©2017 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 112, pp. 1153–1176

White Mica as a Hyperspectral Tool in Exploration for the Sunrise Dam

and Kanowna Belle Gold Deposits, Western Australia*
Rui Wang,1,†,** Tom Cudahy,1 Carsten Laukamp,1 John L. Walshe,1 Adam Bath,1 Yuan Mei,2 Carl Young,3
Tony J. Roache,4 Andrew Jenkins,4 Malcolm Roberts,5 Andrew Barker,6 and Jamie Laird2
1 CSIRO Mineral Resources, Kensington, Western Australia 6151
2 CSIRO Mineral Resources, Clayton, Victoria 3168
3 Saracen Gold Mines Pty. Ltd., Perth, Western Australia 6000
4 AngloGold Ashanti, Perth, Western Australia 6000
5 CMCA, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia 6009
6 Northern Star Pty. Ltd., Perth, Western Australia 6008

Abstract
Patterns in white mica (muscovite, paragonite, and phengite) Al-Si chemistry (Tschermak substitution) were
examined for the Archean Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam gold deposits in the Eastern Goldfields of West-
ern Australia, using short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectrometry of drill core samples. Both of these deposits
represent greenschist-facies, structurally controlled, >10-Moz gold systems with broadly similar host rocks
and superimposed metasomatic hydrothermal alteration halos that extend for up to 3 km from the economic
zone. However, zonation toward gold mineralization at Kanowna Belle is associated with increasingly longer
wavelength white mica, whereas Sunrise Dam comprises the opposite pattern. The study also found that gold
mineralization at Kanowna Belle is associated with quartz, chalcopyrite, and pyrite with negative δ34S values
and a relative lack of carbonate, chlorite, and paragonite (Na-rich white mica), whereas gold mineralization
at Sunrise Dam is associated with paragonite as well as carbonate, Fe-rich chlorite and pyrite with positive
δ34S values and a relative lack of quartz and chalcopyrite. Thermodynamic numerical modeling revealed that
these contrasting patterns in white mica Tschermak substitution (and associated alteration mineralogy) can be
explained by two different types of ore fluids, namely (1) oxidized, alkaline, and silica-rich at Kanowna Belle;
and (2) reduced, acid, Fe-rich and silica-poor at Sunrise Dam, though the sources of these contrasting fluids
are less clear. Importantly for explorers, spectral measurement (using drill core, field, airborne, and poten-
tially satellite hyperspectral SWIR data) of gradients (especially within a given geologic unit) in white mica
absorption wavelength (Tschermak substitution) represents a potential vectoring tool for the discovery of new
Archean hydrothermal gold systems.

Introduction phengite, margarite, fuchsite, and roscoelite) found in subam-

One of the key features of hydrothermal deposits is the occur-
rence of hydrothermally altered zones, which are vertically
and horizontally up to 5 to 7 km or even more. Alteration
minerals, such as white mica, chlorite, epidote, carbonate, and
pyrite are widespread in many kinds of hydrothermal systems,
and commonly show compositional changes with the distance
to the system (Sillitoe, 2010; Halley et al., 2015; Phillips and
Powell, 2015; Wilkinson et al., 2015; Chmielowski et al., 2016).
Visible to near-infrared (VNIR) and short-wave infrared
(SWIR) hyperspectral signatures of alteration minerals mea-
sured using drill core logging, field, airborne and spaceborne
systems are increasingly being used to measure and map alter-
ation zonation as a vector toward economic mineral systems
(e.g., Hauff et al., 1989; Sabins, 1999; Cudahy et al., 2000,
2005; Herrmann et al., 2001; van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005;
Chang et al., 2011; Laukamp et al., 2011; Roache et al., 2011;
Cudahy, 2016). In particular, white mica is a common alteration
mineral type (includes, for example, paragonite, muscovite,
† Corresponding author: e-mail, Rui.Wang@csiro.au
*A digital supplement containing electronic Appendix Tables A1-A12 is avail-
able at http://economicgeology.org/ and at http://econgeol.geoscienceworld.
org/.
**OCE Postdoctoral Fellow, Mineral Resources, CSIRO, Kensington, West-
ern Australia 6151, Australia.
doi: 10.5382/econgeo.2017.4505
0361-0128/17/1153-24 1153
phibolite facies, Archean gold systems (Scott and Yang, 1997).
The diagnostic SWIR absorption features of white micas
include those at 2,200, 2,350, and 2,450 nm, which are related
to combination tones of fundamental stretching and bend-
ing vibrations of hydroxyl groups bonded with octahedrally
coordinated cations (primarily Al but also Fe2+, Fe3+, Mg2+,
Cr3+, and V3+). The proportion of these octahedrally coordi-
nated cations is effectively charge balanced with the propor-
tion of Si4+ to Al3+ in neighboring tetrahedral layers (Velde,
1965; Bailey, 1984; Clark et al., 1990; Duke, 1994; Besson and
Drits, 1997; Beran, 2002; Bishop et al., 2008). However, even
though pressure and temperature appear to be the key driv-
ers for Tschermak substitution at higher metamorphic grades
(Duke, 1994; Guidotti and Sassi, 1998; Keller et al., 2005), it
is less clear what the key driver(s) is at lower grades (subam-
phibolite facies) where mineralizing hydrothermal fluid pro-
cesses reflecting contrasting physicochemical conditions are
more common. Possible drivers for white mica Al-Si substitu-
tion at lower grades include the activities of water, Si and Al,
pH and redox, P and T (Duke, 1994; Scott and Yang, 1997;
Guidotti and Sassi, 1998; Halley et al., 2015). It is also not
clear what the roles of fluid-rock versus fluid-fluid interactions
play in these systems. From an exploration perspective, white
mica is a valuable target hydrothermal alteration mineral for
Submitted: April 18, 2016
Accepted: January 13, 2017
1154 WANG ET AL.

routine spectral measurement because it is relatively resistant
to chemical weathering, such that subsurface measurement of
drill core samples from the weathered profile as well as any
fresh rock combined with regolith surface sampling, present
a range of technology opportunities using drill core, field, air-
craft, and satellite hyperspectral sensors (Cudahy et al., 2005,
Cudahy, 2016).
Two Archean gold deposits that formed at subamphibolite
metamorphic facies (~greenschist) in the Eastern Goldfields
of Western Australia, but with opposite patterns in white mica
composition, were selected for detailed study to better under-
stand their respective physicochemical drivers to Tschermak
substitution, namely (1) Sunrise Dam, and (1) Kanowna Belle.
Sunrise Dam is located 225 km north-northeast of Kalgoorlie
(Fig. 1) and comprises a resource of 11.1 Moz of gold hosted
within volcanic and metasedimentary rocks. Here, our study
indicates that the increasing proximity to gold mineralization
is associated with decreasing white mica Tschermak substitu-
tion as evidenced by a decreasing (shorter) wavelength to the
white mica absorption near 2,200 nm. Kanowna Belle is 18
km northeast of Kalgoorlie (Fig. 1) and comprises approxi-
mately 10 Moz of gold hosted within felsic volcanoclastic
rocks, porphyries, and metasedimentary rocks. Here proxim-
ity to gold mineralization is associated with increasing white
mica Tschermak substitution as evidenced by an increasing
(longer) wavelength to the white mica absorption near 2,200
nm (Finnigan, 2004). Both of these gold deposits generated
similar alteration mineral assemblages during gold mineral-
ization, including white mica, chlorite, carbonate, quartz, and
pyrite (Ross, 2002; Finnigan, 2004; Ross et al., 2004; Neumayr
et al., 2005; Nugus, 2009; Baker et al., 2010; Blenkinsop et al.,
2007). The associated mineral alteration footprint extends up

