MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

“FIELD IN
MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING”
(Aerospace/Aeronautical Design
and Research Industry)

Submitted by:
Dhenil T. Mangubat
BSME-3E
Submitted to:
Engr. Dela Peña
Introduction:

Aerospace engineering is the primary field of engineering concerned with the

development of aircraft and spacecraft. Aerospace engineering deals with
designing and building machines that fly. Aerospace engineers design aircraft,
spacecraft, satellites and missiles. In addition, these engineers test prototypes to
make sure that they function according to plans. These professionals also design
components and subassemblies for these craft; those parts include engines,
airframes, wings, landing gear, control systems and instruments. Additionally,
engineers may perform or write the specifications for destructive and
nondestructive testing for strength, functionality, reliability, and long-term
durability of aircraft and parts. This is the field of mechanical engineering I want
to be engaged on. Why? Because just like other people I want to discover the
entities, species, substances, and theoretical discoveries not just above the
surface of the earth but also outside of this world. With this field of engineering I
can design and create aircrafts and other space vehicles that can help others
or even me to transport conveniently outside the earth. With help of this aircrafts
and spacecraft, discovering, divulging, recognizing and studying rare substance
and discoveries outside the earth might be easy. So because this is the field I
want to be engaged in lets discover the inside of the aerospace and
aeronautical engineering industry.
 Overview

Flight vehicles are subjected to demanding conditions such as those produced by

changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature, with structural loads applied upon
vehicle components. Consequently, they are usually the products of various
technological and engineering
disciplines including aerodynamics, propulsion, avionics, materials science, structural
analysis and manufacturing. The interaction between these technologies is known as
aerospace engineering. Because of the complexity and number of disciplines involved,
aerospace engineering is carried out by teams of engineers, each having their own
specialized area of expertise.

Elements

 Radar cross-section – the study of vehicle signature apparent to Radar remote

sensing.

 Fluid mechanics – the study of fluid flow around objects.

Specifically aerodynamics concerning the flow of air over bodies such as wings or
through objects such as wind tunnels (see also lift and aeronautics).

 Astrodynamics – the study of orbital mechanics including prediction of orbital

elements when given a select few variables. While few schools in the United States
teach this at the undergraduate level, several have graduate programs covering
this topic (usually in conjunction with the Physics department of said college or
university).

 Statics and Dynamics (engineering mechanics) – the study of movement, forces,

moments in mechanical systems.

 Mathematics – in particular, calculus, differential equations, and linear algebra.

 Electrotechnology – the study of electronics within engineering.

 Propulsion – the energy to move a vehicle through the air (or in outer space) is
provided by internal combustion engines, jet engines and turbomachinery,
 or rockets (see also propeller and spacecraft propulsion). A more recent addition to
this module is electric propulsion and ion propulsion.

 Control engineering – the study of mathematical modeling of the dynamic behavior

of systems and designing them, usually using feedback signals, so that their dynamic
behavior is desirable (stable, without large excursions, with minimum error). This
applies to the dynamic behavior of aircraft, spacecraft, propulsion systems, and
subsystems that exist on aerospace vehicles.

 Aircraft structures – design of the physical configuration of the craft to withstand the
forces encountered during flight. Aerospace engineering aims to keep structures
lightweight and low-cost, while maintaining structural integrity.

 Materials science – related to structures, aerospace engineering also studies the

materials of which the aerospace structures are to be built. New materials with very
specific properties are invented, or existing ones are modified to improve their
performance.

 Solid mechanics – Closely related to material science is solid mechanics which

deals with stress and strain analysis of the components of the vehicle. Nowadays
there are several Finite Element programs such as MSC Patran/Nastran which aid
engineers in the analytical process.

 Aeroelasticity – the interaction of aerodynamic forces and structural flexibility,

potentially causing flutter, divergence, etc.

 Avionics – the design and programming of computer systems on board an aircraft

or spacecraft and the simulation of systems.

 Software – the specification, design, development, test, and implementation

of computer software for aerospace applications, including flight software, ground
control software, test & evaluation software, etc.

