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Structural optimization has been attracting increasing Principal Stresses and High-rise Building
interest in the building industry to identify optimal Mechanics
geometric layouts. Designs based on an optimal material
distribution for the structural system are not only Principal stress trajectories represent an analytical
efficient, lightweight and minimize the embedded approach that informs optimal placement of material in a
carbon, but are also often aesthetically pleasant from an structure. For the case of high-rise buildings, the
architectural point of view. principal stress trajectories can be traced analytically by
numerically solving the governing differential equation
Once the geometric layout of a structure and its as indicated in what follows.
components are defined during the conceptual phase of
design, only minor adjustments are usually performed in In the design of a high rise building, the structure can
later design stages, making the conception of the layout initially be analyzed as a vertical cantilever beam fixed
of upmost importance. The optimization tools available at the top of the foundation. The fundamental laws of
to engineers are various and their utilization depends on mechanics controlling such problem are rather simple,
the specific project or application considered. since the problem is statically determinate. For the sake
Commercial software employing gradient based of brevity, we only underline a few fundamental
optimization, for example, has been successfully applied properties characterizing the behavior of this structure,
for topology and shape optimization. Custom made in particular in relation to the concept of principal stress
optimization tools have also been developed by trajectories.
accessing the advanced programming interface of The problem under consideration is described in Fig. 1
commercial software and utilizing several of their built- where a high-rise building of aspect ratio H/B and
in functions. In addition, engineers have been unitary thickness is loaded under a uniform wind load,
SEAOC 2014 83rd Annual Convention
Proceedings
w. Wind load profiles are technically represented by beam the stresses σy (stresses transverse to the beam
power laws with exponent depending on the exposure axis) are assumed to be negligible. The formulas to
(i.e.: the building location in relation to the calculate σx and τxy from the centerline moment and shear
surroundings: urban areas, coastal regions, open country, according to Saint Venant’s Principle for various cross
etc.); however a uniform load distribution captures the sectional shapes can be found in a variety of solid
fundamental aspects of the problem without introducing mechanics textbooks (Sokolnikoff 1951; Timoshenko
unnecessary complexity. and Goodier 1987; Love 1944). The plane stress state
described by σx and τxy can be rotated in the principal
coordinate system to derive the principal stress
directions for the principal stresses σ1 and σ2 by solving
the following equations derived from the Mohr’s circle:
tan 2 ,
tan 1 (3)
1 (1)
1 (2)
represent compression lines while the other set • The tension and compression lines meet at a 45◦ angle
represents tension lines. at the centerline since in beam theory there is a state of
pure shear stress at the centerline.
closed loops of finite lines) or open (i.e. defined by member A-1 in the form diagram of Fig. 4 is
chains of finite lines between two nodes with external proportional to the length of the line between points a
loads). and 1 in the corresponding force diagram. Similarly, the
force in the member between polygons 2 and 3 is
The lines in the first diagram, called the form diagram, proportional to the length of the line between points 2
represent structural members, or rather lines of action of and 3 of the force diagram. The remaining forces in the
the structural members. The lines in the second diagram, other members can be computed likewise. Thus, the
known as the force diagram, represent forces carried by forces acting on a node in the form diagram correspond
the members from the form diagram. For every line of to a polygon in the force diagram, where each force is a
action in the form diagram, there is a reciprocal line in side of the polygon. For example, at node A-B-3-2-1-A,
the force diagram. That reciprocal line is drawn parallel the force polygon is given by points a-b-3-2-1-a.
to the original line and its length is proportional to the Reading clockwise around joint A-B-3-2-1-A in the form
force in the original member. Thus, for a given structure, diagram, we can determine if members A-1 and 2-3 are
graphic statics can be a very powerful tool to gain in tension or compression. Since we go from 1 to A
insight to the total load path of the structure, as it clockwise around the joint, we read from 1 to a on
provides all of the information about the load and the polygon a-b-3-2-1-a, i.e.: the force in A-1 is from left to
path using these two reciprocal diagrams. The right, towards the joint A-B-3-2-1-A of the form diagram.
development of the theory of reciprocal diagrams dates Thus, member A-1 is in compression. Likewise, moving
back to the work of Maxwell (1890). More recently from 3 to 2 on the force polygon goes from the upper left
Zalewski and Allen (1998) showed possible applications to the lower right, or away from the joint in the form
of the methodology for truss design. Several examples of diagram, so member 3-2 is in tension. The remaining
application of Graphic Statics to structural design are forces can be interpreted likewise.
also shown in Beghini et al. (2013, 2014a, 2014b).
(straight edges, triangles, and a scale) or by the use of Cable Supported Structures with Assigned
simple equations for lines and the intersection of lines Load Path
required to solve a truss.
The concepts of graphic statics and Rankine’s theorem
Within graphical methods, Rankine’s Theorem described in the previous section can be used in a variety
(Rankine, 1858) was formulated to generalize the of design application as shown by Fivet and Zastavni
solution of the equilibrium of a funicular. An example of (2012), Zastavni (2008), and Beghini et al. (2014a,b). In
the application of Rankine’s Theorem for a cable with a particular, the authors focus here on the use of Rankine’s
series of loads is shown in Figure 5. Unfortunately, theorem for the design of cable-nets with a primary cable
Rankine’s Theorem (and graphical methods in general) and secondary cables as shown in Figure 5 supporting an
progressively lost popularity with the development of assigned path with prescribed loads. Such path could be
mathematical analytical tools at the beginning of the the deck of a pedestrian bridge or it could be the edge of
20th century and the advances in numerical methods and a canopy cantilevering off a high-rise building. The red
computational power towards the end of the century. line in the figure indicates the main cable from which
However, recently engineers have re-discovered this secondary cables are strung. The secondary cables
theorem, which provide powerful insight to the design support the assigned path.
problem, and have been using it for practical design
application as shown in what follows. Notice that the force density method (Schek, 1974) has
historically been used to identify the layout of cable-
nets. However, its original formulation would not be
suitable for this application because it is not possible to
simultaneously assign the location of a point load and
the value of it. Extensions have been introduced in the
literature to overcome such issue with non-linear
formulations. Beghini et al. (2013) presents a linear
analytical approach to the solution of the problem, which
gives the designer a significant degree of insight in the
equilibrium solution. Such insight would be hidden in
the numerical calculations using the force density
approach.