116° 120° 124°

Locality Domain boundary
Mine Shear zone/Terrane
boundary
Ida F

Narryer Terrane
Ocke
ault

Hoo
rbury

tanu

Burt
SZ

Yam
i SZ

ville
arn
Yamarna
aS

Terr
Murchison Z
Eastern Yilgarn Craton

a
Domain

ne
Lawlers
Kalgoorlie Terr

Laverton
Youanmi Terrane Sunrise
Kur

Dam
alp
i Te

30°
ane

rran

Southern
N
e

Cross Kanowna
Domain Belle

unassigned
Kalgoorlie eastern Yilgarn
Craton
Ida
Fau

South West Gneiss

lt

Terrane
50 km

NT
Qld
WA
SA
34° NSW

Vic

Tas

Fig. 1. Map indicating major tectonic units, boundaries, and the Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam deposits within the Yilgarn
craton (modified from Blewett et al., 2010).
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1155
to 3 km away from the mineralizing, structurally controlled
fluid pathways (Neumayr et al., 2005; Blenkinsop et al., 2007).
The current study has accessed the VNIR-SWIR reflectance
spectra, geological logs, and Au assays from 24 diamond drill
holes from the Kanowna Belle and 42 drill holes from Sun-
rise Dam from current and previous mining company records.
This study builds on these drill core data by adding (1) thin
section microscopy of alteration mineral paragenesis, (2) elec-
tron microprobe chemical analyses to understand partitioning
and zoning/timing of chemical indicators, (3) sulfur isotope
analysis of gold-related pyrite grains to constrain redox during
ore formation, and (4) numerical thermodynamic modeling to
better understand the physiochemical conditions of ore fluids
and more importantly explain the spectrally detectable gradi-
ents in white mica Tschermak substitution. This paper thus
aims to assist explorers by providing new insights into how to
interpret the exploration significance of any detectable gradi-
ents in white mica Tschermak substitution in subamphibolite
facies environments measured using drill core, field, airborne,
or satellite hyperspectral SWIR reflectance data.
Geologic Setting
Eastern Yilgarn craton
The Yilgarn craton is composed of six tectonostratigraphic ter-
ranes, including the Narryer, South West Gneiss, Youanmi,
Kalgoorlie, Kurnalpi, and Burtville terranes (Cassidy et al.,
2006). The last three of these terranes constitute the East-
ern Yilgarn craton or Eastern Goldfields superterrane (Fig.
1), which are bounded by interconnected, NNE-striking and
E-dipping crust-penetrating structures intersecting the Moho,
namely, the Ida, Ockerburry, and Hootanui faults (Swager et
al., 1995; Swager, 1997; Goleby et al., 2002, 2003; Cassidy
et al., 2006; Blewett et al., 2010). Generally, the tholeiitic
basalts, komatiites, and calc-alkaline felsic volcanic and clas-
tic sedimentary rocks formed in ~2710 to 2655 Ma constitute
the bulk of the greenstone successions in the Eastern Yilgarn
craton. High Ca tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG)
is a significant component in the Eastern Yilgarn craton and
occupies ~65% of the map area for each terrane (Champion
and Sheraton, 1997). The greenstone sequences are uncom-
formably overlain by siliciclastic rocks after 2665 Ma (Krapež
et al., 2000; Barley et al., 2003).
The deformation history of the Eastern Yilgarn craton is
comprised of six events identified as D1 (or DE), D2, D3, D4,
D5, and D6 (Blewett et al., 2010). The D1 (or DE) event is
characterized with a major ~east-northeast–west-southwest
extension during 2720 to 2670 Ma, which led to the elongate
map patterns dominated by NNW-trending structures (Brown
et al., 1999). The D2 event is characterized with ~east-north-
east–west-southwest contraction, which started at ~2670 Ma
in the east and ~2665 Ma in the west (Blewett et al., 2004;
Standing, 2008; Czarnota et al., 2010). The D3 event occurred
in an extensional setting at 2665 Ma and younger, when core
complex formations such as granite-up and greenstone-down
structures were developed (Blewett et al., 2010). The D4
event involved east-northeast–west-southwest compression in
the early stage followed by north-northwest–south-southeast
sinistral strike-slip shearing and linked thrusting (Blewett
et al., 2010). The D5 event comprises dextral strike-slip faults,
which were related to northeast-southwest compression
(Campbell and Hill, 1988). The D5 structures are cut by the
low Ca granites, the youngest Archean rocks in the Eastern
Yilgarn craton (Dunphy et al., 2003). The last Archean event,
D6, is characterized by low-strain vertical shortening and
horizontal extension (Swager, 1997; Davis and Maidens, 2003;
Weinberg and Van Der Borg, 2008; Blewett et al., 2010).
Mineral deposits
The Eastern Yilgarn craton hosts many world-class gold
deposits at Kalgoorlie and nickel deposits at Kambalda. The
gold mineralization is typically related to faults and shear
zones that were initially established during D2 (~2670 Ma)
but were then reactivated and became the focus for miner-
alizing fluid movement during D4 (~2625 Ma). Peak meta-
morphism during D2 to D6 is typically greenschist though
grades of amphibolite and even granulite facies were locally
developed (Weinberg and van der Borgh, 2008; Goscombe et
al., 2009; Blewett et al., 2010). Porphyries, albitites, and lam-
prophyres are commonly found in the gold deposits, with the
porphyries being broadly synchronous with Au.
The origin of these deposits is under debate. Traditionally,
these deposits are described as orogenic in style (e.g., Groves
et al., 1998, 2003; Witt and Vanderhor, 1998; Goldfarb et al.,
2001) and are typically characterized with aqueous-carbonic
fluids with low salinity and a near-neutral pH of 5.5 (Phillips
and Evans, 2004; Goldfarb and Groves, 2015). Several sources
of fluids have been proposed for the formation of these gold-
bearing systems, including granitoids, metamorphosed crust,
and mantle (Goldfarb and Groves, 2015, and references
therein). Although there is no specific type of magmatism
consistently associated with gold mineralization, some gold
deposits with strong affinities to neighboring felsic intrusions
could in theory be classified as skarn-, porphyry-, or epither-
mal-gold types (e.g., Mueller et al., 2008). Sulfur isotope val-
ues are extremely variable, indicating multiple mechanisms of
gold precipitation in varying structural settings (Hodkiewicz
et al., 2009, and references therein). Nevertheless, the follow-
ing features are commonly related to the Archean orogenic
gold deposits, namely (1) preexisting major fault systems,
(2) broadly identical alteration zonations, (3) igneous intru-
sions nearby or as ore-host rocks, and (4) greenschist-facies
metamorphism (Goldfarb and Groves, 2015, and references
therein).
Deposit Geology
Kanowna Belle
The Kanowna Belle deposit is located on the eastern edge
of the Kalgoorlie terrane (Fig. 1). The basal stratigraphy of
the Kalgoorlie terrane is composed of tholeiitic and komati-
itic mafic-ultramafic rocks, which constitutes the Kambalda
Group. Overlying the Kambalda Group is the Kalgoorlie
sequence with a complex volcaniclastic succession known as
the Black Flag Group (Barley et al., 2002, 2003). The Mount
Shea porphyry, which intruded into the Black Flag Group, has
a minimum SHRIMP U-Pb age of 2658 ± 3 Ma (Krapež et al.,
2000). The Nd depleted-mantle model ages (TDM) calculated
by granite samples range from 3.10 to 2.95 Ga (Champion and
Cassidy, 2007).
1156 WANG ET AL.

The Kanowna Belle deposit is mainly hosted within felsic
volcaniclastic rocks and porphyries (Fig. 2). Rare gold grains
are located in veins and altered rocks that form clasts within
the overlying Black Flag Group volcaniclastic rocks. A felsic
volcaniclastic unit gives a SHRIMP U-Pb age of 2668 ± 9 Ma
(Fig. 3), with xenocrystic zircons showing ages of ~2.68, 2.70,
and 2.71 Ga (Ross et al., 2004). A sample of the mineralized
Kanowna Belle porphyry gives a mean age of 2655 ± 6 Ma
(Ross et al., 2004), which is considered to be the maximum
age for the epigenetic gold mineralization. The main gold
mineralization age is constrained by resetting of high U zircon
grains (2.63 Ga) and ore-related Pb-Pb galena (2.63 Ga; Ross,
2002). In addition, monazite and xenotime from altered por-
phyry with gold mineralization give a weighted age of 2640 ±
8 Ma (Vielreicher et al., 2010). The locally NE-SW-trending
Fitzroy fault and the later reactivated faults with northeast-
southwest orientation host the majority of gold mineralization
(Fig. 2). Gold is mainly distributed in white mica-quartz veins,
carbonate breccias, carbonate-white mica-quartz veins, and
pyrite-quartz-carbonate veins.
Sunrise Dam
The Sunrise Dam deposit is located the eastern margin of the
Kurnalpi terrane (Fig. 1). The basal stratigraphy of the Kurnaipi

N
Kanowna Au Deposit

Hilder
Lowes
shoots
shoot
fault
Fitzroy

Troy
>4 g/t gold
shoots 1-4g/t gold
Kanowna Belle porphyry
Felsic intrusion
Grave dam grit
Hanging wall
shoots
Footwall grit
Golden Valley conglomerate
Hanging wall basalt
Ultramafic rock
200 m
Fig. 2. Map indicating major faults, lithology, and gold orebodies and grades in the Kanowna Belle mine (modified from
Neumayr et al., 2005).

Metamorphic Kanowna Belle Sunrise Dam

events Ma Phlogopite from lamprophyre
2620
High U zircon reset age (Ar-Ar age of 2080±4 Ma)
(U-Pb SHRIMP)

Au

D4 2640 Au Hydrothermal xenotime

Porphyry mean age and monazite WSZ (U-Pb SHRIMPII)
(U-Pb SHRIMP)
Monazite and xenotime
from altered porphyry
Molybdenite in Cr-mica Au
with gold mineralization
D3 clasts (Re-Os) in SSZ (Ar-Ar)
2660
Au

D2 Molybdenite from unmineralized

quartz-chalcopyrite-molybdenite
2680 Volcanic unit Dolly porphyry vein (Re-Os)
(U-Pb SHRIMP) (U-Pb SHRIMP II)

Fig. 3. Summarized geochronological sequence for lithology and gold mineralization ages for the Kanowna Belle (Krapež et
al., 2000; Ross, 2002; Ross et al., 2004; Champion and Cassidy, 2007; Vielreicher et al., 2010) and Sunrise Dam (Brown et al.,
2002; Cassidy, 2006; Champion and Cassidy, 2007) deposits. Metamorphic events and corresponding time periods (Blewett
et al., 2010) are shown as reference. SSZ = Sunrise shear zone, WSZ = Western shear zone.
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1157

terrane is mainly composed of mafic volcanic rocks, intermedi-
ate calc-alkaline complexes, and feldspathic metasedimentary
rocks. The overlying stratigraphy is bimodal, high field strength
element (HFSE)-enriched rhyolite-basalt and intermediate-
felsic calc-alkaline complexes (Cassidy, 2006). The Laverton
domain includes mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks, banded
iron formation (BIF), and fine-grained tuffaceous sediments at
the base. The Nd TDM ages within 2.95 to 2.72 Ga are younger
than the Kalgoorlie terrane (Champion and Cassidy, 2007). The
Sunrise Dam deposit is mainly hosted within greenschist-facies
basalts, doleritic sills, BIF, and volcanic sediments. Protracted
deformation history with structural reactivation resulted in
multiple phases of gold mineralization. The Dolly porphyry in
the mine gives a SHRIMP II U-Pb age of 2,674 ± 3 Ma (Brown
et al., 2002). The mineralization ages were inferred from sev-
eral radiometric systems (Fig. 3), including molybdenite Re-Os
age of 2663 ± 11 Ma, Cr mica (from the Sunrise shear zone)
Ar-Ar age of 2667 ± 8 Ma, and hydrothermal xenotime and
monazite (from the Western shear zone) SHRIMP II U-Pb age
of 2654 ± 8 Ma (Brown et al., 2002). Lamprophyre dikes post-
dated gold mineralization with a phlogopite Ar-Ar age of 2080
± 4 Ma (Brown et al., 2002). There are several interconnected
orebodies within Sunrise Dam, including Astro, Cosmo, GQ,
and Vogue (Fig. 4). The drill holes selected for this study are
located within the GQ and Vogue bodies.
White Micas
Structure, composition, and formation
The crystal structure of white mica consists of negatively
charged 2/1 layers, namely two tetrahedral sheets and one octa-
hedral sheet, which are sandwiched between interlayer sheets.
When the octahedral sheet is dominated by divalent cations, it
is called a trioctahedral mica (Velde, 1965). When the octahe-
dral sheet is dominated by trivalent cations, it called a dioctahe-
dral mica or white mica. White micas have the general formula
X Y2 Z4 O10 (OH, F)2, where X = large cations (such as K+, Na+,
and Li+) located within the 12-fold coordinated interlayers,

W e E
zon
e ar
a r zon she
she stern
GU We
Watu
1
ko
Ma

2
ko e
Ma r zon
a
he
se s GQ2
nri
Su Doly
GQ Hammerhead
ne
zo
e ar
sh Cosmo zon
e
ay
dw ea
r
Mi sh
a d one
rhe rz
e shea
mm rey
Ha Ca
e
Vogu