 Risk and reliability – the study of risk and reliability assessment techniques and the
mathematics involved in the quantitative methods.

 Noise control – the study of the mechanics of sound transfer.

 Aeroacoustics – the study of noise generation via either turbulent fluid motion or
aerodynamic forces interacting with surfaces.

 Flight test – designing and executing flight test programs in order to gather and
analyze performance and handling qualities data in order to determine if an
aircraft meets its design and performance goals and certification requirements.
 NATURE,
PROCESS,
EQUIPMENT AND
PERSONNELS
Nature:
Goods and services. For most of history, the idea of moving people or objects through
the air or into space was inconceivable. Today, however, airplanes are the fastest way
to move people and goods around the world, and space travel has gone from being a
dream to reality. From the TV traffic helicopter to the B-2 bomber to the voyager space
probe, everything that moves through the air or space is produced by the aerospace
industry.

Because of the high speeds that most aerospace products move at, they must be
strong, but since they also must defy gravity, they also need to be light. As a result,
workers in this industry use many specialized materials in production. Titanium and
aluminum alloys are common, as are advanced composite materials. Because of the
extreme conditions aerospace equipment operates in, parts must be designed and
manufactured to precise specification; the smallest error could lead to failure of the
finished product. As a result, significant testing occurs at each stage of the production
process.

Firms producing transport aircraft make up the largest segment of the civil (nonmilitary)
aircraft portion of the industry. Civil transport aircraft are produced for air transportation
businesses such as airlines and cargo transportation companies. These aircraft range
from small turboprops to wide-body jets and are used to move people and goods all
over the world.

Aircraft engine manufacturers produce the engines used in civil and military aircraft.
Because of the specialized work involved, aircraft engines are usually manufactured by
separate companies, although they are designed and built according to the aircraft
design and performance specifications of the aircraft manufacturers. Aircraft
manufacturers may use engines designed by different companies on the same type of
aircraft.

Military aircraft and helicopters are purchased by governments to meet national

defense needs, such as delivering weapons to military targets and transporting troops
and equipment around the globe. Some of these aircraft are specifically designed to
deliver or guide a powerful array of ordnance to military targets with tremendous
maneuverability and low detectability. Other aircraft, such as unmanned aerial
vehicles, are produced to gather defense intelligence such as radio signals or to
monitor movement on the ground.

The aerospace industry is dominated by a few large firms that contract to produce
aircraft with Government and private businesses, usually airline and cargo
transportation companies. These large firms, in turn,
subcontract with smaller firms to produce specific
systems and parts for their vehicles. Government
purchases are largely related to defense.

“Industry Related in the Manufacturing

and design in Aerospace and
Aeronautical Engineering”

Process and Personnel

Involved
There are 5 major components involving Aeronautical and Aerospace Process:

 Planning
 Design
 Fabrication
 Analysis or Inspection
  Authentication and Export.

Aerospace Industry Personnel.

 Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians
 Assemblers and fabricators
 Computer software engineers and computer programmers
 Aerospace Engineering Technicians
 Aerospace Engineers
 Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers
  Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic
 Machinists
Duties:
1. Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians
 Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and technicians repair and
perform scheduled maintenance on aircraft.
Aircraft mechanics typically do the following:
 Diagnose mechanical or electrical problems
 Repair wings, brakes, electrical systems, and other aircraft components
 Replace defective parts, using hand tools or power tools
 Examine replacement aircraft parts for defects
 Read maintenance manuals to identify repair procedures
 Test aircraft parts with gauges and other diagnostic equipment
 Inspect completed work to ensure that it meets performance standards
 Keep records of maintenance and repair work
Avionics technicians typically do the following:
 Test electronic instruments, using circuit testers, oscilloscopes, and voltmeters
 Interpret flight test data to diagnose malfunctions and performance problems
 Assemble components, such as electrical controls and junction boxes, and install
software
 Install instrument panels, using hand tools, power tools, and soldering irons
 Repair or replace malfunctioning components
2. Assemblers and Fabricators.
 Assemblers and fabricators assemble finished products and the parts that
go into them. They use tools, machines, and their hands to make engines,
computers, aircraft, ships, boats, toys, electronic devices, control panels,
and more.
Assemblers and fabricators typically do the following:
 Read and understand schematics and blueprints
 Use hand tools or machines to assemble parts
 Conduct quality control checks
 Work closely with designers and engineers in product development
3. Computer software Engineers and Computer Programmers
  Computer programmers write and test code that allows computer
applications and software programs to function properly. They turn the
program designs created by software developers and engineers into
instructions that a computer can follow. In addition, programmers test
newly created applications and programs to ensure that they produce
the expected results. If they do not work correctly, computer
programmers check the code for mistakes and fix them.
Computer programmers typically do the following:
 Write programs in a variety of computer languages, such as C++ and Java
 Update and expand existing programs
 Test programs for errors and fix the faulty lines of computer code responsible
 Create and test code in an integrated development environment (IDE)
 Use code libraries, which are collections of independent lines of code, to simplify
the writing
4. Aerospace Engineering Technician
 Aerospace engineering and operations technicians operate and
maintain equipment used in testing new aircraft and spacecraft.
Increasingly, these workers are being required to program and run
computer simulations that test new designs. Their work is critical in
preventing the failure of key parts of new aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles.
They also help in the quality assurance, testing, and operation of
advanced technology equipment used in producing aircraft and the
systems that go into the aircraft.
Aerospace engineering and operations technicians typically do the following:
 Meet with aerospace engineers to discuss details and implications of test
procedures
 Build and maintain test facilities for aircraft systems
 Make and install parts and systems to be tested in test equipment
 Operate and calibrate computer systems so that they comply with test
requirements
 Ensure that test procedures are performed smoothly and safely
 Record data from test parts and assemblies
 Install instruments in aircraft and spacecraft
 Monitor and ensure quality in producing systems that go into the aircraft
5. Aerospace Engineers
  Aerospace engineers design primarily aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, and
missiles. In addition, they test prototypes to make sure that they function
according to design.
Aerospace engineers typically do the following:
 Direct and coordinate the design, manufacture, and testing of aircraft and
aerospace products
 Assess proposals for projects to determine if they are technically and financially
feasible
 Determine if proposed projects will result in safe aircraft and parts
 Evaluate designs to see that the products meet engineering principles, customer
requirements, and environmental challenges
 Develop acceptance criteria for design methods, quality standards, sustainment
after delivery, and completion dates
 Ensure that projects meet quality standards
 Inspect malfunctioning or damaged products to identify sources of problems
and possible solutions
6. Quality Control Inspectors
 Quality control inspectors examine products and materials for defects or
deviations from specifications.
Quality control inspectors typically do the following:
 Read blueprints and specifications
 Monitor operations to ensure that they meet production standards
 Recommend adjustments to the assembly or production process
 Inspect, test, or measure materials or products being produced
 Measure products with rulers, calipers, gauges, or micrometers
 Accept or reject finished items
 Remove all products and materials that fail to meet specifications
 Discuss inspection results with those responsible for products
 Report inspection and test data
7. Metals and Machine Workers
 Metal and plastic machine workers set up and operate machines that
cut, shape, and form metal and plastic materials or pieces.
Metal and plastic machine workers typically do the following:
 Set up machines according to blueprints
  Monitor machines for unusual sound or vibration
 Insert material into machines, manually or with a hoist
 Operate metal or plastic molding, casting, or coremaking machines
 Adjust machine settings for temperature, cycle times, and speed and feed rates
 Remove finished products and smooth rough edges and imperfections
 Test and compare finished workpieces to specifications
 Remove and replace dull cutting tools
8. Machinists And Tool and Die Maker
 Machinists and tool and die makers set up and operate a variety of
computer-controlled and mechanically controlled machine tools to
produce precision metal parts, instruments, and tools.
Machinists typically do the following:
 Work from blueprints, sketches, or computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-
aided manufacturing (CAM) files
 Set up, operate, and disassemble manual, automatic, and computer-numeric-
controlled (CNC) machine tools
 Align, secure, and adjust cutting tools and workpieces
 Monitor the feed and speed of machines
 Turn, mill, drill, shape, and grind machine parts to specifications
 Measure, examine, and test completed products for defects
 Smooth the surfaces of parts or products
 Present finished workpieces to customers and make modifications if needed
Tool and die makers typically do the following:
 Read blueprints, sketches, specifications, or CAD and CAM files for making tools
and dies
 Compute and verify dimensions, sizes, shapes, and tolerances of workpieces
 Set up, operate, and disassemble conventional, manual, and CNC machine
tools
 File, grind, and adjust parts so that they fit together properly
 Test completed tools and dies to ensure that they meet specifications
 Smooth and polish the surfaces of tools and dies
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1. PLANNING
 The planning process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose.
Commercial airliners are designed for carrying a passenger or cargo
payload, long range and greater fuel efficiency whereas fighter jets are
designed to perform high speed maneuvers and provide close support to
ground troops. Some aircraft have specific missions, for
instance, amphibious airplanes have a unique design that allows them to
operate from both land and water, some fighters, like the Harrier Jump
Jet, have VTOL (Vertical Take-off and Landing) ability, helicopters have
the ability to hover over an area for a period of time.