∑
(4)
∑
(5)
main cable; are the assigned design loads; are construction canopy for a high-rise building in China.
the unknown horizontal thrusts; and . Figure 5 shows a rendering of the canopy.
The locations of the nodes of the main cable are the The final design incorporate two sets of cables: upper
unknown variables of the problem considered and they and lower. The former resists gravity loads due to the
are defined by the intersection of equations (4) and (5) structure self-weight and superimposed loads (glass and
with the equation for the secondary cables given by: other architectural components) while the latter is mainly
required to resists the vertical uplift forces due to wind
and seismic events. The lateral forces on the canopy are
(6) resisted by a grid of in-plane moment connected steel
members.
, ̅ in the above equation indicates the assigned The initial cable geometry was adjusted using finite
coordinates of the path. Notice that the secondary cables element analysis to account for the cables self-weight.
are assumed to be in a plane parallel to the y-z plane and The analysis was also required to check for any potential
that the value of the coordinate is given. Therefore, structural instability since lightweight structures are
the unknowns in the above equations are only the typically susceptible to it.
coordinates , .
Other possible cable layouts with non-parallel secondary
Equation (4) is independent of equation (5) and (6), cables and their impact on the structural performance of
hence the coordinates are defined by the level of the canopy are described in Beghini et al. (2013).
prestress considered and the gravity design loads. The
coordinates and the thrust are calculated solving Upper cables resist gravity
equations (5) and (6) simultaneously. The mathematical loads and downward forces
from wind and seismic events
details of the solution can be found in Beghini et al.
(2013), where the solution for parallel secondary cables
described above is also generalized to the case where the
cables are non-parallel.
Lower cables
resist uplift
loads
Density Methods
(9)
Topology optimization with density methods is a
numerical method that enables the identification of This power-law relationship uses the Young’s Modulus
optimal geometries for bracing systems without the need of solid material and the penalization power 1 to
to specify a priori the number of bracing members, their force the material to tend towards 0 or 1 (void or solid
locations and their connectivity. For application in respectively) where the element density assumes a
structural optimization for architecture, the design value somewhere in this range. The optimization process
domain is taken to be the outer skin or shell of the can also include continuation on the penalization power
building so that the resulting structural system is from 1 to 4 in steps of 0.5 until convergence.
expressed in the exterior as an integral part of the
architecture itself. Thus, the optimal layout problem in
terms of an objective function can be stated using the
design variables, , and the displacements, , as
follows:
min ,
. . , 0 (7)
, 0
where the design field, , and the structural response, ,
are related through the equality and inequality constraint
functions, . A common optimization problem solved in
structural engineering applications is the minimum
compliance problem:
Figure 7. Picture of the model for the conceptual
design of the upper and lower “bridges” spanning
min ,
several towers in the Zendai competition.
. . , (8)
, An example of the aforementioned topology
optimization framework for an architectural design
where represents the equilibrium equation constraint, application integrated with structural engineering
while is the constraint on the available volume of principles is the conceptual design for the Zendai
material for the design, . The global stiffness matrix is competition (China) (see Figure 7). The aim in this
given by which depends on the design variables, project was to create a unique and innovative design for
; and are the vectors of nodal displacements and the upper “bridge” structure spanning several towers.
forces, respectively. The minimum compliance problem The design space was approximated as a beam that was
corresponds to the maximization of the system stiffness discretized with a mesh of polygonal elements to
and it is employed to calculate the optimal material eliminate any mesh bias (Talischi et. al 2010). The
layout in the following examples. gravity load on the mesh was applied as a series of equal
point loads at nodal locations. The mesh was constrained
In density methods, a void is signified by a null material with pin supports at the nodes corresponding to the
density ( 0), while 1 represents solid material. locations where the towers would support the “bridge”.
For regions of gray material, or intermediate densities, Using topology optimization techniques, the resulting
the commonly used Solid Isotropic Material with design solution is unique and innovative with an organic
Penalization (SIMP) model is employed (Zhou and look as illustrated by the picture of the model in Figure
Rozvany (1991), Rozvany et al. (1992), Bendsoe (1989), 7. The results show member lines intersecting at 90
Bendsoe and Sigmund (1999)): degree angles reminiscent of the geometries of Michell
frames (Michell, 1904). In particular, the left-most and
SEAOC 2014 83rd Annual Convention
Proceedings
Conclusions
Baker, W. F. (1992). “Energy-Based Design of Lateral Mazurek A., Baker F. W., Cenk T. (2011). “Geometrical
Systems.” Structural Engineering International, 2:99- aspects of optimum truss like structures.” Structural and
102. Multidisciplinary Optimization, Volume 43, Number 2,
pp. 231-242, DOI: 10.1007/s00158-010-0559-x
Beghini A., Beghini L. L., Schultz, J. A., Carrion, J.
Baker, W. F. (2013) “Rankine’s Theorem for the Design Michell, A.G.M. (1904) “The Limits of Economy
of Material in Frames-structures” Philosophical
SEAOC 2014 83rd Annual Convention
Proceedings