Rotary position sensing for electric vehicles,

part I
Ankur Verma & Amanda Weise, Texas Instruments - October 02, 2015

Lowering the overall automotive carbon footprint and enabling vehicles to harness lost energy drives
the automotive industry today. Due to this worldwide push, manufacturers are now investing in new
technologies to solve this growing problem, while maintaining high quality standards and reducing
overall system cost. One of the technologies at the heart of this automotive evolution is the EV
(electric vehicle). In this article, we will discuss one of its major components, rotary sensors.

As we dive deeper into these sensing technologies, we will outline what technology works best under
specific scenarios and the driving decisions behind the selection of a particular sensor over another.
We will also consider the challenges involved in designing with these sensors and key things a
designer must consider before finalizing the rotary sensor for the EV.

An introduction to hybrids

As the demand worldwide grows for more energy efficient means of transportation, HEV (hybrid
electric vehicle) and EV will be at the forefront of the conversation. Therefore, to better understand
the market, it is first imperative to know the types of vehicles we are referring to when we address
this market. Strategy Analytics classifies each vehicle under the HEV/EV umbrella into one of four
separate categories:

● mild hybrid
● full hybrid
● plug-in hybrid
● pure electric

Each of these divisions takes into consideration the wattage of the electric motor in the vehicle and
exactly what the motor is in charge of inside of the system. For example, Strategy Analytics
classifies a mild hybrid as a vehicle that has one electric motor of <20 kW that is used to provide
brake recuperation and torque assist, along with an internal combustion engine. Once there is an
understanding of the trade-off between mild hybrid vs. pure EV, it will be easier to understand the
total available market for motor position sensors in this sector. Below is a table that shows the
categories used by Strategy Analytics, which will be used throughout the rest of this article.
Now that there is an understanding of the types of vehicles discussed, let’s delve into market
analysis to have a better understanding of the potential addressable market for the motor position
sensing technologies.

As you can see from the table above, there is a possibility of anywhere between one and four motors
per each vehicle (four motors takes into consideration that every wheel has a motor of its own). Each
motor then will need a position sensor to allow the system to have the visibility and granularity of
control that is necessary. Keeping this knowledge regarding motors in mind, the table below, also
from Strategy Analytics, gives an estimated snapshot of the units of each type of vehicle that will be
in the market from 2015-2021.

For a better understanding of how this translates into available motor position sensor opportunities,
suppose that there are approximately two motors in both the mild and the full hybrid to account for
a drive motor and a starter generator and, to be conservative (no motors per wheel), one motor for
the other two vehicle categories. For 2015, that means the total addressable units more than
doubles to approximately 7,916 ku potential position sensor opportunities. Following this trend the
table below summarizes the growth of the market for position sensor units for 2016-2021 and the
projected CAGR.
With an average year-on-year percentage of 87.9%, the market for position sensors presents itself as
a prime place for growth.

The next step is to understand the type of position sensors that are best suited for the harsh
environment that exists in automotive systems. Rotary position sensors, or angle position sensors,
are used when angular mechanical motion data needs to be transformed into an electrical signal.
Ensuring that position measurements are accurate is critical to a functioning synchronized system.
There are many options available today for obtaining position data, but the focus in this article will
be on resolver and encoder approaches. These two methods are widely accepted in the motor control
space and understanding these terms as well as their strengths and weaknesses will help in
selecting a technology that best fits an electric vehicle application. Resolvers and encoders
Resolvers

The first method of determining position is a resolver sensor. A resolver is an analog sensor absolute
over a single turn and looks much like a small transformer. The coil of the resolver sensor has one
primary and two secondary windings. The key to this sensing method is calculating the effective
turns ratio and polarity between the two sets of coils. This arrangement is called a rotary
transformer and the data collected from this setup will report the variation of the angle of the shaft
as it changes. The two secondary windings of the coil are oriented 90 degrees to one another and
the stator is mounted in a housing to ensure stability. The rotor is the primary winding of the coil
and is located on the shaft of the resolver.

To excite the resolver coils, an AC reference input voltage, set at a constant frequency, is induced in
the primary winding. Both the stator and the rotor will output the same frequency but with a phase
difference of 90 degrees due to the mechanical placement of the coil windings. One of these outputs
will be the sine and the other the cosine due to the phase shift present (cosine is a 90 degree phase
shift of sine). The induced voltages on the windings are equal to the value of the reference voltage
multiplied by the sin or cos of the angle that the input shaft makes with the secondary coils. This
relationship is a ratiometric measurement of sinθ and cosθ to get the thetaθ, where θ is the shaft
angle.

Encoders

There are three major types of encoders used for motor position sensing: absolute position value,
incremental with “1” and “0” output, and incremental sinusoidal signal.

The absolute position value rotary encoder has a disk broken into a certain pattern. For example, for
a 3-bit digital output, the encoder will have eight different patterns. The absolute encoder keeps
track of its position at all times and provides information as soon as power is applied. This feature is
extremely useful in applications where the equipment runs infrequently and has power turned on/off
between uses.

