Foundation design and construction for Pre-Engineered Buildings are

important to the assembly process. To ensure optimum integrity of new

building, the foundation must meet certain design criteria and load
conditions. It is required that all building foundations be designed by an
experienced foundation engineer, and coordinated with all local city,
county and state codes. Improper foundation construction will limit the
building‟s performance. The foundation should be sharply formed with
true corners, straight sides, and a level top. This will allow for proper
seating and alignment of all building components. Strict adherence to
OSHA and other local codes or laws governing “shoring of excavation to
prevent accidental cave-ins” is critical.

Manufacture of Building Systems will furnish anchor bolt drawings to

outline basic guidelines and considerations for foundation design. The
accuracy of foundation construction and anchor bolt settings is the most
important factor in achieving trouble-free component alignment and fit-
up. Foundation errors and mis-location of anchor bolts are among the
most frequent and troublesome errors made in metal building
construction.

Foundation must possess the following important characteristics.

o It is recommended that the foundation be designed by an experienced
foundation engineer, and coordinated with all local city, county and state
codes.
o The foundation must be square, level and smooth.
o Anchor bolts must be set within +/- 1/16” of the specified anchor bolt
drawing dimensions.
Foundation Layout Setting Anchor Bolts
Regardless of the type of foundation that is used and its specific
configuration, the foundation outline should be carefully and accurately
laid out before any excavation is made. Whenever possible, a transit or
similar means should be used to layout the foundation perimeter. This will
ensure accurate placement of corner measures and in turn, ensure a
square foundation.
 Fig.1: Foundation Layout
Check the foundation is square and level. Measure diagonally to the
farthest points of the foundation frame / string-line. Adjust the frame /
string-line as necessary until the two diagonal dimensions are equal. If
the diagonal lengths are equal, the framing is square. Ensure the
foundation is level.

Setting Anchor Bolts:-

To reduce the risk of anchor bolts pulling loose, do not erect any building
components on “green” concrete. Concrete that has not cured properly
may be damaged by erection equipment or building component affects.
Normal Portland cement concrete should cure at least seven days, and
high-early-strength concrete at least three days before the structural
columns are erected. Due to tight tolerances in which your building was
manufactured, it is extremely important that all anchor bolts are
accurately placed (+/- 1/16”) in accordance with the provided anchor bolt
plan.
 Fig.2: Setting Of Anchor Bolt
All anchor bolts should be held in place with a template or similar means
in order to maintain a plumb setting during the pouring of the concrete.
Refer to the anchor bolt plan dimensions then make the necessary
quantity of templates out of plywood or equivalent. All templates should
be prepared in advance so they can be quickly nailed in place. Drill air
relief holes in the template to allow trapped air to escape. When floating
concrete, vibrate until wet concrete seeps though the top of air relief
holes. A final inspection of all foundation requirements should be
conducted prior to pouring concrete.
Types of Steel Beam Connections and
their Details

here are various types of steel beam connections used in structures. Steel
beam connections are categorized into two groups namely framed and
seated connections.

In the framed steel beam connections, the beam is connected to the

supporting steel element through fittings whereas in case of seated
connections, the beam is positioned on seat similar to the case where
beam is placed on masonry walls.

In this article, different types of steel beam connections are discussed.

Fig.1: Different Types of Steel Beam to Beam Connections

 Fig.2: Steel Beam to Beam Connections
Types of Steel Beam Connections
Various types of beam connections are provided below:

o Bolted framed connections

o Bolted seated connections

o Welded framed connections

o Welded seat connections

o End plate connections

o Special connections

o Simple, rigid and semi-rigid connections

Bolted Framed Steel Beam Connections

In this type of connection, steel beams are linked to supporting elements
whether it is steel girders or columns with web connection angle as seen
in Figure-3.
 Fig.3: Bolted Framed Steel Beam Connection
Commonly, the connection is designed based on the loads at the end of
the beam. It is required to take strength, type and size of fasteners and
strength of base materials into consideration while the connection is
designed.

The minimum length of connection angle should be at least half of the

beam clear web depth. This measure is specified to ensure sufficient
stiffness and stability.

There are various standard sizes of bolted framed connections along with
their capacity provided by codes. The purpose of such standardized
connection is to increase the speed of the design.