 The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e.g. as in the historical

case of a British Air Ministry specification, or fill a perceived "gap in the
market"; that is, a class or design of aircraft which does not yet exist, but
for which there would be significant demand.

 There are also 4 factors to be consider in planning working or creating an

aircraft or space crafts. The REGULATIONS, ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS,
FINANCIAL FACTORS AND THE SAFETY.

2. DESIGNING
 The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which aircraft are
designed. These depend on many factors such as customer and manufacturer
demand, safety protocols, physical and economic constraints etc. For some types of
aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities. This
article deals with powered aircraft such as airplanes and helicopter designs.

 Aircraft design is a compromise between many competing factors and constraints

and accounts for existing designs and market requirements to produce the best
aircraft.
Design Process Chart
Optimization:
Aircraft and spacecraft designers normally rough-out the initial design with
consideration of all the constraints on their design. Historically design teams used to be
small, usually headed by a Chief Designer who knows all the design requirements and
objectives and coordinated the team accordingly. As time progressed, the complexity
of military and airline aircraft also grew. Modern military and airline design projects are
of such a large scale that every design aspect is tackled by different teams and then
brought together. In general aviation a large number of light aircraft are designed and
built by amateur hobbyists and enthusiasts.

AIRCRAFTS AND SPACE CRAFTS DESIGN AND

OPTIMIZATION DESIGNS:
CAD (Computer-aided design of aircraft and
spacecraft)
In the early years of aircraft design, designers generally used analytical theory to do the
various engineering calculations that go into the design process along with a lot of
experimentation. These calculations were labour-intensive and time-consuming. In the
1940s, several engineers started looking for ways to automate and simplify the
calculation process and many relations and semi-empirical formulas were developed.
Even after simplification, the calculations continued to be extensive. With the invention
of the computer, engineers realized that a majority of the calculations could be
automated, but the lack of design visualization and the huge amount of
experimentation involved kept the field of aircraft design stagnant. With the rise of
programming languages, engineers could now write programs that were tailored to
design an aircraft. Originally this was done with mainframe computers and used low-
level programming languages that required the user to be fluent in the language and
know the architecture of the computer. With the introduction of personal computers,
design programs began employing a more user-friendly approach.
ASPECTS
The main aspects of aircraft design are:

1. Aerodynamics
2. Propulsion
3. Controls
4. Structure

Aerodynamics is a branch of fluid dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air, particularly
when it interacts with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid
dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields.
The term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, with the difference being
that "gas dynamics" applies to the study of the motion of all gases, not limited to air.

Propulsion - An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means
to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.An aircraft propulsion system must
achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane
when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the
drag of the airplane for the airplane to accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference between the
thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate.
A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the
respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control
an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they
change speed.
The fundamentals of aircraft controls are explained in flight dynamics. This article centers on the
operating mechanisms of the flight controls. The basic system in use on aircraft first appeared in a
readily recognizable form as early as April 1908, on Louis Blériot's Blériot VIII pioneer-era
monoplane design.