Porphyritic syenite and dikes

Basalt & dolerite sills

BIF-dominated sediments
Breccia lodes Volcanic conglomerate
Major shear zones
Turbidite beds (no BIF)
200 m
Granite
Andesite lavas & domes
Fig. 4. North facing, east-west, composite cross section through the Sunrise Dam, showing the key lithologies, shear zones,
and mineralized domains. Modified after Nugus et al. (2009) and Baker et al. (2010). No vertical exaggeration. The black
stepped line is the outline of the open pit.
1158 WANG ET AL.
Y = octahedral coordinated cations (such as Al3+, Ti4+, Fe2+,
Fe3+ and Mg2+), and Z = tetrahedral coordinated cations (such
as Si4+and Al3+) (Guidotti, 1984). Common white mica min-
erals include: muscovite (KAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2), paragonite
(NaAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2), margarite (CaAl2Al2Si2O10(OH)2), cela-
donite (KMgAlSi4O10(OH)2), and Fe celadonite (KFeAlSi4O10
(OH)2). The three chemical end members, namely muscovite,
Mg celadonite, and Fe celadonite, comprise a Tschermark
substitution solid-solution series ((Al↔Si)tet = (Al↔{Fe2+,Mg,
site vacancy}oct), which involves coupled substitution between
the tetrahedral and octahedral layers (Velde, 1965). Interme-
diate compositions, i.e., lower Al content but higher Si con-
tent, are termed “phengites.” Another common substitution
in white micas is with the interlayer 12-fold coordination site,
where Na and Ca are typically exchanged with K in muscovite,
though the converse is difficult for paragonite as the interlayer
is too tight to accept the relatively large K cation. The high-
est Na/(Na + K) ratios found in natural muscovite is 38 mol
%, whereas the maximum values K/(Na + K) found in natural
paragonite is about 15 mol % (Guidotti and Sassi, 1998).
Temperature, pressure, and tschermark substitution all
affect the K-Na ratios of white micas. Although a white mica
geothermometer using K-Na partitioning has been proposed,
its use as a quantitative geothermometer is questionable (e.g.,
Guidotti and Sassi, 1976; Guidotti, 1984). The Al content of
white mica under high-grade metamorphism changes predict-
ably as a function of pressure (Duke, 1994). However, it is
unknown what drives Tschermark substitution in white mica
at lower metamorphic grades.
Spectroscopy
White micas generate diagnostic absorptions at 1,400, 2,200,
2,350, and 2,450 nm in the SWIR region, which are related to
the vibration of octahedrally coordinated atoms, such as Al3+,
Fe2+, Fe3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cr3+, and Ti4+ with hydroxyl groups
(Clark et al., 1990; Beran, 2002). Other dioctahedral silicate
minerals like kaolinite and montmorillonite also have absorp-
tion features overlapping with a number of the white mica
features though they can be recognized and separated based
on other specific spectral attributes, such as kaolinite’s dou-
blet at 2,165 and 2,206 nm (Clark et al., 1990). The white mica
2,200-nm absorption in particular is related to a combination
of stretching and bending vibrations of the octahedral Al3+ (υ
+ δ) with OH (Bishop et al., 2008). Our study showed that
the white mica spectral absorption minimum ranges in wave-
length from 2,190 to 2,220 nm. Hereafter, white mica with an
absorption centered at wavelengths longer than 2,200 nm are
called longer wavelength micas (Al-poor and Si-rich phengitic
mica), whereas those shorter than 2,200 nm are called shorter
wavelength micas (Al-rich and Si-poor muscovite-paragonite).
Analytical Techniques
VNIR-SWIR drill core logging
VNIR and SWIR reflectance spectra spanning the wave-
length range between 400 and 2,500 nm were acquired with
a HyChips 6.4 instrument from 24 diamond drill hole (DDH)
cores from the Sunrise Dam mine at the GQ orebody and
42 DDH cores (surface and underground) from the Kanowna
Belle mine. The DDH spectral data were then processed using
the Spectral Geologist Software™ (TSG; Version 7.1.0.062) to
extract the wavelength, depth and geometry of the white mica
absorptions in the SWIR (Table A1), as well as any other min-
erals that might contribute to hydrothermal alteration foot-
print, for comparison with other quantitative analytical data.
TSG was also used to spatially plot the spectral and ancillary
data along selected drill cores enabling the recognition of any
alteration zonations. More detailed three-dimensional analy-
sis was conducted using Leapfrog™ and ioGAS™.
VNIR-SWIR sample spectra
An ASD Field Spec 4 (ASD-FS4 Hi-Res) field-portable spec-
trometer that measures reflectance between 350 and 2,500 nm
was used to measure individual rock and thin section samples.
The ASD-FS4 Hi-Res has a spectral resolution of ~3 nm @
700 nm, and ~8 nm @ 1,400/2,100 nm. The sample area mea-
sured using the Field Spec 4 Hi-Res depends on the distance
between the sample and instrument foreoptics though when
used in contact mode, the sample width is approximately
10  mm. ASD-FS4 contact mode spectra were measured on
rock chips taken from DDH GDD 438, KDU 1595, and KDU
1648 from Kanowna Belle and WATO220, MAKO2084, and
UGD1940 from Sunrise Dam. These samples cover a variety
of lithology, textures including veins, alteration styles, white
mica compositions, and gold grades.
Electron microprobe analyses
Major element compositions of individual crystals of white
mica, chlorite, carbonate, tourmaline, alkali, and plagioclase
feldspar in thin section and polished blocks were analyzed by
electron microprobe at the Centre for Microscopy, Character-
ization and Analysis (CMCA), University of Western Australia,
Australia, to help constrain paragenesis. Electron microprobe
data were acquired on a JEOL 8530F instrument equipped
with five WD spectrometers. Instrument conditions were
a take-off angle of 40°, an accelerating voltage of 15 kV, and
15 nA beam current. The beam diameter was set to 4 μm. A
suite of propriety elements, silicates and oxides, were used for
calibration. The intensity data was corrected for Time Depen-
dent Intensity loss (or gain), using a self-calibrated correction
for Si, Ti, Mn, K, and Na. The MAN background correction
was used throughout, with intensity data calibrated and con-
tinuum absorption corrected for Si, Mg, Ti, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ca, K,
Al, Na, and Ni ka (Donovan and Tingle, 1996). Unknown and
standard intensities were corrected for deadtime. Interference
corrections were applied to Fe for interference by Mn, and to
Mn for interference by Cr (Donovan et al., 1993). Detection
limits ranged from 0.008 wt % for Al ka to 0.010 wt % for K ka
to 0.014 wt % for V ka to 0.014 wt % for Cr ka to 0.034 wt %
for Ni ka. Oxygen was calculated by cation stoichiometry and
included in the matrix correction. The ZAF correction proce-
dure utilized was Armstrong/Love Scott (Armstrong, 1988).
PIXE
The major and trace element compositions of selected pyrite
grains from Kanowna Belle were analyzed with particle induced
X-ray emission (PIXE) microscopy using 3-MeV protons on
the CSIRO Nuclear Microprobe (NMP) to constrain its rela-
tionship with gold mineralization. A dynamic analysis method
uses a matrix transform to unmix characteristic elemental
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1159

spectral components from PIXE/SXRF event streams to build
elemental images that strongly reject overlap interference
and detector response artefacts Ryan (2001). Proton dose at
each image was 50 pC/pixel to ensure ppm level sensitivity
to most elements above Si. The minor/trace element channel
used a 300-mm Al filter to attenuate contributions from Fe
and S, thereby reducing instrumentation saturation affording
larger beam currents and better statistics for trace elements.
The resulting images are stored in ppm-charge/flux units and
interrogated directly to determine the concentrations of all
detected elements in portions of the images using the inter-
active GeoPIXE II software. Correcting for systematic shifts
in concentration by the self-attenuation of X-rays, leaving the
sample from some depth, is handled using an assumed host
matrix of FeS2. This may introduce some small inaccuracy in
concentration for highly As rich fabrics. Final fitting param-
eters extracted by GeoPIXE were then used to generate ele-
ment maps for As, Ni, Co, and Cu as well as all other minor
and trace element concentrations.
Sulfur isotope
Whole rock bulk analysis: BIF, deformed rocks, greenstones,
metasedimentary rocks, and porphyry rocks were selected
from Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam for cleaning and
crushing. Sulfur isotope analyses of whole-rock powders were
carried out at the stable isotope lab of Metallogeny and Min-
eral Assessment, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences
(CAGS), Beijing. Sulfur was extracted with a continuous-flow
device, wherein 0.1 to 0.3 mg of sulfide was converted to SO2 in
an EA-IsoPrime isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Euro3000,
GV Instruments). Data are reported using the delta notation
in ‰ relative to the Cañon Diablo Troilite (CDT).
In situ SIMS analysis: Microdrilled pyrite-bearing pieces
(2–5 mm diam) from Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam were
fixed by epoxy on a standard 25-mm-diam mount. The mount
was grounded and polished using diamond pads, cleaned, and
then coated with 30 nm of Au for isotopic analysis by SIMS.
Multiple sulfur isotope compositions (δ34S, δ33S, and D33S)
were determined using the Cameca IMS 1280 multicollector
ion microprobe at the Centre for Microscopy, Characteriza-
tion and Analysis at Universty of Western Australia following
the procedures illustrated in LaFlamme et al. (2016). Instru-
mental mass fractionation was corrected using the matrix-
matched standard Sierra pyrite (δ33S = 1.09‰ and δ34S =
2.17‰; LaFlamme et al., 2016). The 2σ uncertainty of δ34S is
0.18‰, and the 2σ uncertainty of δ33S is 0.19‰, based on the
repeated measurements of internal reference material Sierra
during the course of the analyses.
Thermodynamic modeling
The Geochemist’s Workbench® (GWB, Bethke, 2008) was
used to generate phase diagrams of the predominant spe-
cies of white micas and coexisting minerals as function of pH
and activity of SiO2(aq). The thermodynamic properties for
silicate minerals are from Holland and Powell (1998), with
the exception of the tourmaline (Garofalo et al., 2000). The
other properties were taken from HCh thermodynamic data-
base (Sharov and Bastrakov, 1999). All minerals are consid-
ered ideal stoichiometric phases, and their activities are taken
as unity at the temperature and pressure of interest. Also for
modeling purposes, the aqueous fluid is treated as pure water,
i.e., activity of H2O is taken as unity at a given pressure and
temperature and not included in any of the formalism.
Results: Alteration and Gold Mineralization
Kanowna Belle
Plots of the logged geology and wavelength of the white mica
absorption around 2,200 nm for 42 drill holes at Kanowna Belle
(Figs. 5, 6, respectively) show an apparent spatial association
between areas of gold mineralization (defined in Fig. 6A by a
1.5 g/t shell, using an interpolation model with Leapfrog Geo)