It is recommended to use minimum connection sufficient to withstand the

applied load to make the design as economical as possible.

Bolted Seated Steel Beam Connection

There are two major types of bolted seated connections including
unstiffened bolted seat connections and stiffened bolted seat connection
as illustrated in Figure-4 and Figure-5.
 Fig.4: Unstiffened Bolted Seat Connection

Fig.5: Stiffened Bolted Seat Connection

If the reactions at the end of the beam is large, then it is recommended
to consider stiffened seat connections because it has adequate capacity to
resist large forces whereas the capacity of unstiffened seat connection is
restricted due to limited bending capacity of seat angle leg that stick out
horizontally.

The most outstanding advantage of seat connection is that the beam can
be fabricated economically and seat would provide immediate support
during erection.

The function of the top angle used in seat connection is to prevent the
beam to suffer from accidental rotations.

It is worth mentioning that this type of connection does not need

considerable shop detailing. Bolted connections are desired from
environmental point of view because the structure can be dismantled and
elements can be used in other projects. Added to that, bolted connections
can be erected with great ease.
Welded Framed Steel Beam Connection
Like other two types of beam connections, various sizes of welded framed
connections with their capacities are available and provided by codes.

The weld of the connection is subjected to direct shear stress and stress
caused by loads on the beam that affect weld pattern. So, these stresses
are required to be considered.

Clearly, part of the welding is carried out in the field which is challenging
since it is difficult to achieve high quality weld due to movements of steel
members caused by winds or other factors.

Welded Seat Steel Beam Connections

It is similar to bolt seat connection but welding is used for fastening
rather than bolts. The loads on the beam affect the weld pattern
eccentrically and generate stress. So, like welded framed connections,
such stresses need to be considered.

Types of welded seat connections include unstiffened seat and stiffened

seat. The former is used in the case of small applied loads whereas the
latter is suitable for case of large loads.

It is advised to use bolts to connect beam bottom flange to the seat.

These bolts can be removed or left at their position after the welding
process is ended. Welded connection is not desired from environmental
point of view and worker. This is because such connection is neither can
be dismantled nor erected easily.

End Plate Steel Beam Connection

This type of connection is made possible through the use of welding art.
The end plate is connected to the beam web through weld because its
capacity and size is governed by shear capacity of the beam web
adjoining the weld.

The load applied on the connection at the end of the member does not
have eccentricities. There are different types of end plate connections
including flexible, semi-rigid, and rigid end plate connections.
 It should be known that, fabrications and cuttings should be conducted
with utmost care to avoid errors. For example, cutting the beams to
length must be as accurate as possible.

Finally, end plate connections are not suitable for tall steel structures.

Special Steel Beam Connections

This type of connections is used for the case where the arrangements of
the structural element are in such a way that standard connections cannot
be used.

For example, intersection angels might be different by a certain degree

and when beam centers offset from column centers.

Examples of special connections include bent-plate framed, single web

plate, one sided framed, balanced web plate and Z type connection.

The ability of connections to transfer moments to the columns is based on

the degree of fixity of the connections. The higher the degree of fixity of
the beam connection, the greater the ability to transfer moments to the
columns.

If the connection is designed to transfer moments, then it should be able

to withstand shear forces from the beam and transfer moments to the
columns.

1. Steel Framing. 2016. Cited on 28 October 2017.

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 Types of Structural Steel Framing Systems for Buildings
Different types of structural steel framing systems are as follow:

o Skeleton steel framing

o Wall bearing steel framing
o Long span steel framing

Skeleton Steel Framing System

Skeleton steel frame is composed of steel beams and columns which are
connected using proper connection. Steel beams around perimeter of the
structure is termed as spandrel beams on which masonry walls are
placed.

Typical plane views of skeleton framing are shown in Figure-3 and

constructed skeleton steel frame are shown in Figure-4. Steel columns,
primary and secondary steel beams are shown in the figures.

Fig.3: Plan View of Skeleton Framing

 Fig.4: Skeleton Steel Framing
There are different types and configurations of steel connections which
are used to connect steel beams to columns in skeleton frame structure,
for example, bolt connection and welded connections.

Figure-5 illustrate various types of bolted connection including flexible end

plate, fin plate and double angle cleat.

