Wirelss Modulation Schemes

ECE 8708 Wireless Communications : Multiple Access Techniques
Chapter 9
Multiple Access Techniques
for Wireless Communications
Yimin Zhang, Ph.D.

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Villanova University
http://yiminzhang.com/ECE8708
Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 1

Outlines
Duplexing
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Multiple Access
FDMA
TDMA
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
- Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)
- Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Packet Radio
ALOHA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Capacity

Brief Historical Overview

• Late 1940’s: Push to Talk FM Systems
– Half Duplex Mode
• Improved Mobile Telephone Service (ITMS)
– Fully Duplex, Auto-dial, Auto-trunking Phone Systems
• Techniques and Theory Developed in 1950’ & 60’s
• AT&T Proposes Cellular System to FCC in 1968
• 1983 FCC Authorizes US Advanced Mobile Phone System
(AMPS)
– Deployed in Chicago
– 666 Duplex Channels (40 MHz in the 800MHz band)
• Late 1991- U.S. Digital Cellular (USDC) Implemented
• Code Division Multiple Access Developed by Qualcomm.
• New Personal Communication Service
– Licenses in the 1800/1900 MHz Band Auctioned
Duplex Methods of Radio Links
Base Station
Forward link
Reverse link
Mobile Station

Frequency Division Duplexing
• Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) provides two distinct bands

of frequencies for every user.

Time Division Duplexing
• Time Division Duplexing (TDD) uses time instead of frequency to

provides both a forward and reverse links.

Trade-offs Between FDD and TDD
• Frequency Division Duplexing

– Geared toward Individual Channels for each User
– Frequency Separation must use Inexpensive Technology
• Time Division Duplexing

– Eliminates Need for Forward and Reverse Channels
– Time Latency

Base Station
Forward link
Reverse link
Mobile Station
Mobile Station
Mobile Station Mobile Station

Multiple Access
• FDMA
• TDMA
• Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Packet Radio
• ALOHA
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)


• Term has its Origin in Satellite Communications
• System of Earth Stations and a Satellite
• Used to Mean Sharing a Communications Channel (of W Hz) among a
Group of Users
• Signal Space of Time Bandwidth
TW
– Where T = k/R
– Signal Space D = 2TW


Frequency Division Multiple Access

• FDMA channel carries only one phone at a time.
• Bandwidth is relatively narrow

(30 kHz).
• Since FDMA is a continuous

transmission scheme,
fewer bits are needed
for overhead purpose
(e.g., sync) as
compared to TDMA.
• Requires tight RF
filtering.

Nonlinear Effects in FDMA
• Antenna at base station shared by channels

• Nonlinearities of power amps and combiners
• Results in signal spreading
– Generates intermodulation
– Causes adjacent channel interference and adjacent service
interference


Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
• First U.S. analog cellular system

• Based on FDMA/FDD
• NBFM modulates the carrier
• Total number of channels is given by:
B t − 2 B guard
N =
Bc
where
Bt : total spectrum allocation
Bguard : guard band allocated at the edge of the spectrum band
Bc : channel bandwidth

Time Division Multiplex Access

Time Division Multiplex Access
• Data transmitted in a buffer-and-burst method
Preamble Æ Address
and synchronization
info for base station
and subscriber
identification
Guard times Æ
Synchronization of
receivers between a
different slots and
frames

Time Division Multiple Access

Time Division Multiple Access

• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where
each user makes use of nonoverlapping time slots.
• Data transmission in TDMA systems is not continuous, but in
bursts.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus
duplexers are not required. If FDD is used, TDMA/FDD systems
intentionally induce several time slots of delay between the two
links so that duplexers are not required in the mobile unit.
• Equalization is usually necessary, since the rates are generally
high.
• High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA.
• Guard times are necessary to separate users; Guard times should
be minimized.