Lithology
B
M
P
S
U
V
KDU1352
X
KDU0193 KDU0656
KDU0030
KDU0975
KDU1839
KDU1595 KBD013
GDD438
KDU0612

KDU0644
KDU1648 KDU0417 KDU0463
KDU0074
KDU0509 KDU0768 KDU0976
4
38
U1
KDU0898 KD KDU0738
KDU0758 KDU0756
Gold (1.5g/t)
KDU1387
KDU1388 KDU1393
KDU0782 KDU1237
KDU0507
KDU0506
KDU1043
KDU1234

Looking down
KDU1197
KDU1642 KDU1214

0 250 500m
KDU1447

Fig. 5. Leapfrog Geo model showing that gold mineralization occurs within or around porphyry intrusions in Kanowna Belle.
The 1.5-ppm gold shell is estimated with interpolant model by Leapfrog Geo. The lithology in Kanowna Belle has been sim-
plified as follows: B = breccias, M = mylonites, P = porphyry intrusions, S = metasedimentary rocks, U = ultramafic rocks, V
= veins, X = other minor rock types, such as lamprophyres.
1160 WANG ET AL.

white mica wavelength (nm)

A 2220
2215
2210
2205
KDU1352
2200
KDU0193 KDU0656
KDU0030
KDU0975 2195
KDU1839
KDU1595 GDD438 KBD013 2190
KDU0612
2185
KDU0644
KDU0417
KDU1648 KDU0463
KDU0074
KDU0509 KDU0768 KDU0976
4
38
U1
KDU0898 KD KDU0738
KDU0758 KDU0756
Gold (1.5g/t)
KDU1387
KDU1388 KDU1393
KDU0782 KDU1237
KDU0507
KDU0506 KDU1043
KDU1234

Looking down
KDU1197
KDU1642
KDU1214

0 250 500m
KDU1447

Au value (ppm)

B GDD438
white mica spectral abundance

white mica wavelength (nm)

C 2200

D=124 m
Reflectance (stacked)

D=244 m

D=354 m

1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400

Wavelength in nm
Fig. 6. Kanowna Belle drill core data showing the following: (A) both the location of gold (yellow 1.5-ppm shell) and the
wavelength (nm) of the white mica absorption near 2,200 nm; (B) White mica abundance vs. wavelength (nm) of the white
mica absorption near 2,200 nm (see Table A1 for white mica scripts) of representative drill hole GDD438, color coded with
gold assay, showing high gold values associated with long wavelength (2,208–2,218) micas; (C) SWIR reflectance spectra of
selected samples from GDD 438. Measured using averaged 1-m intervals of the HyLogger drill core data.

and longer wavelength (Si-rich) white mica (2205–2215  nm). long wavelength micas (Fig. 6B, C). There is also an apparent
For example, a white mica spectral abundance plot of Al-OH spatial association between felsic porphyry intrusions (red in
absorption features and SWIR spectra from drill hole GDD 438 Fig. 5) and gold mineralization, with both presumably sharing
show that samples with high gold values are characterized with the same structural pathways of faults and lithologic contacts.
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1161

Mesoscopically, white mica occurs in veinlets and/or dis-
seminated through the wall rock, both of which also show spa-
tial association with native gold or electrum (Fig. 7). Both are
crosscut by (late) quartz veins with no white mica or gold (Fig.
7). In the highly altered gold-rich zone, the dominant miner-
alogical assemblage is disseminated phengite + albite + quartz
+ ankerite + pyrite (Fig. 8A, B) ± rare magnetite. No para-
gonite and rare chlorite are also characteristic. The ankerite
comprises both late-stage Fe-rich overgrowths and earlier
Mg-rich ankerite cores within veins. The Fe ankerite also
formed crosscutting veinlets (Fig. 8C). In the weakly altered
(=gold poor) zone, the dominant mineralogical assemblage is
disseminated muscovite-paragonite + albite + quartz ± tour-
maline. Note that paragonite appears to be closely (tempo-
rally and spatially) associated with tourmaline, such as in drill
hole KDU 1648 (Fig. 8F). This mineral assemblage dissolves
early-stage quartz. Zones of high strain show evidence for an
earlier generation of long-wavelength white mica that was
later overprinted by a shorter wavelength white mica, includ-
ing paragonite (Fig. 8D–F).
Sunrise Dam
The logged geology for 24 drill holes across Sunrise deposit
indicates that in contrast to Kanowna Belle, felsic porphyry
intrusions are relatively uncommon (red in Fig. 9) and those
that do exist show weak to no apparent spatial association
with gold mineralization. Orebodies are largely located within
northwest shear/fault zones that crosscut stratigraphic lay-
ering. The orebody, as defined by the modeled 1.5-g/t shell
(interpolation using Leapfrog Geo), in general, is spatially
associated with shorter wavelength (Si-poor; 2190–2205)
white mica (paragonite and muscovite; Fig. 10A). Plots of
white mica Al OH spectral absorption features classified by
gold abundance for drill core UGD1683 illustrate this trend
of short wavelength micas associated with gold mineralization
in more detail (Fig. 10B, C).
Mesoscopically, white mica is commonly deformed (bent)
at the Sunrise Dam mine especially in mineralized faults or
shears (Fig. 11A). Pyrite pressure shadows are also common
in the shear zone (Fig. 11B). In the highly altered (=gold rich)
zone, as well as high-strain zones with shorter wavelength
micas (2190–2197 nm), the dominant mineralogical assem-
blage is quartz + calcite + ankerite + paragonite + muscovite
± chlorite (Fig. 12A–D). Several types of carbonate minerals
occur in the highly altered zone, including calcite, ankerite,
and dolomite. Sparse dolomite forms in the early stage and is
commonly replaced by zoned ankerite. Calcite grains occur
as inclusions in ankerite. Gold grains occur as inclusions in
quartz and ankerite, and some grains intergrow with para-
gonite, chlorite, and calcite. Based on mesoscopic features,
two styles of gold mineralization are recognized. One type of
gold grows with paragonite and quartz. The other type of gold
grows with calcite, and they are either disseminated in anker-
ite or crosscut quartz veins with paragonite alteration in the
wall rock (Fig. 13). In the weakly altered (=gold poor) zone
with longer wavelength micas (2202–2215 nm), the dominant
mineral assemblage is phengite + chlorite + pyrite + albite
(Fig. 12E, F).
White Mica Geochemical Compositions
Kanowna Belle
The chemical composition of white mica grains measured by
EPMA, show the development of three end members, namely

Au

1cm
B
Phengite
Quartz

Ank
Phengite Ank
vein

1cm
Fig. 7. Kanowna Belle polished drill core samples that have been element mapped, using a Bruker M4 TORNADO Micro-
XRF spectrometer at CSIRO, Kensington, to locate regions of interest for high-resolution SEM studies. The map shows the
SEM scanning result of drill core sample (GDD 358 349.75) with gold mineralization (A), which disseminated in the ankerite
(Ank) vein and surrounded phengitic alteration zone (red dashed polygon). All these are crosscut by late-stage quartz veins
(B). Disseminated pyrite is not associated with gold shown within blue dashed polygon.
1162 WANG ET AL.

A Ab B C
Qtz Qtz

Phen Ab Phen Ank (Fe-rich)

Ank Qtz

Phen
Py
Ank
Phen Py Ank
(Mg-
Ank rich)
Ank Ab

Ank h)
e-ric
An k (F
Ank
100 um Ank 100 um 55 um
2219 2217 2203

D E F
Ms Ank
Pa
Py Pa Ab
Chl Ab
Ab Ms Pa Ms
Ms
Pa
Ms Ms Qtz Qtz
Chl Pa
Pa Ank Py
Ms
Pa Ab Tour

35 um Ab 2195 35 um 2195 35 um 2192

Fig. 8. Backscatter electron (BSE) images (rainbow color mode) of polished samples from Kanowna Belle showing the fol-
lowing: (A) phengite and ankerite in the matrix of albite; (B) mineral assemblage of ankerite + quartz + phengite, which grows
around zoned pyrite with inclusions of phengite; (C) ankerite with compositional variations between late-stage (including cross-
cutting veinlets) Fe-rich (green) intergrown with quartz (orange) and earlier formed Mg-rich (yellow) veins; (D) muscovite
(green) is altered to paragonite (yellow) in the matrix of albite; (E) muscovite (green) intergrown with albite (yellow-orange)
and ankerite (blue-green) in the contact zone of albite with some muscovite grains partly altered to paragonites (yellow); (F)
large euhedral tourmaline (yellow), anhedral quartz lath-shaped muscovite (green) crystals overprinted by a zone of foliated
(strained) finer grained paragonite (yellow) and pyrite. The measured “bulk” wavelength of the 2,200-nm spectral feature is
labeled at the right bottom for each sample. The white bars are for scale. Mineral abbreviations: Ab = albite, Ank = ankerite,
Chl = chlorite, Ms = muscovite, Pa = paragonite, Phen = phengite, Py = pyrite, Qtz = quartz, Tour = tourmaline.

