6323.736 mg/l
A × N × 1000 18.9 × 0.1 × 1000
10. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 37.8 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 11.1

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 37.8 ) − 10.9
20
= 7289.37-116.424-10.9
= 7162.046 mg/l

58
 Volatile fatty
Sr Total solids Volatile Solids
Date pH acids (VFA)
no. (TS%) (VS%)
mg/l
1 5/4/13 5.2 8.33 82.33 1948.728
2 9/4/13 5.33 7.9 84.15 2579.566
3 13/4/13 5.5 7.6 81.88 3359.588
4 17/4/13 5.7 7.2 83.91 3813.734
5 21/4/13 5.8 6.9 80.37 4334.166
6 25/4/13 5.85 6.2 78.55 4851.518
7 29/4/13 5.93 5.6 79.43 5301.352
8 3/5/13 6 5.25 74.34 5878.214
9 7/5/13 6.3 5.08 76.45 6323.736
10 11/5/13 6.5 5.2 77.12 7162.046

6.5. Slurry analysis

Calculations of VFA after adding kitchen waste
A × N × 1000 22 × 0.1 × 1000
1. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 44 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 12
VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 44 ) − 10.9
20
= 7880.4-135.52-10.9
= 7733.98 mg/l
A × N × 1000 22.4 × 0.1 × 1000
2. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 44.8 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 12.3

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 44.8 ) − 10.9
20
= 8077.41-137.984-10.9
= 7928.526 mg/l
A × N × 1000 22.7 × 0.1 × 1000
3. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 45.4 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 12.4

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 45.4 ) − 10.9
20
= 8143.08-139.832-10.9
= 7992.348 mg/l

59
 A × N × 1000 23 × 0.1 × 1000
4. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 46 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 12.6

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 46 ) − 10.9
20
= 8274.42-141.68-10.9
= 8121.84 mg/l
A × N × 1000 23.2 × 0.1 × 1000
5. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 46.4 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 12.8

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 46.4 ) − 10.9
20
= 8405.76-142.912-10.9
= 8251.948 mg/l
A × N × 1000 23.4 × 0.1 × 1000
6. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 46.8 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 13
VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 46.8 ) − 10.9
20
= 8537.1-144.144-10.9
= 8382.056 mg/l
A × N × 1000 23.4 × 0.1 × 1000
7. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 46.8 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 13.1

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 46.8 ) − 10.9
20
= 8602.77-144.144-10.9
= 8447.726 mg/l
A × N × 1000 23.6 × 0.1 × 1000
8. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 47.2 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 13.2

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 47.2 ) − 10.9
20
= 8668.44-145.376-10.9
= 8512.164 mg/l
A × N × 1000 23.6 × 0.1 × 1000
9. Alk =
SV
= 50
= 47.2 mmol/lit

131340 × 0.1 × 13.4

VFA = ( ) − ( 3.08 × 47.2 ) − 10.9
20
= 8799.78-145.376-10.9
= 8643.504 mg/l

60
 Volatile fatty acids
Sr no. Date
(VFA) mg/l
1 22/05/13 7733.980
2 23/05/13 7928.526
3 24/05/13 7992.348
4 25/05/13 8121.840
5 26/05/13 8251.948
6 27/05/13 8382.056
7 28/05/13 8447.726
8 29/05/13 8512.164
9 30/05/13 8643.504

6.6. Slurry analysis after adding kitchen waste

6.6. While performing Slurry Analysis

61
 6.7 Utilisation of gas in cooking

6.3 Payback period calculations

Cost of bricks=Rs. 6000/-

Cost of cement=Rs. 3500/-

Cost of sand=Rs. 1500/-

Cost of cow dung=Rs. 10000/-

Cost of labour=Rs. 300/day/person

Hence total cost of labour of 2 persons=Rs. 600×10days=Rs. 6000/-

Cost of mason=Rs. 1000/m3

Cost of mason for 7m3=Rs. 7000/-

Cost of mason for 7 days=Rs. 4000/-

Total cost of mason=Rs. 11000/-

Cost of hardware and stove=Rs. 4000/-

Cost of JCB for excavation and levelling work=Rs. 3000/-

Cost of tiles and other accessories=Rs. 3000/-

62
Therefore, total cost of project=Rs. 48000/-

Cost of 1 LPG cylinder=Rs. 900/-

Daily gas generation=2.7m3

And 1m3 of biogas=450 g of LPG

Hence,2.7m3 of biogas is equivalent to 1215 g of LPG i.e 1.215 kg of LPG.