Fig.5: Different Bolt Connection Arrangement used to Connect Beams to Columns

It should be known that all gravity loads in skeleton frame structure are
supported by beams and columns. The distance between columns can be
established according to the functions and requirements of the structure.

Therefore, there are no restrictions that limit the area of the floor and
roof of the building. Multi storey structures are possible to construct using
skeleton framing.
Wall Bearing Steel Framing System
In a wall bearing steel framing structure, building wall whether it is
interior or exterior is used to carry the end of structural members that
support floor or roof loads.

Wall bearing should be adequately strong to not only be able to carry

vertical reactions but also to resist any imposed horizontal loads.

Wall bearing framing is suitable for the construction of low rise structure.
This is because the size of the bearing wall must be increased significantly
to withstand considerably loads exerted in the case of multistory
buildings.

This problem might be solved to certain extent if the reinforced concrete

walls are applied.

There are several cases in which wall bearing frame system is suitable to
be used. For example, single story house in which steel beams are used
to carry wall and floor loads and the end of the steel beams are placed on
foundation walls, as shown in Figure-6.

A further application of wall bearing system application is the utilization of

steel beams known as lintels over wall openings like doors and windows.
 Fig.6: The end of steel beam, which support floor loads, is installed on walls,
intermediary support (cylindrical steel column) applied to support the beam because
the span is large

Fig.7: Using Steel Beam to Support Masonry Lintels

Fig.8: Using Steel Beam to Support Masonry Lintels

Long Span Steel Framing
Long span steel framing is considered when large clearance is required
and such long spanning cannot be realized using steel beams and
columns.
Long span steel framing options can be categorized into different types,
for instance, girders, trusses, rigid frames, arches and cantilever
suspension spans.

These classes of long span steel framing options along with their
applications and various configurations are provided in Table-1.

Table-1: Long span steel framing types, their applications and various configurations
Various types or configuration of
Long span framing
Application condition the given long span framing
system types
system class

It is selected for the case where depth of the

Roller beams, Riveted girder,
member is restricted over a large
welded girder, heavy girder,
Girders unobstructed area in lower storeys. The
hybrid girder, and a girder
girder should support loads from above
consist of two girder fastened
storeys across cleared area.

It can be used for the case where restriction

on the element depth is not imposed. it an
economical way of spanning long distances
Pratt, warren, fink, scissor, bow
Truss, Figure 10 provided that depth limitation is not
string and Virendeel
existed. Trusses are better compare with
other option in controlling deflections due
to better stiffness.

It is used to carry walls and roof with open Hinge less arches, two hinged arches
Arches, Figure 11
or solid web arches and three hinged arches

It is used to span long distances. it is

aesthetically pleasing that is why applied in
Single span rigid frame, welded
Rigid frames, Figure 12 the construction of churches, gymnasiums,
rigid frame.
auditoriums, bowling alleys and shopping
centers
Fig.10: Different types of trusses used in steel structure construction

Fig.11: Types of Arches Used for Steel Structure Construction

Fig.12: Single Span Rigid Frame

 Construction of Steel Frame Structure
Foundations, Columns, Beams and Floors

Construction of steel framed structures includes construction of its

foundations, columns, beams and floors systems. Construction phases of
structural steel frame are discussed.

Fig.1: Construction of Steel Frame Structure

Construction of Steel Frame Structural Elements
Steel frame structure construction procedures are as follow:

o Construction of steel frame structure foundation

o Steel column construction
o Erection of steel beams
o Floor systems used in the steel frame structure construction
 Fig.2: Steel Structure Frame
Construction of Steel Frame Structure Foundation
Steel framed structure construction begins with the construction of its
foundation. Generally, the types of foundation required for the given
structure is based on the soil bearing capacity.

Soil investigation including surface and subsurface exploration is used to

assess the condition of soil on which steel frame structure rests.

For example, when moderate or low loads are imposed, then it is advised
to use reinforced concrete bearing pads or strip foundation. These
foundation types transfer loads to soil capable of supporting transferred
loads.
 Fig.3: Reinforced Concrete Bearing Pad Foundation for Steel Frame Structure
If the strength of soil is poor and the imposed load is large, then it is
recommended to consider pile foundation. The pile foundation would
transfer the load of the structure to the stiff soil.