Efficiency of TDMA
Frame efficiency ⎛ b ⎞
ηf = ⎜⎜ 1 − OH ⎟⎟ × 100 %
⎝ bT ⎠
Number of overhead bits per frame
bOH = N r b r + N t b p + N t b g + N r b g
Nr : number of reference bursts per frame

Nt : number of traffic bursts per frame
br : # of overhead bits per reference burst
bp : # of overhead bits per preamble in each slot
bg : # of equivalent bits in each guard time interval
Total number of bits per frame

bT = T f R Tf : frame duration; R : channel bit rate

Number of Channels in TDMA System
• Number of channels: total number of slots multiplied by the

channels available
m ( B tot − 2 B guard )
N =
Bc
m: maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio
channel

Example

Example

Example

Outlines

Frequency Hopping
Typical frequency-hopping waveform pattern

Direct Spread

Wideband and Narrowband CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access

• Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency band.
• Either TDD or FDD may be used.
• Unlike TDMA and FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit.
• Multipath fading may be substantially reduced. Small-scale fading is
mitigated if the spread spectrum bandwidth is greater than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel.
• RAKE receiver can be used to achieve path diversity.
• Single frequency reuse can be used and soft handover can be
performed to achieve diversity.
• Near-far problem exists and power control is required.

Summary of Multiple Access
FDMA
power
TDMA
tim ue ncy
q
e fre
power
e ncy CDMA
tim qu
e fre
power
tim ue ncy
q
e fre

Space Division Multiple Access

• Adaptive antennas are used at
the base station to direct the
beam towards the desired
user and form a null in the
directions of other users.

Packet Radio
3
2 4
1
Shared Multiple
Access Medium
M 5
…
Packet Radio access, many subscribers attempt to access a single channel

in an uncoordinated (or minimally coordinated) manner.
1. Any transmission from any station can be heard by any other stations
2. If two or more stations transmit at the same time, collision occurs
Yimin Zhang, Villanova University Figure 6.1 32
Packet Radio Protocols
• Three types of random accesses:

– ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, and CSMA-CD
• Throughput (Traffic occupancy)

R = λτ
λ : mean arrival rate
τ : packet duration
• To obtain a reasonable through put, the rate at which new packets are
generated must lie within 0 < R <1.
• Normalized throughput
T = R ⋅ Pr[ no collision ] = λτ ⋅ Pr[ no collision ]

Probability of Collision
• The probability that n packets are generated by the user population
during a given packet duration interval is assumed to be Poisson
distributed and is given by
R ne−R
Pr( n ) =
n!
• Letting n =0 results in probability of no collision
Pr( 0 ) = e − R

Collisions

ALOHA
• Basic idea:
– let users transmit whenever they have data to be sent.
– When collision occurs, wait a random time ( why? ) and retransmit
again.
• Differences between regular errors &collision

– Regular errors only affect a single station
– Collision affects more than one
– The retransmission may collide again
– Even the first bit of a frame overlaps with the last bit of a frame
almost finished, then two frames are totally destroyed.

ALOHA
during a duration of 2 packet time intervals
( 2 R ) n e −2 R
Pr( n ) =
n!
• Probability of no collision
Pr( 0 ) = e − 2 R
T = R ⋅ Pr[ no collision ] = R e − 2 R

ALOHA
1.peak value at R=0.5

with T=0.184
2.for any given T, there

are two values of R,
corresponding to
two modes:
occasional collision
mode with R ≈ T and
frequent collision mode
with R >> T

Slotted ALOHA

Slotted ALOHA
• Synchronize the transmissions of stations
All stations keep track of transmission time slots and are allowed to
initiate transmissions only at the beginning of a time slot.

during a given packet duration interval is assumed to be Poisson
distributed and is given by
R ne−R
Pr( n ) =
n!
• Probability of no collision
Pr( 0 ) = e − R
T = R ⋅ Pr[ no collision ] = R e − R

ALOHA vs. Slotted ALOHA
Peak value at R=1 with

T=0.368 for slotted
ALOHA, double
compared with ALOHA.

CSMA (Carrier Sensing Multiple Access)
• Problem with ALOHAs: low throughput because the collision

wastes transmission bandwidth.
• Solution: avoid transmission that are certain to cause collision, that
is CSMA. Any station listens to the medium, if there is some
transmission going on the medium, it will postpone its
transmission.