The aircraft structure focuses not only on strength, stiffness, durability (fatigue), fracture toughness,
stability, but also on fail-safety, corrosion resistance, maintainability and ease of manufacturing. The
structure must be able to withstand the stresses caused by cabin pressurization, if fitted, turbulence
and engine or rotor vibrations.[
 ANALYSIS,
SYNTHESIS AND
EVALUATION
ANALYSIS AND SYTHESIS (CONTRACT, SERVICES AND DESIGNING)

The aircraft design process is often divided into several stages, as

shown in the figure below.
DESIGN REQUIRMENTS AND OBJECTIVES:
One of the first steps in airplane design is the establishment of design requirements and
objectives. These are used to formally document the project goals, ensure that the final
design meets the requirements, and to aid in future product development. The specific
DR&O's are based on customer requirements, certification requirements, and company
policy (often in the form of a design standards manual). They have evolved from rather
simple letters to very complex system engineering documents.

Today, complex sets of requirements and objectives include specification of airplane

performance, safety, reliability and maintainability, subsystems properties and
performance, and others. Some of these are illustrated in the table below, based on a
Boeing chart

Transport Aircraft Design Objectives and Constraints

Issue Civil Military
Mission accomplishment
Dominant design criteria Economics and safety
and survivability
Adequate range and
Maximum economic cruise
response
Performance
Minimum off-design
Overall mission
penalty in wing design
accomplishment
Moderate-to-long runways
Short-to-moderate runways
Paved runway
All types of runway surfaces
Airfield environment High -level ATC and
landing aides Often spartan ATC, etc.

Adequate space for ground Limited space available

maneuver and parking
Low maintenance- Low maintenance-
economic issue availability issue

System complexity and Low system cost Acceptable system cost

mechanical design
Safety and reliability Reliability and survivability

Long service life Damage tolerance

 Military standards
Must be certifiable (FAA,
--Performance and safety --
etc.)
Reliability oriented
Government regulations
and community acceptance Safety oriented
Low noise desirable
Low noise mandatory
--Good neighbor in peace --
Dectability in war

A list of some of the typical high-level design requirements for an example supersonic
transport study project are given in the table below.

Design Requirements for a Transpacific Supersonic Transport

Payload 300 passengers at 175 lbs. and 40 lbs. of baggage each.
2 pilots and 10 flight attendants at 175 lbs. and 30 lbs. of
Crew
baggage each.
Range Design range of 5,500 nm, followed by a 30 min. loiter
Mach 2.5 at 65,000 ft. Outbound and inbound subsonic cruise
Cruise
legs at Mach 0.95, 45,000 ft
Take-off and FAR 25 field length of 12,000 ft. Standard days, Wland= 0.85
Landing Wtake-off
Fuel JP-4
Materials Advanced aluminum where applicable
As required, rely on passive systems when feasible, use active
Themal Protection
systems only when necessary
Certification Base FAR 25, FAR 36 (noise requirements)

Many of the design requirements are specified by the relevant Federal Air Regulations
(FAR's) in the U.S. or the Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JAR's) in Europe. These
regulations are divided into portions that apply to commercial aircraft, general
aviation, sailplanes, and even ultralight aircraft. The applicable regulations for aircraft
with which we will be dealing depend on the aircraft category and are grouped as
described in the tables below:

Aircraft Categories
Characteristic General Aviation Normal Transport
Maximum takeoff
<12,500 <12,500 Unrestricted
weight, lb
Number of engines > 0 >1 >1
Type of engine All Propeller Only All
Minimum crew:
One Two Two
Flight crew
None None for < 20 pax None for < 10 pax
Cabin attendants
Maximum number
10 23 Unrestricted
of occupants
Maximum operating
25,000 25,000 Unrestricted
altitude, ft