Fig.4: Pile foundation to transfer loads of steel frame structure though low soil bearing
capacity of stiff soil with adequate bearing capacity
 Fig.5: Steel Bearing Pile Driven into Ground
Steel Column Construction
The next step of steel frame construction is the placement of steel
columns. The section of the steel is specified based on the load imposed.

There are various sizes of steel column section to choose and these steel
columns are commonly produced in advance.

The most significant point in column installation is the connection between

foundation and column and splices between columns.

Regarding foundation to column joints, base plates are welded to the end
of columns. The most desired shape of base plate is square and
rectangular shape. Typical details of column to foundation connection is
shown in Figure-6.

It should be known that, the most desired shape of base plate is

rectangular and square shape because such plates provide largest spacing
between the bolts which is desirable.

Fig.6: Steel Column to Foundation Details, (A) Top bolt places created in base plate, (B)
Side view of column base to foundation
As far as column splices are concern, it is provided in every two or three
storey to ease erection process in addition to simplify steel column
production and deliveries.
The distance between floor and column splice is about 60cm. When
circular steel columns are used, weld connection is used to join both steel
columns above and below.

Fig.7: Column Splices

Erection of Steel Beams
Various prefabricated beam sections are available to be used in the
construction multi storey steel frame structure. Beams commonly transfer
loads from floors and roof to the columns.

Steel beam members can span up to 18m, but the most usual range of
steel beam spans rang from 3m to 9m.

While steel beams are erected, column to beam connection and beam to
beam connections are encountered. There are different types of column to
beam connection which are selected based on the type of loads imposed
on the column to beam joint.

For example, if the joint is subjected to vertical loads only, then simple
connections are used. Flexible end plate, fin plate and double angle cleat
are examples of simple connections which are shown in Figure-8.
Fig.8: Different types of column to beam connection suitable for the case where vertical
loads are applied solely: (A) Flexible end plate, (B) fin plate, (C) Double angle cleat
If the joint is subjected to both vertical loads (shear force) and torsion
forces, then full depth end plate connections and extended end plate
connections should be considered as shown in Figure-9.

Fig.9: Full depth and extended end plat connection used when the column to beam
connection subjected to both shear and torsion stress
As far as beam to beam connection is concerned, end plate beam to beam
connection is used to join secondary steel beams to primary steel beams.

Since top flange of secondary beams support floor system, so it must be

leveled with top flange of the primary beams. This can be obtained by
notching the top flange of the secondary beam as shown in Figure-10 and
Figure-11.
 Fig.10: Notched Part of Secondary Beam

Fig.11: End Plate Beam to Beam Connection

Alternatively, projected bracket is welded to the primary beam and then
secondary beam is attached without the need for notching secondary
steel beams as shown in Figure-12.

Fig.12: Provision of Bracket Welded to Primary Steel Beams

Floor Systems Used in Steel Frame Structure Construction
There are various types of floor systems which can be used in the steel
frame structure construction. Floors are commonly installed as the beams
are erected.

Not only do the floors systems support vertical applied loads but also they
act like diaphragms and resist lateral loads through the use of bracings.

Examples of floor systems include Short-span composite beams and slabs

with metal decking, Slimdek, Cellular composite beams with slabs and
steel decking, Slimflor beams with precast concrete units, Long-span
composite beams and slabs with metal decking, Composite beams with
precast concrete units and Non-composite beams with precast concrete
units. Also Read: Types of Floors Systems for Multi-Storey Steel Structure
Construction

Fig.13: Details of Composite Floors used in Steel Frame Structure

Fig.14: Precast Concrete Slab Placed on Structural Steel Frame

Construction of Bracing and Cladding in Steel Framed Structures
Bracings are used to resist lateral forced imposed on structure and it
transfer lateral loads to the columns and then to the foundation.

Fig.15: Bracing with Connection Details

Regarding cladding of steel frame structure, various types of cladding
such as brick cladding and sheet cladding can be used to protect the
inside area of the structure.

Read More:
Types of Floors Systems for Multi-Storey Steel Structure Construction
What are the Types of Structural Steel Framing Systems?
Modern Methods of Construction -Details and Applications
The entire process of structural planning and design requires not only
imagination and conceptual thinking but also sound knowledge of practical
aspects, such as recent design codes and bye-laws, backed up by ample
experience, institution and judgment.