CSMA (Carrier Sensing Multiple Access)

Suppose tprop is propagation delay from one extreme end to the other
extreme end of the medium. When transmission is going on, a station
can listen to the medium and detect it.
After tprop, A’s transmission will arrive the other end; every station will
hear it and refrain from the transmission.
Vulnerable period = tprop in CSMA, compared to τ and 2τ in ALOHAs.
Station A
begins
transmission at
t=0 A sense sense
Station A
captures
channel
at t=tprop A sense sense
Three different CSMA schemes

• Based on how to do when medium is busy:
– 1-persistent CSMA
– Non-persistent CSMA
– p-persistent CSMA
– CSMA/CD

1-persistent CSMA
sense channel when want to transmit a packet, if channel is busy,
then sense continuously, until the channel is idle, at this time,
transmit the frame immediately.
If more than one station are sensing, then they will begin
transmission the same time when channel becomes idle, so
collision. At this time, each station executes a backoff algorithm to
wait for a random time, and then re-sense the channel again.
Problem with 1-persistent CSMA is “high collision rate”.

Non-persistent CSMA
Sense channel when want to transmit a packet, if channel is idle, then

transmit the packet immediately. If busy, run backoff algorithm
immediately to wait a random time and then re-sense the channel
again.
This is popular for wireless LAN applications, where the packet

transmission intervals is much greater than the propagation delay to
the farthermost user.
Problem with non-persistent CSMA is that when the channel becomes

idle from busy, there may be no one of waiting stations beginning the
transmission, thus waste channel bandwidth.

p-persistent CSMA
Sense channel when want to transmit a packet, if channel is busy,
then persist sensing the channel until the channel becomes idle. If
the channel is idle, transmit the packet with probability of p, and wait,
with probability of 1-p, additional propagation delay tprop and then re-
sense again.

CSMA-CD
• When the transmitting station detects a collision, it stops its

transmission immediately (Not transmit the entire frame which is
already in collision).
• The time for transmitting station to detect a collision is 2tprop.
• In detail: when a station wants to transmit a packet, it senses
channel, if it is busy, use one of above three algorithms (i.e., 1-
persistent, non-persistent, and p-persistent schemes). The
transmitter senses the channel during transmission. If a collision
occurred and was sensed, transmitter stops its left transmission of
the current frame; moreover, a short jamming signal is transmitted to
ensure other stations that a collision has occurred and backoff
algorithm is used to schedule a future re-sensing time.

CSMA-CD
The reaction time in CSMA-CD is 2tprop

A begins to
transmit at
t=0
A B
B begins to
transmit at
B t= tprop-δ;
A B detects
collision at
t= tprop
A B
A detects
collision at It takes 2 tprop to find out if channel has been captured
t= 2 tprop-δ

Packet Radio: Comparison

1. When a is small, i.e, tprop << τ, the CSMA-CD is best and all CSMAs are
better than ALOHAs.
2. When a is approaching 1, CSMAs become worse than ALOHA.
3. ALOHAs are not sensitive to a because they do not depend on reaction
time.
CSMA/CD
1 1-P CSMA
Non-P CSMA
0.8
Τmax 0.6 Slotted Aloha

0.4
Aloha
0.2
0
0.01 0.1 1
a = tprop /τ
Maximum achievable throughput of random access schemes
Capacity of Cellular Systems
• Channel capacity for a radio system is defined as the maximum

number of channels or users that can be provided in a fixed
frequency band Î spectrum efficiency of wireless system.
For a cellular system, the radio capacity is defined as
Bt
m=
Bc N
• Bt : Total allocated spectrum for the system

• BC : Channel bandwidth
• N : Number of cells in frequency reuse pattern

Carrier to Interference ratio
C D 0− n
=
I 6 D −n
For maximum interference D0 = R

D0
−n
1⎛ R⎞ ⎛C ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ≥⎜ ⎟
6⎝D⎠ ⎝ I ⎠ min
1/ n
⎡ ⎛C ⎞ ⎤
Q ≥ ⎢6⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ I ⎠ min ⎦
Because
Q = 3N
The radio capacity becomes
Bt Bt Bt
m= = 2
= 2/n
Bc N Q ⎛ 6 ⎛C ⎞ ⎞
Bc
3 B c ⎜⎜ n / 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝3 ⎝ I ⎠ min ⎠
In particular, when n=4
Bt
m=
2⎛C ⎞
Bc ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝ I ⎠ min

Bt
m=
2⎛C ⎞
Bc ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝ I ⎠ min
Reducing (C/I)min can increase the capacity.
In order to provide the same voice quality, (C/I)min may be lower in a

digital systems when compared to an analog system.
Typically, the minimum required C/I is about 12 dB for narrowband

digital systems, and 18 dB for narrowband FM systems.