1 cylinder of LPG weighs 14.4 kg.

Therefore, number of days required to fill 1 cylinder of LPG=14.4/1.215

= 11.85 days.

So,16 days are required to fill one cylinder of LPG equivalent.

Total cost recovery or payback in days=48000×11.85/1215=468.148 days.

=468.148/365=1.282 yrs

≈ 1.3 yrs.

63
 Chapter 7
FUTURE WORK
7.1 Power generation using methane gas
Theoretically, biogas can be converted directly into electricity using a fuel
cell. However, very clean gas and an expensive fuel cell are necessary for this
process. This is therefore still a matter for research and is currently not a practical
option.

In most cases, biogas is used as fuel for combustion engines, which convert it
to mechanical energy, powering an electric generator to produce electricity.
Appropriate electric generators are available in virtually all countries and in all sizes.
The technology is well known and maintenance is simple. In most cases, even
universally available 3-phase electric motors can be converted into generators.

7.1 Schematic of a biogas plant used for power generation

Technologically far more challenging is the first stage of the generator set: the
combustion engine using the biogas as fuel. In theory, biogas can be used as fuel in
nearly all types of combustion engines, such as gas engines (Otto motor), diesel
engines, gas turbines and Stirling motors etc.

64
 Gas turbines are occasionally used as biogas engines, especially in the US.
They are very small and can meet strict exhaust emissions requirements. Small biogas
turbines with power outputs of 30-75 kW are available on the market, but are rarely
used for small-scale applications in developing countries as they are expensive.
Furthermore, due to their spinning at very high speeds and the high operating
temperatures, the design and manufacturing of gas turbines is challenging and
maintenance requires specific skills.

External combustion engines such as Stirling motors have the advantage of

being tolerant of fuel composition and quality. They are, however, relatively
expensive and characterised by low efficiency. Their use is therefore limited to a
number of very specific applications.

In most commercially run biogas power plants today, internal combustion

motors have become the standard technology either as gas or diesel motors.

7.1.1 Appropriate combustion engines

In general, diesel engines operate on biogas only in dual fuel mode. To

facilitate the ignition of the biogas, a small amount of ignition gas - often diesel fuel -
is injected together with the biogas. Modern pilot injection gas engines need about 2%
additional ignition oil. Almost every diesel engine can be converted into a pilot
injection gas engine. The advantage of these motors running in dual fuel mode is that
they can also use gas of low heating value. However, in such cases, they consume a
considerable amount of diesel. Up to engine sizes of around 200kW, pilot injection
engines seem to have an advantage over gas motors due to their slightly higher
efficiency (3-4% higher) and lower investment costs.

By contrast, gas motors with spark ignition (Otto system) can operate solely
on biogas. In practice, a small amount of petrol (gasoline) is often used to start the
engine. This technology is used for very small generator sets (~ 0.5-10 kW) as well as
for large power plants. Especially in Germany, these engines are advantageous as they
do not require additional fossil fuels, leading to lower feed-in tariffs according to the
Renewable Energy Law.

65
 Today, experience of the use of combustion motors to produce electricity from
biogas is extensive; this can be regarded as a proven standard technology. Over 4,000
biogas plants with internal combustion motors are in operation in Germany.

However, it has taken lengthy and determined effort to make this technology
as durable and reliable as it is today. Internal combustion motors have high
requirements in terms of fuel quality. Harmful components - especially hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) in the gas can shorten the lifetime of a motor considerably and cause
serious damage. This must be addressed in two ways:

• Production of clean biogas; and

• Use of appropriate and robust motors and components.

In theory, most engines originally intended for cars, trucks, ships or stationary
use can run on biogas as fuel and are available almost everywhere within a power
range between 10 and 500 kW. This holds true especially in the case of dual fuel use.
Robust engines with a certain sulphur resistance are mostly free of non-ferrous metal
(German: “Buntmetalle”), as these materials are highly prone to damage through
sulphur-rich biogas.