It is emphasized that any structure to be constructed must satisfy the

need efficiency for which it is intended and shall be durable for its desired
life span. Thus, the design of any structure is categorizes into following
two main types:-

1. Functional design

2. Structural design

FUNCTIONAL DESIGN:
The structure to be constructed should primarily serve the basic purpose
for which it is to be used and must have a pleasing look.

The building should provide happy environment inside as well as outside.

Therefore, the functional planning of a building must take into account the
proper arrangements of room/halls to satisfy the need of the client, good
ventilation, lighting, acoustics, unobstructed view in the case of
community halls, cinema theatres, etc.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN:
Once the form of the structure is selected, the structural design process
starts. Structural design is an art and science of understanding the
behavior of structural members subjected to loads and designing them
with economy and elegance to give a safe, serviceable and durable
structure.
STAGES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN:
The process of structural design involves the following stages.

1) Structural planning.

2) Action of forces and computation of loads.

3) Methods of analysis.

4) Member design.

5) Detailing, Drawing and Preparation of schedules.

1. STRUCTURAL PLANNING:
After getting an architectural plan of the buildings, the structural planning
of the building frame is done. This involves determination of the following.

a. Position and orientation of columns.

b. Positioning of beams.

c. Spanning of slabs.

d. Layouts of stairs.

e. Selecting proper type of footing.

1. Positioning and orientation of columns: Following are some of the building
principles, which help in deciding the columns positions.
1. Columns should preferably be located at (or) near the corners of a
building, and at the intersection of beams/walls.

2. Select the position of columns so as to reduce bending moments in

beams.

3. Avoid larger spans of beams.

4. Avoid larger centre-to-centre distance between columns.

5. Columns on property line.

Orientation of columns:
1. Avoid projection of columns:
The projection of columns outside the wall in the room should be avoided
as they not only give bad appearance but also obstruct the use of floor
space, creating problems in placing furniture flush with the wall. The
width of the column is required to be kept not less than 200mm to
prevent the column from being slender. The spacing of the column should
be considerably reduced so that the load on column on each floor is less
and the necessity of large sections for columns does not arise.

2. Orient the column so that the depth of the column is contained in the major plane of
bending or is perpendicular to the major axis of bending.
This is provided to increase moment of inertia and hence greater moment
resisting capacity. It will also reduce Leff/d ratio resulting in increase in
the load carrying capacity of the column.

2. POSITIONING OF BEAMS:
1. Beams shall normally be provided under the walls or below a heavy
concentrated load to avoid these loads directly coming on slabs.

2. Avoid larger spacing of beams from deflection and cracking criteria.

(The deflection varies directly with the cube of the span and inversely
with the cube of the depth i.e. L3/D3. Consequently, increase in span L
which results in greater deflection for larger span).
3. SPANNING OF SLABS:
This is decided by supporting arrangements. When the supports are only
on opposite edges or only in one direction, then the slab acts as a one
way supported slab. When the rectangular slab is supported along its four
edges it acts as a one way slab when Ly/Lx < 2.
The two way action of slab not only depends on the aspect ratio but also
on the ratio of reinforcement on the directions. In one way slab, main
steel is provided along with short span only and the load is transferred to
two opposite supports. The steel along the long span just acts as the
distribution steel and is not designed for transferring the load but to
distribute the load and to resist shrinkage and temperature stresses.

A slab is made to act as a one way slab spanning across the short span by
providing main steel along the short span and only distribution steel along
the long span. The provision of more steel in one direction increases the
stiffness of the slab in that direction.

According to elastic theory, the distribution of load being proportional to

stiffness in two orthogonal directions, major load is transferred along the
stiffer short span and the slab behaves as one way. Since, the slab is also
supported over the short edge there is a tendency of the load on the slab
by the side of support to get transferred to the nearer support causing
tension at top across this short supporting edge. Since, there does not
exist any steel at top across this short edge in a one way slab
interconnecting the slab and the side beam, cracks develop at the top
along that edge. The cracks may run through the depth of the slab due to
differential deflection between the slab and the supporting short edge
beam/wall. Therefore, care should be taken to provide minimum steel at
top across the short edge support to avoid this cracking.