(1) phengite (Si-rich and Al-poor), (2) muscovite (Si-poor and Fig. 14). The corresponding SWIR absorption wavelengths
Al-rich), and (3) paragonite (Si-poor and Al-rich; Table A2, range from 2,193 nm (paragonite and muscovite) to 2217 nm
(phengite). EPMA measurements of Si, AlIV, AlVI, Ti, Fe, Mg,
UGD101 CD889 Lithology Na, K, F, and OH atom per formula (apfu) all show system-
UGD100
BC
BI
atic changes with the 2,200-nm absorption wavelength (Fig.
DI 14) consistent with the level of Tschermak substitution ([Mg,
FI
UGD765 L Fe]*Si = AlIV*AlVI), i.e., longer wavelength correspond to
UGD1687 UGD1685 M
higher Si, Fe2+, and Mg2+ contents and lower AlIV and AlVI
UGD1688
Gold (1.5g/t) S
V contents. The cation Ti4+ has similar size (ionic radii) with Fe
UGD1776
UGD1686
(Fe2+ = 0.74, Fe3+ = 0.64) and Mg (Mg2+ = 0.66) and so can
UGD1682
easily substitute for Fe and Mg but it has contrasting valence
UGD1943 state, which explains why long wavelength micas have a wide
UGD1683 range of Ti values (0–0.05 apfu), whereas the short wavelength
CD615 UGD1941
UGD904 micas all have low Ti values (<0.01 apfu; Fig. 14D). Although

UGD902 UGD1158

Fig. 9. Leapfrog Geo model showing the lithology and gold mineralization in
Sunrise Dam. The 1.5-ppm gold shell is estimated with interpolant model by
UGD906
UGD901 W Leapfrog Geo. The lithology in Sunrise Dam has been simplified as follows:
BC = breccias, BI = banded iron formations, DI = dolerite and gabbros, FI =
0 250 500m felsic intrusions, L = lamprophyres, M = mylonites and schists, S = metasedi-
mentary rocks, V = volcanic rocks.
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1163

white mica wavelength (nm)

A UGD101 CD889
2220 A B
UGD100
2215
2210
UGD765
UGD1687 UGD1685
2205 Ank

UGD1688
Gold (1.5g/t) 2200
2195
UGD1776 2190
UGD1686
2185
UGD1682
Pg
UGD1943

UGD1683
Ank
CD615 UGD1941
UGD904

UGD902 UGD1158
50 um 50 um

UGD906
W
A
UGD901

0 250 500m
B

Au value (ppm) Py
Ank
B UGD1683
Qtz Qtz
white mica spectral abundance

Pg Py
Pg
Ank

50 um 50 um
white mica wavelength (nm)
Fig. 11. Microscopic images showing the mineralogy within shear zones
C of the Sunrise Dam deposit: (A) bent paragonite crosscutting ankerite, (B)
2200 bent paragonite intergrown with pyrite with quartz pressure shadows. Ank =
ankerite, Pg = paragonite, Py = pyrite, Qtz = quartz.
D=208.9 m

Sunrise Dam
Reflectance (stacked)

The chemical composition of white mica grains measured by

D=108.8 m
D=112.7 m
400 800 1200
Wavelength in nm
Fig. 10. Sunrise Dam drill core data showing: (A) both the location of gold
(yellow-colored 1.5-ppm shell) and the wavelength (nm) of the white mica
absorption near 2,200 nm, (B) white mica abundance vs. wavelength (nm) of
the white mica absorption near 2,200 nm (see Table A1 for white mica scripts)
of representative drill hole KDU1683, color coded with gold assay, showing
high gold values associated with short wavelength (2,190–2,200 nm) micas,
(C) VNIR-SWIR reflectance spectra of selected samples from UGD 1683.
Measured using averaged 0.1-m intervals of the HyLogger drill core data.
EPMA for Sunrise Dam (Table A3, Fig. 15) show that Si, AlIV,
AlVI, Mg, Na, and K vary systematically with the wavelength
position of the 2,200-nm white mica absorption. However,
these patterns are poorer compared with Kanowna Belle (Fig.
15). In particular, Fe shows no apparent relationship with
wavelength, and this explains the poor pattern to Fe/(Fe +
1600 2000 2400 Mg) ratios (compare Figs. 14L, 15L), though scarce data are
available for a statistical comparison.
Long wavelength mica at Sunrise Dam have low Na (0.01–
0.05 apfu) values but high K values (0.90–0.99 apfu). Their
K/Na ratios range from 17.52 to 100.38 (with an average of
45.02), the shorter wavelength micas have lower K/Na ratios
with ranges of 0.06 to 12.50 (with an average of 6.37). The F
values of white micas from Sunrise Dam are quite scattered
(below 0.07 apfu).

Geochemistry of Carbonate, Chlorite,

Feldspar, and Pyrite
total Fe and Mg both increase from short to long wavelength
(Fig. 14E, F, respectively), the Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios show that Kanowna Belle
the most phengitic have low relative Fe content. Such varia- Carbonate minerals are pervasive across the Kanowna Belle
tion in Fe/(Fe + Mg) might be related to geochemical varia- deposit and include calcite, ankerite, and dolomite, though
tions of host rocks, which are discussed in the following part calcite and dolomite are relatively rare compared to ankerite.
of thermodynamic modeling. The ankerite + white mica + quartz assemblage is the most
1164 WANG ET AL.

A Cc B C
Au Au Qtz
Qtz Chl
Qtz Chl
Ank Ank Au Qtz
Pg
Au An
Cc Qtz k
Au (M
Au Pg
Chl g-
ric
h)
Ank
Ank Au

Qtz
Cc Qtz
Au
60 um 40 um 70 um Au 2197
2197 Qtz Pg 2197

D E F Py
Ank Ms
Ank Chl Phen
Phen Rt
Chl

Py Phen Py
Ank
Pg
Ab Tour Tour
Pg Qtz Rt
Chl
Qtz
Pg
20 um 80 um 40 um
2197 2202 2212
Fig. 12. BSE images (rainbow color mode) of polished samples from Sunrise Dam, showing the following: (A) gold (gray)
blebs often intergrow with anhedral calcite (green) within larger poikilitic ankerite crystals in a matrix of quartz; (B) gold
grains developed in fabric defined by paragonite; (C) gold grains distributed in ankerite, quartz, and chlorite but no visible
white mica; (D) muscovite + quartz grow in the contact zone of ankerite and quartz, (E) late-stage tourmaline + chlorite veins
crosscutting albite + white mica, (F) phengite (orange), rutile (green) included in pyrites (blue). The measured “bulk” wave-
length of the 2,200-nm spectral feature for each sample is labeled at the right bottom. The white bars are for scale. Mineral
abbreviations: Ab = albite, Ank = ankerite, Cc = calcite, Chl = chlorite, Do = dolomite, Pa = paragonite, Phen = phengite, Py
= pyrite, Qtz = quartz, San = sanidine, Tour = tourmaline.

A B
common alteration type associated with gold mineralization
with the Fe/(Fe + Mg) composition of ankerite ranging from
Disseminated white micas
Au 0.02 to 0.56 (Table A4).
Au
Cc
Q
tz Chlorite is relatively rare and found essentially in distal
ve
in alteration, short wavelength mica zones, intergrown with
muscovite, paragonite, pyrite, and tourmaline (Fig. 8D) in
Cc
veins as well as being disseminated in wall rock. It also over-
prints gold-related white mica-ankerite-quartz alteration. The
Cc
Au chlorite Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios range from 0.49 to 0.60 (Table
A5). In short wavelength mica zones, tourmalines intergrown
Au with chlorite have Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios ranging from 0.36 to
0.52 (Table A6).
Feldspars include albite and alkali feldspar (Table A7).
Albite occurs both in proximal and distal zones while ortho-
clase only occurs in the highly altered zones.
Q
tz
ve
in
Disseminated white micas

Fig. 13. SEM chemical maps at Sunrise Dam drill core sample (UGD 148-
25.4) (A-B), showing how gold has grown with calcite, which crosscuts a
quartz vein (yellow dashed line) with muscovite in the wall rock. Mineral
0.5 cm 0.5 cm abbreviations: Cc = calcite, Qtz = quartz.
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1165

2220 2220 2220 2220

A B C D
2215 2215 2215 2215

2210 2210 2210 2210

2200 nm position

2205 2205 2205 2205

2200 2200 2200 2200

2195 2195 2195 2195

2190 2190 2190 2190

2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Si (apfu) Al (apfu)
IV
Al (apfu)
VI Ti (apfu)
2220 2220 2220 2220
E F G H
2215 2215 2215 2215
2200 nm position

2210 2210 2210 2210

2205 2205 2205 2205

2200 2200 2200 2200

2195 2195 2195 2195

2190 2190 2190 2190

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Fe (apfu) Mg (apfu) Na (apfu) K (apfu)
2220 2220 2220 2220
K L
I
2215 2215 2215 2215
2200 nm position

2210 2210 2210 2210

2205 2205 2205 2205

2200 2200 2200 2200

2195 2195 2195 2195

J
2190 2190 2190 2190
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 1.955 1.96 1.965 1.97 1.975 1.98 1.985 1.99 1.995 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

F (apfu) OH (apfu) K/Na Fe/(Fe+Mg)

Fig. 14. Electron microprobe analysis on Kanowna Belle white micas from long- to short-wavelength mica zone (2,217–
2,193-nm, rainbow color mode, with longer wavelength, Si-rich white micas are orange and red), Si, AlIV, AlVI, Ti, Fe, Mg, Na,
K, F, OH, K/Na, and Fe/(Fe + Mg) show systematic changes.

Pyrite is widely disseminated in the matrix of fine-grained 12A). Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios of ankerites range from 0.01 to 0.49
white mica, ankerite, calcite, and quartz. Some pyrites occur (Table A8) and show a decreasing trend from the paragonite-
as veinlets in the mine. Pyrites are mostly euhedral with eas- muscovite to the phengite zone. Similarly, chlorite Fe/(Fe
ily recognized shapes. The pyrites in the Kanowna Belle are + Mg) ratios range from 0.10 to 0.51 (Table A9) with proxi-
common with As-rich zonation, which also includes gold (Fig. mal alteration associated with scattered Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios
16). Early-stage pyrite with sieve-like texture includes mineral (0.10–0.51), while distal alteration has low and clustered Fe/
grains of albite, phengite, and orthoclase. This suggests that (Fe + Mg) ratios (0.22–0.38). Tourmaline has Fe/(Fe + Mg)
the native gold and electrum inclusions occurred along inter- ratios between 0.20 and 0.41 (Table A10).
mediate-stage As-rich pyrite bands or in cavities of pyrites. Feldspars include albite, alkali feldspar, and orthoclase
The As-rich pyrites are commonly surrounded by the latest (Table A11). In the distal zone, the dominant feldspar is albite
stage As-poor pyrite rims. Most of the pyrites have only one with minor alkali feldspar with Na/K ratios between 1.42 and
As-rich pyrite mantle (Fig. 16A, B, F, I), though a few show 1.86, whereas the proximal zone is all alkali feldspar with
two or three cycles of As enrichment (Fig. 16D, H). The As- Na/K ratios below 0.89.
rich pyrites are also associated with enrichment of other ele- Pyrite is common with most pyrite grains being euhe-
ments, such as Cu, Ni, Zn, Ag, Sn, Ga, Y, Sb, Te, and La. dral and relatively homogeneous in composition, i.e., no As
zonation, though a number of pyrites have sieve-like tex-
Sunrise Dam tures, As-rich cores, and inclusions of phengite, quartz, and
In the proximal alteration zone, calcite is commonly inter- K-feldspar (Fig. 12F). Sulfides mostly occur in the distal
grown with gold and overprinted by ankerite and quartz (Fig. alteration zone.
 1166 WANG ET AL.