Trade-off between channel bandwidth and power
Bt Bt
m= m=
2⎛C ⎞ 2⎛C ⎞
Bc ⎜ ⎟ Bc ' ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝ I ⎠ min 3 ⎝ I ⎠ eq
2
⎛C ⎞ ⎛ C ⎞ ⎛⎜ B c ⎞⎟
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎝ I ⎠ eq ⎝ I ⎠ min ⎝ B c ' ⎟⎠
Reduce bandwidth to half Æ need to increase C/I by a factor of 4.

Example
8dB

In digital cellular systems,

C E b Rb E c Rc
= =
I I I
⎛C ⎞ E c Rc
⎜ ⎟ 2
⎝ I ⎠ min ⎛ B ' ⎞
= I = ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
⎛C ⎞ E c ' Rc ' ⎝ Bc ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ I ⎠ eq I'
Because Rc ∝ Bc
3
Ec ⎛ B '⎞
= ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
E c ' ⎝ Bc ⎠
Reduce bandwidth to half Æ need to increase bit energy by a factor of 8.

Capacity Comparison: TDMA vs. FDMA
In FDMA, Bt is divided into M channels, each with bandwidth Bc.
Bt Bt M
m= = =
2⎛C ⎞ Bt 2⎛C ⎞ 2⎛C ⎞
Bc ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝ I ⎠ min M 3 ⎝ I ⎠ min 3 ⎝ I ⎠ min
C = E b Rb I = I 0 Bc
For TDMA with multiple time slots and occupies the same spectrum,
C ' = E b Rb ' I ' = I 0 Bc '

Example

Capacity of Digital Cellular CDMA
Denote N as the number of users. SNR in RF

S 1
SNR = =
( N − 1) S N −1
SNR in receiver after despreading

Eb S/R W /R
= =
N0 ( N − 1) S / W N −1
With noise considered
Eb W /R
=
N0 (N − 1) + (η / S )
Number of users that can access the system
W /R
N = 1+ − (η / S )
Eb / N 0
Capacity of Digital Cellular CDMA
• Capacity of FDMA and TDMA system is bandwidth limited.

• Capacity of CDMA system is interference limited.
• The link performance of CDMA increases as the number of
users decreases.
• To increase the CDMA capacity

- use sectoring: lower interference and noise (N0 Æ N0’)
- switch off during periods with no voice activities (factor α)
• When the number of user is large
1 W /R
N = 1+
α Eb / N 0 '

Example

Outlines
Duplexing
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Multiple Access
FDMA
TDMA
Packet Radio
ALOHA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Capacity

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ECE 8708 Wireless Communications : Multiple Access Techniques

Yimin Zhang, Ph.D.

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 1

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 2

Brief Historical Overview

Duplex Methods of Radio Links

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 4

Frequency Division Duplexing

• Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) provides two distinct bands

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 5

Time Division Duplexing

• Time Division Duplexing (TDD) uses time instead of frequency to

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 6

Trade-offs Between FDD and TDD

• Frequency Division Duplexing

• Time Division Duplexing

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 7

Multiple Access Techniques

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 8

Multiple Access Techniques

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 9

Multiple Access Techniques

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 10

Multiple Access Techniques

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 11

Frequency Division Multiple Access

• Bandwidth is relatively narrow

• Since FDMA is a continuous

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 12

Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

• Antenna at base station shared by channels

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 13

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 14

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

• First U.S. analog cellular system

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 15

Time Division Multiplex Access

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 16

Time Division Multiplex Access

• Data transmitted in a buffer-and-burst method

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 17

Time Division Multiple Access

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 18

Time Division Multiple Access

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 19

Nr : number of reference bursts per frame

Total number of bits per frame

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 20

Number of Channels in TDMA System

• Number of channels: total number of slots multiplied by the

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 21

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 22

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 23

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 24

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 25

Typical frequency-hopping waveform pattern

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 26

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 27

Wideband and Narrowband CDMA

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 28

Code Division Multiple Access

Yimin Zhang, Villanova University 29

Summary of Multiple Access