CHAPTER 9

Power Supplies
Outline:

 Block diagram of power supply.

 AC vs DC and Electrical Signals
 Transformer
 Rectifier
 Full-Wave rectification
 Center-Tap Full-Wave rectification
 Half-Wave rectification
 Filters
 Full-wave rectifier + Filter
 Center-Tap full-wave rectifier + Filter
 Half-wave rectifier + Filter
 Ripple and Regulator

9.0 Overview

Power Supply: is a device that supplies electric power from source (e.g battery, wall outlet
etc.) to an electrical load (PC, lamp, heater, etc.). It is a circuit that converts AC voltage to DC
voltage.

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains
electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuit and other devices. A power
supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular
function.

Figure 9.1: Block diagram of power supply system

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Power supplies contain a transformer which converts the mains AC supply to a safe low
voltage AC. Then the AC is converted to DC by a bridge rectifier but the output is varying DC
which is unsuitable for electronic circuits.

Some power supplies include a filter (use capacitor) to provide smooth DC which is suitable
for less-sensitive electronic circuits. But most electronic circuits (computer) cannot
withstand the variations since they are designed to work properly with a fixed voltage. Thus,
the regulator is used to help maintains maintain a fixed or constant output voltage.

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current (AC) allows current or voltage flows in one way, then the other way,
continually reversing direction. An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+)
and negative (-). The rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is
measured in hertz (Hz) which is the number of forwards-backwards cycles per second.

An AC supply is suitable for powering some devices such as lamps and heaters but almost all
electronic circuits require a steady DC supply.

(a) AC from a power supply. This shape is called a sine wave.

(b) This triangular signal is AC because it changes between positive (+) and negative (-).

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Direct Current (DC)

Direct Current (DC) always flows in the same direction, but it may increase and decrease. A
DC voltage is always positive (or always negative), but it may increase and decrease.
Electronic circuits normally require a steady DC supply which is constant at one value or a
smooth DC supply which has a small variation called ripple. Cells, batteries and regulated
power supplies provide steady DC which is ideal for electronic circuits.

Steady DC
from a battery or regulated power supply,
this is ideal for electronic circuits.

Smooth DC
from a smoothed power supply,
this is suitable for some electronics.

Varying DC
from a power supply without smoothing,
this is not suitable for electronics.

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Properties of electrical signals

An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a

voltage. The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

The voltage-time graph shows various properties of an electrical signal. In addition to the
properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per
second.

The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant
shape.
 Amplitude (peak voltage) is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is
measured in volts, V.

 Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured in
seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds
(µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.

 Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but
frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used.
1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

and

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Root Mean Square (RMS) Values

The value of an AC voltage is continually changing from zero up to the positive peak,
through zero to the negative peak and back to zero again. Clearly for most of the time it is
less than the peak voltage, so this is not a good measure of its real effect.

The relation between RMS and peak value is

Instead we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS) which is 0.7 of the peak voltage (VP):

VRMS = 0.7 × VP and VP = 1.4 × VRMS

These equations also apply to current. They are only true for sine waves (the most common
type of AC) because the 0.7 and 1.4 are different values for other shapes.

Note: The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the
equivalent steady DC (constant) value which gives the same effect.

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9.1 Transformers

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.

Two charateristics of transformers:

i. Step-up transformers increase voltage,
ii. Step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down
transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer
low voltage.
Core

Input Output
(Primary) (Secondary)

Transformer circuit symbol

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating
magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle
of the circuit symbol represent the core.

Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in.
Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of
turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down
transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the
high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give
a low output voltage.

And

Where;
VP = Primary (input voltage) VS = Secondary (output) voltage
NP = Number of turns on primary coil NS = Number of turns on secondary coil
IP = Primary (input) current IS = Secondary (output) current

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9.2 Rectifier

The rectifier converts the AC sine wave into a pulsating DC wave. There are several forms of
rectifiers used but all are made up of diodes. There are three types of wave can be
produced by rectifier:
i. Full-wave rectification: using Bridge rectifier (4 diodes).
ii. Center-tap full-wave rectification: using 2 diodes.
iii. Half-wave rectification: using Single diodes.

Diodes

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the forward-biased), while blocking current in the opposite direction (reverse-
biased). The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow.

Symbol of Diode

Note: The nature of the p-n junction is that it will conduct current in the forward
direction but not in the reverse direction. It is therefore a basic tool for
rectification in the building of DC power supplies.

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At V = 0 At the junction, free electrons from the N-
type material fill holes from the P-type
material. This creates an insulating layer in
the middle of the diode called the depletion
zone. In a depletion zone, the semiconductor
material is returned to its original insulating
state -- all of the holes are filled, so there are
no free electrons or empty spaces for
electrons, and charge can't flow.

At V > 0 When the negative end of the circuit is

hooked up to the N-type layer and the
positive end is hooked up to P-type layer,
electrons and holes start moving and the
depletion zone disappears. At the junction
the electrons and holes combine so that a
continuous current can be maintained.

At V < 0 The negative electrons in the N-type

material are attracted to the positive
electrode. The positive holes in the P-type
material are attracted to the negative
electrode. No current flows across the
junction because the holes and the electrons
are each moving in the wrong direction. The
depletion zone gets bigger.