A two way slab is generally economical compare to one way slab because steel along
both the spans acts as main steel and transfers the load to all its four supports. The
two way action is advantageous essentially for large spans (>3m) and for
live loads (>3kN/m2). For short spans and light loads, steel required for
two way slabs does not differ appreciably as compared to steel for two
way slab because of the requirements of minimum steel.
FOOTING:
The type of footing depends upon the load carried by the column and the
bearing capacity of the supporting soil. The soil under the foundation is
more susceptible to large variations. Even under one small building the
soil may vary from soft clay to a hard murum. The nature and properties
of soil may change with season and weather, like swelling in wet weather.
Increase in moisture content results in substantial loss of bearing capacity
in case of certain soils which may lead to differential settlements. It is
necessary to conduct the survey in the areas for soil properties. For
framed structure, isolated column footings are normally preferred except
in case of exists for great depths, pile foundations can be an appropriate
choice. If columns are very closely spaced and bearing capacity of the soil
is low, raft foundation can be an alternative solution. For a column on the
boundary line, a combined footing or a raft footing may be provided.

ASSUMPTIONS
The following are the assumptions made in the earthquake resistant
design of structures:

• Earthquake causes impulsive ground motions, which are complex and

irregular in character, changing in period and amplitude each lasting for
small duration. Therefore resonance of the type as visualized under
steady-state sinusoidal excitations, will not occur as it would need time to
build up such amplitudes.

• Earthquake is not likely to occur simultaneously with wind or max. Flood

or max. sea waves.

• The value of elastic modulus of materials, wherever required, maybe

taken as per static analysis.
 Combined Footing Design with Example
and Types of Combined Footing
Home » Combined Footing Design with Example and Types of Combined Footing

Combined footings are constructed for two or more columns when they
are close to each other and their foundations overlap. Design of combined
footings with example is discussed.

The function of a footing or a foundation is to transmit the load form the

structure to the underlying soil. The choice of suitable type of footing
depends on the depth at which the bearing strata lies, the soil condition
and the type of superstructure.

Combined Footings
Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single
spread footing, it is called a combined footing. Isolated footings for each
column are generally the economical.

Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as

1. When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated
footings

2. Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings

3. Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building

column.
 Types of Combined Footing

o The combined footing may be rectangular, trapezoidal or Tee-shaped in plan.

o The geometric proportions and shape are so fixed that the centeroid of the
footing area coincides with the resultant of the column loads. This results in
uniform pressure below the entire area of footing.

o Trapezoidal footing is provided when one column load is much more than the
other. As a result, the both projections of footing beyond the faces of the
columns will be restricted.

o Rectangular footing is provided when one of the projections of the footing is

restricted or the width of the footing is restricted.
 Rectangular combined footing
o Longitudinally, the footing acts as an upward loaded beam spanning between
columns and cantilevering beyond. Using statics, the shear force and bending
moment diagrams in the longitudinal direction are drawn. Moment is checked at
the faces of the column. Shear force is critical at distance „d‟ from the faces of
columns or at the point of contra flexure. Two-way shear is checked under the
heavier column.

o The footing is also subjected to transverse bending and this bending is spread
over a transverse strip near the column.
 Steps for Design of Combined Footing
o Locate the point of application of the column loads on the footing.

o Proportion the footing such that the resultant of loads passes through the center
of footing.

o Compute the area of footing such that the allowable soil pressure is not
exceeded.

o Calculate the shear forces and bending moments at the salient points and hence
draw SFD and BMD.

o Fix the depth of footing from the maximum bending moment.

o Calculate the transverse bending moment and design the transverse section for
depth and reinforcement. Check for anchorage and shear.

o Check the footing for longitudinal shear and hence design the longitudinal steel

o Design the reinforcement for the longitudinal moment and place them in the
appropriate positions.

o Check the development length for longitudinal steel

o Curtail the longitudinal bars for economy

o Draw and detail the reinforcement

o Prepare the bar bending schedule

Detailing of Combined Footing
Detailing of steel (both longitudinal and transverse) in a combined footing
is similar to that of conventional beam-SP-34. Detailing requirements of
beams and slabs should be followed as appropriate-SP-34

https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundations/combined-footing-design-with-example/8/

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 Different Rolled Steel Sections -Shapes,
Sizes and Properties for Construction
Rolled steel sections are available in various forms for use in Steel
Construction. Shapes, sizes and properties of these rolled steel sections
are discussed.