2220 2220 2220 2220

A B C D
2215 2215 2215 2215

2210 2210 2210 2210

2200 nm position

2205 2205 2205 2205

2200 2200 2200 2200

2195 2195 2195 2195

2190 2190 2190 2190

2185 2185 2185 2185

2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14

Si (apfu) Al (apfu)
IV
Al (apfu)
VI Ti (apfu)
2220 2220 2220 2220
E F G H
2215 2215 2215 2215

2210 2210 2210 2210

2200 nm position

2205 2205 2205 2205

2200 2200 2200 2200

2195 2195 2195 2195

2190 2190 2190 2190

2185 2185 2185 2185

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Fe (apfu) Mg (apfu) Na (apfu) K (apfu)

2220 2220 2220 2220
I K L
2215 2215 2215 2215
2200 nm position

2210 2210 2210 2210

2205 2205 2205 2205

2200 2200 2200 2200

2195 2195 2195 2195

2190 2190 2190 2190

J
2185 2185 2185 2185
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 1.92 1.93 1.94 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.98 1.99 2 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

F (apfu) OH (apfu) K/Na Fe/(Fe+Mg)

Fig. 15. Electron microprobe analysis on Sunrise Dam white micas from long- to short-wavelength mica zone (2,215–2,190-
nm, rainbow color mode, with longer wavelength, Si-rich white micas are orange and red), Si, AlIV, AlVI, Ti, Fe, Mg, Na, K, F,
OH, K/Na, and Fe/(Fe + Mg) show systematic changes.

Pyrite Sulfur Isotope and Redox Conditions (Fig. 17). Ore-related pyrites in Kanowna Belle show zona-
Pyrites in the Sunrise Dam deposit are dominated by posi- tions. Pyrite has an As-rich core with visible gold, and has
tive δ34S isotope values (avg 1.85 ± 1.05, –1.17 to +3.52: Fig. neutral δ34S values (–0.21 to +1.84), whereas, the As-poor
17, Table A12), although a few occurrences of negative δ34S rim is pure pyrite without visible gold, and has low (nega-
values are present in pyrites from magnetite-bearing shales tive) δ34S values (–6.13 to –2.91; Fig. 18B). The δ34S iso-
(Holdkiewicz et al., 2009). These are compatible with whole- tope compositions of pyrites are associated with oxidation
rock bulk δ34S results of BIF (0.9–2.8), metavolcanic rocks state of fluids (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979). The presence and
(0.5–1.1), and porphyry rocks (0.4–1.4) collected in the Sun- absence of visible gold with pyrite variations in As and δ34S
rise Dam region (Table 1). One metasedimentary rock in the values suggest that oxidation state plays a major role in gold
shear zone has exceptionally high δ34S value of 13.6. mineralization.
By contrast, ore-related pyrites in Kanowna Belle are
dominated by negative δ34S values (avg –2.42 ± 2.51, –6.48– Thermodynamic Modeling of Phengitic Micas
1.84: Fig. 17, Table A12). Porphyry as a major host of gold The temperature of white mica formation can be estimated
mineralization is characterized with a low-bulk δ34S value of from coexisting chlorites. Chlorites from Sunrise Dam yielded
–9.2. Pyrites in conglomerate occur as nodules (Fig. 18A) temperatures between 224° and 305°C, using the WinCcac
or framboids and have positive δ34S values between 1.02 program (Cathelineau and Nieva, 1985; Yavuz et al., 2015).
and 7.33. These pyrites have a large variation in Δ33S values Chlorites in the distal phengitic zone show the similar tem-
between –0.01 to 1.23, suggesting the multiple S sources, peratures with those found in the more proximal paragonitic
including Archean sedimentary sulfur and magmatic sulfur and muscovitic zones. Chlorites at Kanowna Belle only occur
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1167

A B I
Fe-As-Au

Au

Au 100 um
10 um

C Fe F Fe-As-Au

100 um
100 um
D As
G

100 um
Fe-As-Au 100 um
E Fe-As-Au
H

100um Fe-As-Au 100 um 100 um

Fig. 16. BSE images showing pyrites from Kanowna Belle with As-rich bands, which intergrow with gold (A-B), proton
induced X-ray emission (PIXE) images, showing Fe-As-Au mapping of pyrites (C-I) from Kanowna Belle. In (D), As is red,
in (E-I), As is yellowish green, and Au is blue.

in the muscovitic and paragonitic zones, which yield chlorite

thermometry temperatures of between 282° and 359°C.
Pressure estimates from CO2-H2O and CO2 inclusions at
Sunrise Dam are between 1,000 and 4,000 bars with a major
population at ~2,000 bars (Baker et al., 2010). No pressure esti-
mates are available for the Kanowna Belle mine. To simplify
the modeling, P-T conditions are set to 2,000 bars and 300°C.
Three end members of muscovite, Mg celadonite, and Fe
celadonite were selected to represent the range of white mica
Tschermak solid solutions expected for the Kanowna Belle
and Sunrise Dam deposits. Their formulas are given below.

End member
– K Na
–
White mica formula        A M2A       T1
                                             
Al Mg Fe Al Si
–
Muscovite 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Mg celadonite 1 0 0 1 0 0 2
Fe celadonite 1 0 0 0 1 0 2

Entropy and coefficients for the heat capacity polynomial Fig. 17. D33S vs. δ34S for pyrites from ore at Sunrise Dam, ore at Kanowna
for the white micas are from Holland and Powell (1998). As Belle, and metasedimentary rocks at Kanowna Belle.
1168 WANG ET AL.

Table 1. Sulfur Isotope Data for Main Lithologies from
the Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam Deposits
Sample no. Location Rock description σ 34SV-CDT‰
GDD438-300 Kanowna Belle Porphyry –9.2
VD10-20-640 Kanowna Belle Porphyry 3.1
872-17.8 Sunrise Dam BIF 0.9
872-23.5 Sunrise Dam BIF 2.8
872-2.7 Sunrise Dam Deformed rock 13.6
2231-86 Sunrise Dam Greenstone 0.5
872-85.7 Sunrise Dam Metasedimentary rock 1.1
UGD2419-34? Sunrise Dam Porphyry 0.4
UGD148-98.5 Sunrise Dam Porphyry 0.5
2231-140.7 Sunrise Dam Porphyry 1.4
white mica solid solution is nonideally formed through mixing
of muscovite, Mg celadonite, and Fe celadonite, asymmetric
mixing model (ASF) interaction energies and their param-
eters (White et al., 2014) were used. Composition variables
such as XNaA, XKA, XAlM2A, XFeM2A, XMgM2A, XAlT1, and
XSiT1 are thus calculated for the end-member proportions in
phengitic micas.
Tschermark substitution is common in phengitic mica
solid solution and involves coupled substitution between
the tetrahedral and octahedral layers ((Al↔Si)tet = (Al↔{Fe2+,
Mg}oct). XFeM2A, XMgM2A are proportional to Fe celadonite
and Mg celadonite components in phengitic mica solid solu-
tions, respectively. Fe-Mg exchange reaction between Mg
celadonite and Fe celadonite is represented by the following:
KMgAlSi4O10(OH)2 (Cel) + Fe2+
= KFeAlSi4O10(OH)2 (Fe-Cel) + Mg2+. (1)
The stability constant of reaction (1) is the following:
             aMg2+aFe–Cel    aMg2+cFe–Cel γFe–Cel    aMg2+XFeM2A γFe–Cel
KCel→Fe–Cel = ————— = ——————– = ———————. (2)
              aFe2+aCel      aFe2+cCel γCel     aFe2+XMgM2A γCel
The activity coefficients of Mg celadonite (γCel) and Fe cela-
donite (γFe–Cel) were calculated according to Holland and Pow-
ell (1998) as follows:
   XFeM2A
log ——–— = log KCel→Fe–Cel + log aFe2+ – log aMg2+ + log γCel – log γFe–Cel. (3)
   XMgM2A
Therefore, proportionality of Fe celadonite and Mg cela-
donite components in phengitic mica solid solutions is a func-
tion of Fe2+ and Mg2+ activities in the solution. The exchange
reaction of octahedral (Al3+, Mg2+, Fe2+) and tetrahedral (Al3+,
Si4+) sites between end members of phengite solid solution
(muscovite, celadonite and Fe celadonite) and related min-
eral alterations in Archean gold system are based on the equa-
tions below:
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 2K+ + 3Mg2+ + 9SiO2(aq) + 6H2O
= 3KMgAlSi4O10(OH)2 + 8H+. (4)
(muscovite to celadonite),
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 2K+ + 3Fe2+ + 9SiO2(aq) + 6H2O
= 3KFeAlSi4O10(OH)2 + 8H+ (5)
(muscovite to Fe-celadonite),
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 2K+ + 6SiO2(aq) = 3KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ (6)
(muscovite to K-feldspar),
3KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + Mg2+ + 2H2O+ 11SiO2(aq)
= KMgAlSi4O10(OH)2 + 4Al2Si4O10(OH)2 + 2K+ (7)
(muscovite to celadonite + pyrophyllite),

A B
)0.77
an
le +1.84
(c
Py -2.91
Py -5.58
-0.03 Gold
-0.21

-4.97

-6.13

-3.71

Py (dirty)
50 um 25 um

C Mag D

Hem Py

Mag
Py

Mag

Hem 25 um
25 um

Fig. 18. Microscopic reflected light images, showing (A) Kanowna Belle pyrite nodules in conglomerate, and (B) Kanowna
Belle zoned pyrites with δ34S values. The orange dashed polygon shows the “dirty” pyrite core, which includes phengite,
albite, and orthoclase and is also As rich; (C) Sunrise Dam pyrite-magnetite-hematite, and (D) Sunrise Dam pyrite-magnetite
with (D) in distal phengitic alteration zones. Abbreviations: Hem = Hematite, Mag = Magnetite, Py = pyrite.
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1169

KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + Na+ = NaAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + K+ (8)
(muscovite to paragonite),
NaAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 2Na+ + 6SiO2(aq) = 3NaAlSi3O8 + 2H+ (9)
(paragonite to albite),
3NaAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 2K+ + 6SiO2(aq)
= 2KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 3NaAlSi3O8 + 2H+ (10)
(paragonite to muscovite + albite),
and
KAlSi3O8 + 3KMgAlSi4O10(OH)2 + 10H2O + 9Mg2+
= 4KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 3SiO2(aq) + 18H+ (11)
(K-feldspar + Fe celadonite to phlogopite).
As most of these reactions are controlled by pH (eqs. 4–6,
9–11) and activity of SiO2(aq) (eqs. 4–7, 9–11), we constructed
the activity-activity diagram by calculating the boundaries of
predominant minerals (phengitic mica solid solutions with
K-feldspar, albite, quartz, pyrophyllite, and phlogopite) in
oversaturated Al3+ solutions (aAl3+ = 1) as functions of pH and
aSiO2(aq). To consider the effect of Fe2+ and Mg2+ activities in
those reactions (1, 4, 5, 7, and 11), a series of calculations were
performed with FeM2A/(FeM2A + MgM2A) ratio of 0.99, 0.5, and
0.01. The calculated reaction boundaries enclose stable zones
of phengitic micas with different compositions (Fig. 19). The
geochemical model predicts that phengitic solid solutions
(muscovite, celadonite, and Fe celadonite) are the predomi-
nant mineral species at pH that varies from 3.4 to 4.6 and
where aSiO2(aq) varies from 0.008 to 0.04. As shown in Figure
19, the low Si muscovite becomes more stable in Si-poor flu-
ids (quartz unstable zone), while silica-rich micas (celadonite
and Fes celadonite) are more stable in Si-rich fluids (quartz
stable zone), as indicated by reaction (4) and (5). The Fe/
(Fe + Mg) ratio of fluids also effects the stability of different
micas: phengitic solid solutions with high Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios
(>0.5) show a larger stable zone than low Fe/(Fe + Mg) micas.
Discussion
Constraints on chemical conditions of white mica
Even though consistent spatial patterns in white mica Tscher-
mak substitution composition and associated minerals (Table
2) are observed at both Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam,
quantitative physiochemical controls on these alteration

-1 Celad

K-feldspar
onite z

Pyrophyllite Phlogopite
one

el
e-C
l+F
Ce X=0.
-1.5 99 Qtz stable zone
X=0.5
Ms X=0 Qtz unstable zone
.01
log a SiO2(aq)

Muscovite

Paragonite
-2
Chlorite
Tou

logaMg2+ = -4 Al3+ solution (aAl3+ = 1)

T=300°C, P=2000bars
rm

logaFe2+ = (-4.5, -6.5, -8.5)

alin

for X=(0.99, 0.5, 0.01)White mica logaH2O=1

logaK+=-1
e zo

X=FeM2A/(FeM2A+MgM2A)
Albite is stable
ne

-2.5

3 4 5 6

pH
Fig. 19. Predominant mica species in phengitic mica solid solutions as functions of pH and aSiO2(aq) in the solution with com-
position of log aK+ = 1, log aMg2+ = –4 (albite is stable). The boundaries of predominant phengitic micas of three different
proportions (X = 0.99, 0.5, and 0.01, where X = FeM2A/(FeM2A + MgM2A)) are shown in yellow, orange, and purple, respectively.
log aFe2+ of –4.5, –6.5, and –8.5 were chosen at X of 0.99, 0.5, and 0.01, respectively. The color for each zone intensifies toward
higher degrees of Tschermark substitution (see green arrows, white micas with high degree of Tschermark substitution have
high proportions of celadonite and Fe celadonite). Abbreviations: Cel = celadonite, Fe-Cel = Fe celadonite, Ms = muscovite,
Qtz = quartz.
1170 WANG ET AL.

Table 2. Key Geochemical-Spectral-Mineral Patterns for the Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam Deposits

  Kanowna Belle Kanowna Sunrise Dam Sunrise Dam

Zone Proximal zone Distal zone Proximal zone Distal zone

White mica Phengite, muscovite Muscovite, paragonite Muscovite, paragonite Phengite, muscovite
2200 spectral absorption 2,205–2,215 2,190–2,205 2,190–2,205 2,205–2,220
  range (nm)
Carbonate mineral Dolomite, ankerite Ankerite Calcite, ankerite Dolomite
Gold coexisting mineral Pyrite, phengite Paragonite, muscovite, calcite Pyrite
Mineral assemblage Phengite+albite+dolomite-quartz+ Muscovite-paragonite+ Calcite+ankerite+muscovite- Phengite+quartz+
  ankerite+pyrite±magnetite   albite+quartz±tourmaline   paragonite+chlorite   chlorite+pyrite+albite
Structure Mineralized fault/shear zones Faults, shear zones Steeply dipping stockwork Shear zones, faults
  adjacent to porphyry intrusions   vein and breccia zones
Lithology Porphyry, sedimentary rocks Conglomerate, volcanic Basalts, dolerite sills, BIF, Porphyry, andesitic lava
  rocks   volcanic sediments
Fluids Oxidized, low Fe/Mg, silica rich, Reduced, high Fe/Mg, silica
  alkaline   poor, CO2 rich, acid
P-T 300°–350°C   1–4 kbars, 280°–320°C
  (Baker et al., 2010)
Depositional mechanism Fluid-rock reaction or Phase separation
  fluid mixing
Ore-fluid characteristics   H2O-CO2±CH4 <2 to 21 wt %
  NaCl equiv (Baker et al., 2010)
Pyrite δ34S –6.48 to 1.84   1.02 to 7.33 –1.17 to 3.52
Pyrite Δ33S   0.10 to 0.46 –0.01 to 1.23 –0.06 to 0.34

patterns have not been well understood. The results from the
current study provide new insights as follows.
Redox: Mg celadonite and Fe celadonite can incorporate a
certain amount of Fe3+ in their formula (K(Fe2+, Mg)(Fe3+,
Al)Si4O10(OH)2), which predicts that phengitic micas with a
high degree of Tschermark substitution (more components
of celadonite and Fe celadonite) are formed in a relatively
oxidized condition. Modeling the fO2 factor in phengitic mica
stability is difficult to quantify especially as EPMA is not
well suited for the measurement of Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio of white
micas. Recognition of magnetite in the distal phengitic zone
at Sunrise Dam, with some magnetite grains being replaced
by hematite rims (Fig. 18C, D), is evidence for oxidized con-
ditions. In contrast, few if any magnetite grains are present
in the proximal muscovitic and paragonitic zones at Sunrise
Dam during gold mineralization.
Pyrite is the dominant sulfide phase in Kanowna Belle, and
few redox-indicative minerals such as magnetite and pyrrho-
tite are evident. However, in the highly altered zone (phen-
gitic mica zone), pyrites have relatively negative δ34S isotope
values (–10 to 0), suggesting oxidized conditions (Neumayr
et al., 2005). Based on the observed alteration mineral assem-
blages and their stable isotope geochemistries, we suggest the
proximal phengitic zone represents relatively oxidized fluids,
in contrast to more distal relatively reduced fluids based on
the presence of muscovitic and paragonitic micas.
pH and Si activity: Ore-fluid pH can be estimated from fluid
inclusions and mineral reactions via thermodynamic model-
ing. In general, muscovite is stable at pH lower than celadonite
and Fe celadonite (end member of phengitic mica). This can
be illustrated with a simple reaction of muscovite (reactions
4, 5) with input of Si, K, Fe/(Fe + Mg) as well as water (such
as from an exotic fluid or dissolution/dehydration of minerals
surrounding wall-rock minerals), which forms phengite and
releases H+. Our modeling suggests the muscovitic compo-
nent in phengitic micas increases with decreasing pH and
aSiO2(aq) as shown by thermodynamic modeling (Fig. 19). This
explains the common occurrence of muscovite in a relatively
acid environment and phengite in a relatively neutral-alkaline
zone such as porphyry deposit system (Halley et al., 2015). In
addition, quartz dissolution texture is common in muscovitic
mica zones, because low aSiO2(aq) destabilizes quartz (Fig. 8F).
Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio: Fe2+ and Mg2+ are important for forma-
tion of white micas, because they are the key components in
the control of white mica Tschermak substitution ((Al↔Si)tet =
(Al↔{Fe2+, Mg}oct. Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios of white micas in the
Sunrise Dam and Kanowna Belle deposits show significant
changes from 0.2 to 0.9. Fe and Mg variables in phengitic mica
are related to the activity of Fe2+ and Mg2+ species in a solu-
tion based on our modeling. The stability of phengitic micas
varies with the change of Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios X in phengitic
                             Fe         xFeM2A
micas from 0.99 to 0.01 (X = —–—— = ————————). Fe-
                          Fe + Mg   xFeM2A + xMgM2A
rich phengitic micas show larger stability zones than Mg-
rich phengitic mica under restricted pH and aSiO2(aq) condi-
tions (Fig. 19). Although white micas at Kanowna Belle and
Sunrise Dam both show a range of short to long wavelength
micas, Sunrise Dam comprises Fe-rich phengite that is rare at
Kanowna Belle. We thus suggest the Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio also
plays a role in driving the white mica Tschermak composition
in these two gold systems.
Common rock types in the Eastern Goldfields, such as
porphyry, greenstone (mafic and ultramafic rocks), BIF, and
other metasedimentary rocks all have different Fe/(Fe + Mg)
ratios. BIF is common at Sunrise Dam (Fig. 4) but not pres-
ent at Kanowna Belle, which is a possible indicator for high
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1171
background levels of Fe at the Sunrise Dam, which could
help explain the formation of both Fe-rich white micas (short-
wavelength) and Fe-rich chlorite.
Fe-Mg compositions of chlorite locally show a strong affili-
ation with their host rocks at both Kanowna Belle and Sunrise
Dam (McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). Chlorite only occurs in
metasedimentary rocks at Kanowna Belle.
The replacement of calcite by ankerite is common in the
Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam deposits. Conversation of
calcite to ankerite can be effected by the following reaction:
3CaCO3 + Fe2+ + Mg2+ = Ca (Fe,Mg)(CO3)2 + 2Ca2+ (12)
(calcite to ankerite).
This replacement reaction occurs by dissolution-precip-
itation coupled on the scale of the original calcite granites
(Pearce et al., 2013).The source of the Fe and Mg are likely
to be locally derived from rocks such as Archean greenstones,
BIF, and ultramafic rocks. The ankerite exhibits geochemical
oscillatory zoning patterns, suggesting the Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio
of fluid flux is not constant.
Integrating all known physical and chemical parameters of
the ore fluids (i.e., P, T, redox, Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios, pH, and
Si activity), we suggest the major controls on the composition
of white micas are pH and silica activity in low temperature
(subamphibolite facies), whereas the Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios of
ore fluids control the stability and abundance of different white
micas and likely associated chlorites and ankerites. Thermo-
dynamic modeling provides greater understanding of the ore-
fluid chemical conditions that drive the change of mineralogy at
these two Archean gold deposits. Increasing silica activity and
pH (Fig. 19) are required to drive the mica changes from mus-
covite to phengite composition (Celadonite and Fe celadonite
represented) in low temperature (200°–400°C). High Fe/(Fe +
Mg) white micas (low-wavelength mica) have the largest stable
zone. Fe-rich lithologies such as BIF and ultramafic rocks are
favorable for formation of high Fe/(Fe + Mg) white mica.
Gold Precipitation Mechanism in Kanowna Belle
and Sunrise Dam
The change of physiochemical conditions of fluids leads to
gold precipitation at the site of ore deposits. Phase separa-
tion has been recognized as an important gold precipitation
mechanism in Archean gold deposit systems (Cox et al., 1995;
Robert et al., 1995; Mikucki, 1998). Fluid inclusion studies
on the Sunrise Dam deposit (Brown et al., 2003; Baker et al.,
2010) suggest that shear failure and pressure transition from
lithostatic to suprahydrostatic and/or hydrostatic pressure is
the main driver of moderate-grade gold mineralization. This
explains how gold precipitates in steeply dipping structures
between shear zones. Pyrite pressure shadows and deformed
white mica veins are commonly associated with gold mineral-
ization in the shear zones. White micas within shear zones are
commonly short wavelength, such as paragonite. In general,
Na contents in white micas are related to the grade of meta-
morphism (Henley, 1970). White micas formed in high-pres-
sure conditions contain more Na. Thus, we think high pressure
in shear zones likely favors the formation of short-wavelength
white micas. In addition, the thermodynamic modeling above
suggests the Fe-rich environment at Sunrise Dam is ideal for
the formation of short-wavelength white micas.
Gold in Kanowna Belle is commonly developed in close
association with sulfide minerals such as pyrite and chalco-
pyrite, suggesting gold was predominantly transported as
bisulfide fluids (Seward, 1973; Phillips and Groves, 1983).
Transportation of gold-bisulfide complex and gold precipita-
tion is mainly controlled by fluid redox state (Roberts, 1987).
Sulfur isotope values are a sensitive redox indicator of ore flu-
ids that can be used to constrain the ore-forming processes.
Pyrites with negative δ34S isotopic compositions are indicative
of oxidized fluid condition, whereas positive values correspond
to reduced condition (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979). Fluid-wall
rock reaction is one principal gold depositional mechanism
in forming Archean gold deposits (e.g., Groves and Phillips,
1987; Mikucki, 1998). This mechanism involves the desta-
bilization of the Au(HS)2– complex. Such destabilization can
happen between reactions of S-rich ore fluids and Fe-bear-
ing host rocks (e.g., Phillips and Groves, 1983), or ore fluids
reduction (e.g., Mikucki et al., 1995; Fougerouse et al., 2016),
or intense CO2 and Ca metasomatism (e.g., Kishida and Ker-
rich, 1987). The sulfur isotope signature (=redox signature)
of Kanowna Belle is quite anomalous compared to the rest of
the Kanowna district (Fig. 20A; a large 5- × 10-km regional
sample set of 199 samples, pers. commun. with Ren SK). The
δ34S values from Kanowna Belle range from –11 to +7, but
with a significant bias toward negative values. The regional
samples have a narrow range tightly clustered around +2 (Fig.
20B). This is the typical signature of Archean gold deposits in
the Yilgarn, because metamorphic fluids and Archean surface
waters were mostly reduced (Cameron and Hattori, 1987).
The most feasible general source for the oxidized fluids in
Kanowna Belle was associated with the intrusion of the felsic
porphyries, which are spatially and temporally related to gold
mineralization. Similar δ34S spatial patterns are also found in
the St. Ives gold camp, where high gold grades occur at the
redox boundaries from pyrrhotite-pyrite to magnetite-hema-
tite-pyrite assemblage (Neumayr et al., 2008). We suggest
that destabilization of Au-bearing oxidized fluids via reaction
with reduced Archean wall rocks or fluids is the principal gold
depositional mechanism in forming Kanowna Belle deposit.
Implication of white mica spectral features
in gold exploration
Understanding a gold mineral system is the prerequisite for
gold exploration. The keys to understand a gold mineral sys-
tem include the recognition of alteration patterns, the gold
precipitation mechanisms, and the influence of large-scale
lithospheric architecture on the localization of mineralization.
Previous studies indicate that gold is deposited along gradients
in mineralogy and chemistry in hydrothermal gold deposits,
and therefore such alteration patterns provide the potential
to track sites of deposition (Neumayr et al., 2008; Walshe et
al., 2008; McCuaig et al., 2010). The characterization of large-
scale footprints of gold-related hydrothermal alteration can
potentially be mapped by combinations of spectral techniques
with structural, mineralogical, and lithogeochemical means.
The spectral studies on Kanowna Belle and Sunrise Dam have
shown contrasting alteration patterns, represented by white
micas, and also chlorites and carbonate minerals. Pyrite sul-
fur isotope analysis also shows contrasting compositions. The
detailed mineralogical and lithogeochemical studies prove
1172 WANG ET AL.