7.1.2 Appropriate gas quality

For use in gas or diesel engines, the gas must fulfil certain requirements.

• The methane content should be as high as possible as this is the main combustible
part of the gas.

• The water vapour and CO2 content should be as low as possible, mainly because
they lead to a low calorific value of the gas;

• The sulphur content in particular, mainly in form of H2S, must be low, as it is

converted to corrosion-causing acids by condensation and combustion.

The water vapour content can be reduced by condensation in the gas storage or
on the way to the engine. The reduction of the hydrogen sulphide (H2S) content in the
biogas can be addressed via a range of technical methods. These can be classified as
chemical, biological, or physical and divided into internal and external methods.
Much experimentation has been carried out in the last two decades. However, as

66
complete elimination is unnecessary for use in robust engines, the following simple
methods have generally established themselves as standard.

• An optimised steady fermentation process with continuous availability of

appropriate feedstock is important to produce a gas of homogenous quality.

• The injection of a small amount of oxygen (air) into the headspace of the storage
fermenter leads to oxidation of H2S by microorganisms and hence the elimination of a
considerable part of the sulphur from the gaseous phase. This is the most frequently
used method for desulphurisation. It is cheap and can eliminate up to 95% of the
sulphur content in the biogas. However, the right proportioning of air still seems to be
a challenge.

• Another option is external chemical treatment in a filter. The active material may be

1. Iron-hydroxide

Fe (OH)2 + H2S -> FeS + 2 H2O.

This process is reversible and the filter can be regenerated by adding oxygen.
Adsorption material may be iron-rich soils, waste material from steel or aluminium
production;

2.Activated carbon

Certain companies provide activated carbon filters as a standard component in

their gensets. Standard quality sulphur filters and filter material can be purchased on
the market.

7.2. Plantations using slurry produced

Various plantations can be done using the slurry produced in the digester of a
biogas dome. Due to the addition of slurry, the yield of the crop or plantation
increases. Following are some of the crops whose % increase in yield has been
observed due to the addition of slurry. Tomato and brinjal are the crops which
generally show greater yield as compared to other crops.

67
 Chapter 8
CONCLUSION
Thus, due to this Project, an Organic Processing Facility to create biogas has
been created which will be more cost effective, eco-friendly, cut down on
landfill waste, generate a high-quality renewable fuel, and reduce carbon dioxide &
methane emissions. Due to the use of kitchen waste generated from our hostel mess,
biogas has been utilised for cooking and other purposes in the mess.

The kitchen waste which had been initially not utilised or was discarded as
waste product from our hostels is now been reused for productive purposes. Since
kitchen waste contains higher amount of methane as compared to other organic matter
or manure, this gas can be used as a fuel which is supplied through pipelines directly
in to the kitchen of the hostel mess. Overall by creating a biogas digester on campus
in the backyard of our hostels is beneficial.

Further future enhancements and upgradation to the biogas reactors are also
possible which includes membrane separation for removal of H2S and plantations
using the slurry. Power generation is possible with the gas generated from the
utilization of kitchen waste but cost will increase substantially.

68
 REFERENCES
1. Meres, M.Scepaniec-Cieciak, E.Sadowska, A.Piejko, K.Oczyszczania, M.P.
zafnicki, K. (2004). Operational and meteorological influence on the
utilized biogas composition at the landfill site in Cracow, Poland. Waste
Management Resource. 22: 195-201.
2. Design of biogas plant for rural households by George Otim, David Okaka.
3. Ranjeet Singh, S. K. Mandal, V. K. Jain (2008), Development of mixed
inoculum for methane enriched biogas production.
4. Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and Environment Organization
(TaTEDO), BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY- Construction, Utilization and
Operation Manual.
5. The University of Southampton and Greenfinch Ltd. - Biodigestion of kitchen
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6. S.P Kale and S.T Mehele, kitchen waste based biogas plant, Nuclear
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9. Monitoring buffer capacity in anaerobic digestion processes. Water
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