Steel is one of the important building materials in construction industry. It

can be used in many ways for many purposes.

Different steel members are manufactured in the factories based their

usage. Rolled steel sections are casted in continuous casting molds
without any joints. Different shapes or forms of rolled steel sections are
explained below.

Different Forms of Rolled Steel Sections

Various forms of rolled steel sections are as follows:

o Angle sections
o Channel sections
o T- sections
o I-sections
o Round bars
o Square bars
o Flat bars
o Corrugated sheets
o Expanded metal
o Plates
o Ribbed bars (HYSD)
o Ribbed bars (mild steel)
o Thermo-mechanically treated bars
o Welded wire fabrics

Rolled Angle Sections

Angle sections are manufactured in “L” shape. It contains two legs. Some
angle sections contains legs with similar dimensions are called as equal
angle sections and some contains different legs are called as unequal
angle sections.

Angle sections are widely used for roof truss constructions and for filler
joist floors.

Equal angle sections are available from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200

mm x 200 mm x 25 mm with their corresponding weights as 9 N and 736
N per meter length respectively.

Unequal angle sections are available from 30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to

200 mm x 150 mm x 18 mm with 11 and 469 N per meter length weight
respectively.
Rolled Channel Sections
The channel section or C- section consists two equal flanges connected to
web at both ends. Channel sections are extensively used in steel framed
structures.

They are available in various sizes ranging from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400

mm x 100 mm. Corresponding unit weights are 58 N and 494 N per meter
length respectively.

Rolled T- Sections
T section consists of flange and web arranged in “T” shape. They are used
in steel roof trusses to form built up sections. Two angle sections can also
be joined to get T section.
Rolled T sections size varies from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 150 mm x
150 mm x 10 mm with 9 N and 228 N as their corresponding weights per
meter length.

Rolled I – Sections
I sections which are also called as steel beams or rolled steel joist are
extensively used as beams, lintels, columns etc. It consists two flanges
and a web connected as shown in figure.

These are available in various sizes ranges from 75 mm x 50 mm at 61 N

per meter length to 600 mm x 210 mm at 995 N per meter length.

Rolled Round Bars

Round bars contain circular cross sections and these are used as
reinforcement in concrete and steel grill work etc. Round bars are
available in various diameters varies from 5 mm to 250 mm.
Rolled Square Bars
Square bars contain square cross sections and these are widely used for
gates, windows, grill works etc. the sides of square cross section ranges
from 5 mm to 250 mm.

Rolled Flat Bars

Flat bars are also used for gates, windows, grill works etc. Flat bars are
designated with width of the bar which varies from 10 mm to 400 mm.
thickness of flat bars will be from 3 mm to 40 mm.
Corrugated Sheets
Plain steel sheets are passed through machines which produce bends by
pressing them called corrugations. These sheets are used for roof
coverings.

Expanded Metal
Expanded metal sheets are made from mild steel sheets. Which are cut
through machine and expanded. Generally, Diamond shaped mesh is
appeared in this type of sheets.
Rolled Steel Plates
Steel plates are well used items in steel structures. They are used for
connecting steel beams, tensional member in roof truss etc. They are
designated with their thickness which is varying from 5 mm to 50 mm.

Ribbed Bars (HYSD)

Ribbed HYSD bars are made of high yield strength steel. Ribs are nothing
but projections produced on bars by cold twisting of bar in hot rolled
condition. The twist is made according the standard requirements.

HYSD bars are important innovation of steel and they are extensively
used as main reinforcement materials in all concrete works like bridges,
buildings, precast concrete works, foundations, roads etc..
 They are available in many sizes varying from 6 mm to 50 mm diameter.
The reason why these are more famous than any other bars is because of
following advantages:

o HYSD bars can be bend up to 180o without any cracks.

o High strength and durable.
o 30 to 40% of cost reduced when compared to other round bars.
o Suitable for any type of concrete work.
o Excellent bonding properties with concrete.
o HYSD bars can be welded using electronic flash butt welding or arc welding.