An incremental encoder has a pattern that outputs digital high or low. It also has a reference mark,
essential to determine the motor current rotary position. The reference mark can be taken as angle
zero. Pulses are produced in proportion to the distance rotated. The marker pulse, commonly known
as “Z,” provides a position reference once per revolution. By counting the pulses, the exact rotary
position can be determined. Electronic circuitry is required to perform this function. There could be
multiple photo detectors in the encoder to generate “quadrature” output. To determine the direction
of rotation, there will be two streams of pulses, A and B, generated at 90 degree timing angles. A
leading B indicates rotation in one direction, while B leading A indicates the encoder is rotating in
the other direction. Many encoders with quadrature outputs have complementary outputs such as
NOT A and NOT B.

The incremental sinusoidal encoder outputs a pattern that resembles sine wave output. The outputs
typically include a sine wave, cosine wave, along with a reference mark. The outputs require
electronic circuitry to process these signals. It’s important to note that these signals vary
significantly from the sine and cosine of the resolver output. The resolver output signals are
amplitude modulated sine and cosine wave, whereas the encoder output has no “carrier” frequency
and is of much higher frequency.
Who wins in an EV?
Who wins in an EV?

The “heart” of any EV is essentially its motor, which requires position information for the motor
control algorithms to work properly. The control loop takes feedback from the position sensor to
control the amount of current flow into each of the motor phases. This current control is
accomplished by driving the IGBTs in each of the phases, which are controlled independently, in
order to drive desired current into the motor, generating the torque needed for driving the vehicle.
In other words, the drive motor that acts as the heart of the electric vehicle has to be controlled by a
rotatory position sensor (its mind). Controlling the motor as per driving conditions is essential to
efficient power consumption in an EV. Hence, it’s necessary to detect position of the motor and
accurately report its rotational speed.

When the request for changing the speed is given by the driver, the engine control unit drives the
motor, the angle is detected by the motor position sensor, and the speed of the motor is controlled
using the motor controller. The choice of the motor position sensor depends upon various factors
that we dig into in our next section.

Sensor placement

Resolvers operate in high temperature, shock-laden, and rugged environments because their sturdy
construction is similar to the motor itself. Thus, they can be placed close to the motor. However,
electronics circuitry that processes resolver signals is located close to the motor control circuitry, a
distance from the motor and resolver sensor for magnetic shielding and noise immunity.

On the other side, the electronics used for processing encoder signals are placed next to the sensor
itself in order to minimize the interconnections. Such placement, thereby, limits the operating
temperatures of the applications in which the encoders are used. It’s important to note, however,
that resolvers do require wiring (typically six wires for the resolver sensor) that makes their
placement in an EV tricky because of the high voltage (>300V) bus. The key advantage of the
resolver lies in its ability to withstand high temperatures. Hence, in an EV that typically requires the
motor control feedback device to run over 125 °C, the resolver is the preferred solution unless the
automobile manufacturer has a way to limit the temperature in areas where motor position sensing
is used.
Absolute position at ‘power on’

If the sensor is an absolute position sensor, it gives the real position of the motor at any given time.
Resolvers provide a unique sine and cosine voltage at every point in a 360 degrees rotation. Hence,
they fall into the category of absolute position sensors. On the other side, the encoders’ output can
be either absolute or incremental, which is typically a digital signal.

Absolute encoders output data over a serial digital data bus such as SSI (Synchronous Serial
Interface). In order to read the position information, the motor drive controller should have the
ability to communicate over this protocol.

Incremental encoders do not output absolute information and can only be used to increment or
decrement the position counter containing the position. Another key point to note in the case of
incremental encoders is that when the power turns off, the incremental encoder won’t store the
position information, even when a non-volatile memory is used in the system.

In part II of this series, we discuss the robustness of position sensing.

References

1. “Rotation angle sensor (resolver) for EV/HEV drive motor,” Minebea Technology
2. “Resolvers Vs Encoders for Motion Control,” HEIDENHAIN
3. “What Is A Resolver?,” Advanced Micro Controls, Inc. (AMCI)
4. “Dual Channel Data Acquisition System for Optical Encoders, 12 Bit, 1MSPS,” TI Prevision
Verified Design, Texas Instruments
5. “Resolver Fundamentals,” Delta Computer Systems
6. “Rotary Encoders,” November 2013, p. 13, HEIDENHAIN
7. "Encoders vs. Resolvers," Nidec-Avtron Automation
8. Mak, K, Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Systems Demand Forecast 2007 to 2021, Strategy Analytics,
2014. Retrieved September 1, 2015, from Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Systems Demand Forecast
2007 to 2021 Data File.
Also see:

● Rotary encoder with absolute readout offers high resolution and low cost
● Adaptive rotary encoder distinguishes fine from coarse
● Electric Vehicles: Past, Present and Future
● Engineer shares how to build an electric vehicle from the ground up: Design choices
● Automobile sensors may usher in self-driving cars