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This study investigated (a) the relationship of test anxiety to academic perfor-
mance in college students, (b) differences in study-related behaviors between
high and low test-anxious individuals, and (c) differential effectiveness of
study-related behaviors for both groups. Subjects were 65 high and 31 low
test-anxious first-semester freshmen. Results demonstrated a significant
decrement in grade-point average associated with test anxiety. High test-
anxious students were also found to have poorer study skills. For high test-
anxious students; quality of study habits and amount of study time were posi-
tively related to academic performance, whereas missing classes and delaying
e&ams were inversely related to performance. Findings are discussed in terms
of the prevailing interference model of test anxiety.
Test anxiety has developed from a novel 1971). Support for the existence of such
research area in the 1950s to a field of major responses has come from the work of Morris
educational interest. The scope of the and Liebert (1970) on the emotional and
problem of test anxiety is documented by cognitive components of test anxiety. The
literally dozens of studies examining ways of cognitive component, called worry, has been
treating test-anxious individuals (Spielber- shown to correlate strongly with academic
ger, Anton, & Bedell, 1975). Studies relating performance. Wine (1971) suggested that
test anxiety to academic performance in the debilitating effects of test anxiety on
college students have generally supported performance may have an attentional ex-
the finding that test anxiety is associated planation. Wine feels that high test-anxious
with a significant performance decrement students become preoccupied with (task-
reflected in students' grade point averages irrelevant) worry responses and do not de-
(GPAs) (Allen, Lerner, Wayne, & Hinrich- vote enough attention to the test-taking
sen, 1972; Alpert & Haber, 1960; Carrier & task.
Jewell, 1966; Desiderate & Koskinen, The interference model assumes that the
1969). effect of test anxiety on performance occurs
Current test-anxiety theory is based pri- in the testing situation; that is, anxiety
marily on an interference model. Anxiety during tests interferes with the student's
is thought to produce task-irrelevant re- ability to retrieve and use information that
sponses (concern for passing, thoughts of is known well. Recent work has questioned
leaving, etc.) in the testing situation that some of the assumptions of the interference
interfere with the task-relevant responses model, for example, Holroyd, Westbrook,
necessary for good test performance (Man- Wolf, and Bodhorn (1978). An alternative
dler & Sarason, 1952; Sarason, 1972; Wine, interpretation of the interference model is
that test anxiety represents a problem of
This study was conducted by the first author in par-
broader behavioral scope and that the test
tial fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD degree. anxiety/academic performance relationship
He wishes to thank the members of his dissertation is at least partially a function of differential
committee for their advice and suggestions in con- study-related behaviors between high and
ducting this study: Charles J. Holahan, Ira Iscoe, John low test-anxious individuals. A small
Loehlin, Frank Richardson, and June Gallessich.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Ralph E. amount of available evidence lends support
Culler, The Hogg Foundation for Mental Health, Uni- to the interpretation. Wittmaier (1972)
versity of Texas, Austin, Texas 78712. showed that high test-anxious students had
Copyright 1980 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0022-0663/80/7201 -0016S00.75
16
ANXIETY AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE 17
significantly lower levels of study skill com- correlates. Subjects responded on a 4-point scale rather
petence when compared to low test-anxious than the true-false format used by Sarason et al. Along
with the second administration of the TAS during the
students. The importance of study skill last 2 weeks of the semester, subjects were asked to
training as a component in test-anxiety complete the 50-item Study Habits scale of the Survey
treatment programs was demonstrated by of Study Habits and Attitudes (Brown & Holtzman,
Allen (1971). Mitchell and Ng (1972) found 1967). Subjects responded to statements about the
nature and style of their study behavior on a 5-point
similar results and concluded that "A re- scale (1 = rarely; 5 = almost always). In addition,
duction in test anxiety is no guarantee of subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire de-
subsequent improvement in academic per- signed by the investigators to obtain information about
formance when the level of study habit a number of other study-related behaviors. These in-
competence is ignored" (p. 496). cluded the following:
Study hours. Students were asked to estimate the
The purpose of the present study was to number of hours spent studying per week for each
examine the potential role of differential course taken during the semester. The course by course
study-related behaviors on the relationship estimates were totaled, yielding a measure of total
of test anxiety to academic performance. weekly study hours for each subject.
Cramming. Students were asked to estimate the
Specifically, this study proposed (a) to rep- degree to which they crammed in preparation for tests
licate the findings from previous studies and exams by responding on a 7-point scale to the item,
(Allen et al, 1972; Alpert & Haber, 1960; "In preparing for an exam, do you generally" (1 = work
Carrier & Jewell, 1966; Desiderate & Kosk- uniformly through the semester; 7 « "cram" the night
inen, 1969) that test anxiety is associated before the exam).
Classes missed. Students were asked to estimate the
with a significant decrement in GPA; (b) to total number of classes they missed during the semester
extend initial work (Wittmaier, 1972) dem- for each course they were taking. The course by course
onstrating differential study skill compe- estimates were totaled, yielding a total number of
tence as a function of test anxiety to examine missed classes for each subject.
Late exams. Students were asked to estimate the
possible differences in a range of study-re- total number of exams or tests they missed and made
lated behaviors between high and low test- up at a later date during the semester for each course
anxious individuals; and (c) to examine the they were taking. The course by course estimates were
effects of different study-related behaviors totaled, yielding a total number of late exams for each
on GPA in both high and low test-anxious subject.
Finally, the semester's GPA for each subject was
individuals. obtained from the University's registrar at the com-
pletion of the semester.
Method
Results and Discussion
Subjects
The mean GPA for the low test-anxious
Subjects in the study were first-semester freshmen group was 2.86 in contrast with 2.51 for the
enrolled in an introductory psychology course. At the high test-anxious group. The difference of
beginning of the semester, 800 students were pretested .25 points was significant by a t test, t(94) =
on'the Test Anxiety Scale (TAS; Sarason, Pederson,
& Nyman, 1968). Freshmen scoring in the upper and 2.24, p < .03. This finding replicates earlier
lower 25th percentile were identified. To control for work by Allen et al. (1972), Alpert and Haber
statistical regression and to avoid the selection of stu- (1960), and Desiderate and Koskinen (1969)
dents who were generally anxious about beginning demonstrating a significant decrement in
college, the upper and lower cutoffs were applied again GPA associated with test anxiety. Table 1
to a second administration of the TAS during the last
2 weeks of the semester, and subjects who scored in the shows the results of a chi-square analysis of
upper and lower 25th percentiles on both test admin- the test-anxiety groups split by above/below
istrations were selected for the study. This procedure a GPA of 2.00. A GPA of 2.00 (on a scale of
resulted in a final sample of 65 high test-anxious and 31 0-4) is generally considered a cutoff for
low test-anxious subjects.
success in college, since it is a requirement
for graduation. Twenty-nine percent of the
Procedure high test-anxious group failed to meet this
The TAS is a 37-item scale reported by Sarason et al. minimal criterion during their first semester
(1968). The test items are statements relating to the of college work. This result, using a test-
experience of test-related anxiety and its physiological anxiety measure, is even more striking than
18 RALPH E. CULLER AND CHARLES J. HOLAHAN
Table 1 Table 3
Frequencies and Percentages for Above/Below^ Pearson Product-Moment Correlations of GPA
2.00 GPA by Test Anxiety Group ' With the Five Coping Variables
High test Low test High test Low test
anxiety anxiety Variable anxiety anxiety