Ribbed Bars (Mild Steel)

Ribbed bars can also be produced from mild steel. These are look-alike
HYSD ribbed bars but these bars are not recommended by any code and
they also have very less strength compared to HYSD bars.
Rolled Thermo-Mechanically Treated (TMT) Bars
Thermo-mechanically treated bars or TMT bars are manufactured by a
special technique in which the red-hot steel bars are suddenly quenched
by spraying water on it. So, surface of bar gets cooled down and inner
side or core of the bar still in hot condition.

The core helps the outer surface to be tempered. By this combination of

different temperature, the bar gains more yield strength and exhibits
good elongation at ultimate failure.

Copper, phosphorous and chromium etc. are added in manufacturing

process of TMT bars which improves its corrosion resistance.

Welded Wire Fabrics

Welded wire fabrics are nothing but a series of mild steel bars which are
arranged perpendicular to each other and welded at all intersection.
These are used as reinforcement for floor slabs, small canal linings,
pavement‟s etc
Typical Joint Detailing of Steel Hollow
Sections -Types of Joints
Typical Joint Detailing of Steel Hollow Sections
Detailing of joints in steel structure is as much important as detailing of
main structural members. Ultimately loads from structures are transferred
to different structural members through joints.

So, a good detailing of joints in steel structure is required to make the

structure safe for the given loads.

Here we will discuss about the types of joints commonly used for
structural steel hollow sections. Hollow sections are of three types,
Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS) and Square Hollow Sections (SHS)
and Circular Hollow Sections (CHS).

Types of Joints and Their Detailing for Steel Hollow Sections

Following are the joint details for structural steel hollow sections (RHS
and SHS) commonly used:

1. K – Type Joints:
K – Type joints in steel structures are formed when the centroidal axis of
horizontal member and two lateral bracings meet with the central axis of
top chord. Following figure shows K-Type joint:
It should be ensured that the ends of hollow sections are always closed. If
any ends of a hollow section does not get closed due to more width, then
a plate is welded on that end so that the ends gets closed and also the
connection with other members are made good by effective sealing of the
members. This also prevents internal corrosion of the hollow sections.

K-type of joints in structural steel members is simplest and most

economical.
2. Knee – Type Joint:
To increase the stability of connection between vertical and horizontal
members of structure, knee-type joint is used.

In welded knee-joint, the top chord is directly welded to the main column
and then a suitably cut haunch is welded to the vertical and as well as to
the chord member for better stiffening. The knee-type joint is shown
below:

3. N – Type Joint:
N-type joint is formed as per the adopted configuration, for connecting
web members to top and bottom chords. Typical details of one of the
joints are given below:
i) In this joint, first the vertical member is put in place and directly
welded to top and bottom chords.

ii) Afterwards, the other inclined diagonal member, with suitable double
cuts at the ends, is directly welded to top and bottom chords and also to
the vertical.

iii) These connections, of vertical and diagonal members to top and

bottom chords directly, help in eliminating the gusset plates thus resulting
in automatic sealing of member ends. Direct jointing, of vertical and
diagonal members to top and bottom chords, eliminates gusset plates.

4. Gap Joint:
When two smaller sections are to be joined with a bigger section, a gap
between two smaller sections remains. When the intersection of
centroidal axes of two smaller size members lies in the centroidal axis of
larger size member i.e. bottom boom of landing, this type of joint is
formed.

Following figure shows Gap Joints Details:

In this arrangement, single cut bracings are directly welded to floor beam.
This joint is used in the column bracings.

5. Overlap Joint:
This type of joint is used in elevation for connecting three smaller size
members so that two members are in close touch with each other and
also the intersection of their centroidal axes lies on the axis of third
member.

Following figure shows typical details of Overlap Joints between hollow

sections:
In this arrangement, both the diagonal bracing members have double cut
at the ends and directly welded to horizontal bracings. This is a
symmetrical layout.

6. Vierendeel Joint:
In this type of joint the vertical member is directly welded to the top
chord by fillet weld. Following figure shows typical details of Vierendeel
Joints between hollow sections:
In this type of Vierendeel joint the width of the vertical member is less
than the chord members. This is a most suitable joint.