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1) Bridge Rectifier

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special
packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses
all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier
because each diode uses 0.7 V when conducting and there are always two diodes
conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum
current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at
least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages).

Principle Operation:
 On the positive half cycle of the input sine wave, diodes D1 and D2 are forward
biased so act as closed switches appearing in series with the load.
 On the negative half cycle, diode D1 and D2 are reverse biased and diodes D3 and D4
are forward biased so current flows through the load in the same direction.

Basic diagram of Bridge rectifier

Bridge rectifier
Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over
the connections so the alternating directions of
AC are converted to the one direction of DC.

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 Output: full-wave varying DC
(using all the AC wave)

2) Center-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier

This is another type of rectifier which produces full-wave rectification. The obvious
difference is that a full wave bridge rectifier is composed of four rectifier diodes while a
center tapped transformer is a transformer (a component vastly different than a rectifier or
a bridge rectifier) with a center tap in the secondary windings. In a full wave bridge, no
center tap is required on that transformer. Rather, the bridge is connected across the whole
secondary.

Principle Operation:
 During the positive half cycle of secondary voltage, the upper diode D1 is forward-
biased and the lower diode D2 is reverse-biased; therefore current is through the
upper diode D1, the load resistor, and the upper half winding.
 During the negative half cycle, current is through the lower diode D2, the load
resistor, and the lower half-winding.

In figure below, the load current is in the same direction. This is why the load voltage is the
full-wave signal.

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3) Single Diode Rectifier

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which has
gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply electronic
circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor does not
significantly discharge during the gaps.

Principle Operation:
 When the sine wave goes negative, the diode anode will be negative so the diode
will be reverse biased and no current will flow.
 No negative voltage will appear across the load. The load voltage will be zero during
the time of the negative half cycle.

Single diode rectifier Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)

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 Ideal Average Rectifiers
Half-wave Center-tap Bridge
Number of diodes 1 2 4
Transformer necessary No Yes No
Peak rectified output VM VM VM
DC output (unfiltered) VM/π 2VM/π 2VM/π
Peak inverse voltage (PIV) VM* 2VM 2VM
Output frequency, fout fin 2fin 2fin

*Note: With a capacitor filter, the PIV of a half-wave circuit becomes 2VM

9.3 Filters

Filters are used to remove the pulsations and create a constant output. A variety of filters
circuit can be made from the combinations of capacitors, inductors, and resistors. The most
common filter used is a large capacitor.

How it works?

• A large capacitor is connected across the load resistor. This capacitor filters the
pulses into a more constant DC.
• When the diode conducts, the capacitor charges up to the peak of the sine wave.
• Then when the sine voltage drops, the charge on the capacitor remains. Since the
capacitor is large it forms a long time constant with the load resistor. The capacitor
slowly discharges into the load maintaining a more constant output.
• The next positive pulse comes along recharging the capacitor and the process
continues.

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 Without Filter With Filter

Bridge Rectifier Bridge Rectifier + Capacitor

Center-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier Center-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier +

Capacitor

Half-Wave Rectifier Half-Wave Rectifier + Capacitor

9.4 Ripple

The most common meaning of ripple is the small unwanted residual variation of the direct
current (dc) output of a power supply which has been derived from an alternating current
(ac) source. This variation is called ripple. The ripple can be reduced further by making the
capacitor larger.

The capacitor does a good job of smoothing the pulses from the rectifier into a more
constant DC. A small variation occurs in the DC because the capacitor discharges a small
amount between the positive and negative pulses. Then it recharges. The ripple appears

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to be a sawtooth shaped AC variation riding on the DC output. A small amount of ripple can
be tolerated in some circuits but the lower the better overall.

The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid
line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as
it supplies current to the output.

Ripple Factor

Ripple Factor

The ripple factor r is a figure of merit (number used for comparison) for power supplies. In
percent, it is defined as

As an example, if a power supply delivers 10 V dc with a ripple of 0.5 V rms, the ripple factor
is

If another power supply delivers 25 V dc with a ripple of 1 mV rms, its ripple factor is

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In general, the lower r is the better.

Note: The full-wave signal out of the rectifier has a dc component (we want this) and ac
component (unwanted). This undesired ac component is called the ripple; it is a
fluctuation superimposed on the dc component.

Long Time Constant

In full-wave circuits driven by a line frequency of 60 Hz, the output period is

To have a long RLC time constant, RLC must be much greater than 8.33 ms. How mush
greater? At least 10 times, that is,

is considered a long time constant. When this condition is satisfied, the following
approximations can be used for full-wave peak rectifiers:

and

where Vr is the rms ripple.

Also useful is the formula for minimum capacitance:

Given the ripple factor in percent and the load resistance, you can use this formula to
calculate the minimum capacitance needed for filtering.

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 Development of Ripple expression

9.5 Regulator

The regulator is used to help maintains maintain a fixed or constant output voltage. Most
regulators are ICs. Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or
variable output voltages. These are feedback control circuits that actually monitor the
output voltage to detect variations.

If the output varies, for whatever reason, the regulator circuit automatically adjusts the
output back to the set value. Regulators hold the output to the desired value. Since ripple
represents changes in the output, the regulator also compensates for these variations
producing a near constant DC output.

Voltage regulator
Photograph © Rapid Electronics

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References:
http://electronicsclub.info/acdc.htm
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/led1.htm
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

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