-5.1
A δ34S of pyrites -1.55

-0.025

Kanowna
town +0.08
MGA_North

Kanowna Belle mine

+1.59

+9.46
δ34S

MGA_East

Kanowna Belle; Sulfur Isotope values

40

35
B
Kanowna Belle
30 Regional
No. of measurements

25

20

15

10

0
-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

10

δ 34S
Fig. 20. S isotope contour maps (A) and population diagram (B), showing spatial variations of pyrite δ34S values in the
Kanowna Belle (KB) region (~5 × 10 km). MGA = Map Grid of Australia.
 WHITE MICA: HYPERSPECTRAL TOOL, SUNRISE DAM & KANOWNA BELLE Au DEPOSITS, W. AUSTRALIA 1173
that white mica is an ideal spectral indicator mineral for track-
ing gold mineralization, because the wavelength position of
the Al-OH combination absorption near 2,200 nm of white
micas is controlled by ore fluids. In addition, other hydrother-
mal alteration minerals intergrown with white micas com-
monly show sympathetic changes.
Sunrise Dam is characterized with well-developed shear
zones, which host the majority of gold mineralization. The
geochemical plot of Al2O3 versus TiO2 of porphyry rocks and
orebodies suggest the gold mineralization was not caused
by porphyries (Blenkinshop et al., 2007). The mineralogy is
characterized with shorter wavelength white micas, Fe-rich
chlorites, and low base metals in ore zones. Pyrites are domi-
nated with positive δ34S values. Together with thermodynamic
modeling, we propose that the ore fluids are sodic, acid, high
Fe/(Fe + Mg), and reducing, whereas ore zones at Kanowna
Belle are characterized by longer wavelength white mica,
chalcopyrites, and As-Au-rich pyrite with enrichment of base
metals. In addition, ore-related pyrites at Kanowna Belle are
characterized by negative δ34S values. The gold mineraliza-
tion is spatially related to the porphyries. We suggest reaction
of such oxidized fluids with reduced fluids/host rocks in the
region triggered gold mineralization.
Although the proposed two different fluids in Kanowna Belle
and Sunrise Dam can explain the contrasting compositions
of white micas and coexisting hydrothermal minerals, some
other explanations might also fit the data and modeling. This
study has demonstrated that SWIR hyperspectral signatures
of white micas provide enough variability to link with their
geochemical compositions and therefore can be used to mea-
sure and map alteration zonations as a vector toward Archean
gold systems. For some Archean gold deposits with strong
affinities to porphyry intrusions, we suggest the exploration
target of alteration zones with longer wavelength micas and
pyrites with negative δ34S values. Whereas, for other Archean
gold deposits with strong affinities to Fe-rich metamorphosed
host rocks and shear zones, we suggest the exploration target
of alteration zones with shorter wavelength micas and pyrites
with positive δ34S values. Considering the complex geology of
Archean gold deposits, interpretation of hyperspectral maps
should be cautious. The Tschermark control in white micas is
different with T and P. This study based on the two Archean
gold deposits in a relatively low metamorphism facies (sub-
amphibolite facies) has its limitation to interpret the white
mica distribution in higher metamorphism facies. Additional
work targeting white micas in high P-T alteration zones will
complement our study.
Conclusions
With application of SWIR hyperspectral technique, differ-
ent hydrothermal alteration mineral patterns, especially rep-
resented by white micas, were found in the Kanowna Belle
and Sunrise Dam deposits. This study shows that spectral
detection of a gradient of 2,190 to 2,220 nm in white mica
Tschermak substitution composition is coupled with gold
mineralization and other key alteration minerals such as
quartz, chlorite, carbonate, and sulfides. White micas in ore
zones of Kanowna Belle are dominated by phengite (long-
wavelength white mica) and characterized by high Si, Fe, Mg,
Ti, K, and F values, and low Na/K and Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios. In
contrast, white micas in ore zones at Sunrise Dam are mostly
paragonite and muscovite (short-wavelength white mica), with
enrichment in AlIV, AlVI, Fe, Mg, and Na and with associated
high Fe/(Fe + Mg) and Na/K ratios. In addition, gold miner-
alization at Kanowna Belle shows apparent clear relationships
with the emplacement of porphyries and development of
chalcopyrite and As-rich pyrite. In contrast, gold mineraliza-
tion at Sunrise Dam is associated with higher localized stress/
strain (pressure) and the development of Fe-rich chlorites
and carbonate minerals. These features suggest that ore flu-
ids in Kanowna Belle were likely alkaline, oxidized, silica-rich,
whereas ore fluids in Sunrise Dam were likely sodic, acid, high
Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratio, and reducing. Thermodynamic modeling
helps explain the observed patterns in white mica Tschermak
substitution, including the importance of pH and silica activ-
ity and the role of host-rock Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios. The detailed
mineralogical and lithogeochemical studies presented here
indicate that hyperspectral SWIR measurement of white mica
Tschermak composition could be a useful tool for mapping
related alteration vectors toward Archean gold systems.
Acknowledgments
This study is funded by the CSIRO OCE postdoc three-year
(2014–2017) white mica project. AngloGold Ashanti and
Northern Star are thanked for providing digital data and assis-
tance in collecting drill core samples. We thank John “Lyle”
Mars for handling our manuscript, and Greg Swayze and
Neil Phillips for providing constructive comments. We thank
Cindy Ong, Mike Caccetta, Ian Lau, Erick Ramanaidou,
Martin Wells, and Na Guo for constructive discussions in our
spectral sensing group meeting. Louis Fisher, Mark Pearce,
and Belinda Godel are thanked for providing Sunrise Dam
rock samples. Heejin Jeon is thanked for in situ S isotope
SIMS analyses, Mike Verrall is thanked for mineral SEM
work. Weihua Liu and Joel Brugger are thanked for construc-
tive discussion about phengitic solid solutions. Stefano Caruso
is thanked for constructive discussion about S isotope results.
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