FAR Applicability
Regulations
General Aviation Normal Transport
Covering:
Airplane
airworthiness Part 23 Part 23 Part 25
standards
Engine
airworthiness Part 33 Part 33 Part 33
standards
Propeller
airworthiness Part 35 Part 35 Part 35
standards
Part 36 Part 36
Noise Part 36
Appendix F Appendix F
General operation
Part 91 Part 91 Part 91
and flight rules
Large aircraft /
-- -- Part 121
airline operation
Agricultural /
Travel clubs / Air Part 137 Part 135 Part 123
taxi

In addition to the regulatory requirements, the primary airplane design objectives

include a specification of the number of passengers or cargo capability, target cruise
speeds, and ranges. These are often established by extensive marketing studies of
target city pairs, current market coverage and growth trends, and customer input.
Aircraft Configuration Optimization

This section is an overview of the design process - a more philosophical discussion

before plunging into the details of compressibility drag prediction, high-lift systems, etc.
The specific approach to the design problem used here will be discussed later, but now
we will step back and discuss the big picture of aircraft design optimization.

Overview
You may have heard that a particular new airplane was designed on the computer.
Just what this means and what can or cannot be computed-aided is not obvious and
while design and analysis methods are being computerized to a greater degree than
was possible earlier, there are great practical difficulties in turning the design task
entirely over to the computers.
The design process has, historically, ranged from sketches on napkins (Fig. 1) to trial,
error, and natural selection (Fig. 2), to sophisticated computer-aided design programs
(Fig. 3).
 Figure 1. Aircraft concepts can start with very rough sketches, as did the human
powered airplane, the Gossamer Condor.

Figure 2. Aircraft Design By Trial and Error

Figure 3. Computer-Aided Design of Aircraft

Because the process is so complex, involving hundreds or thousands of computer

programs, many people at many locations, it is difficult to manage and companies are
continuing to try to improve on the strategy. In the early days of airplane design,
people did not do much computation. The design teams tended to be small, managed
by a single Chief Designer who knew about all of the design details and could make all
of the important decisions. Modern design projects are often so complex that the
problem has to be decomposed and each part of the problem tackled by a different
team. The way in which these teams should work together is still being debated by
managers and researchers.

The goal of these processes, whatever form they take, is to design what is, in some
sense, the best airplane. To do this requires that we address three basic issues:
1. What do we mean by best?
2. How can we estimate the characteristics of designs so we can compare two designs
in a quantitative way?
3. How do we choose the design variables which yield an optimum?

The first of these questions is perhaps the most important one, for if we don't know what
we are trying to achieve, or if we select the wrong goal, it doesn't matter how good the
analysis method may be, nor how efficient is our optimization procedure. Nevertheless,
this question is often not given sufficient attention in many optimization studies.

If we were to examine advertisements for aircraft it might seem that the definition of the
best aircraft is very simple. Madison Ave. Aircraft Company sells the fastest, most
efficient, quietest, most inexpensive airplane with the shortest field length. Unfortunately
such an airplane cannot exist. As Professor Bryson puts it, "You can only make one thing
best at a time." The most inexpensive airplane would surely not be the fastest; the most
efficient would not be the most comfortable. Similarly, the best aerodynamic design is
rather different from the best structural design, so that the best overall airplane is always
a compromise in some sense (see Fig 4.). The compromise can be made in a rational
way if the right measure of performance is used. Structural weight and lift to drag ratio,
for example, become parts of a larger equation. The left hand side of this equation is
termed the figure of merit or objective and depends on the intended application for
the aircraft.

Figure 4. One can only make one thing best at a time.

Various quantities have been used for this purpose including those listed below. This list is
applicable to commercial transport aircraft and is in order of increasing sophistication.
Many studies of new aircraft currently use direct operating cost as a measure of
performance. This quantity is a more representative measure of the aircraft's
performance than is a number such as gross weight since it is sensitive to fuel costs and
other important variables. While some estimate of fuel prices, depreciation rates,
insurance, labor rates, etc. must be made in order to compute direct operating cost, it
is not necessary to estimate airline traffic, fares, and other difficult-to-project variables
which would be necessary for computing numbers such as profit or return on
investment.

Possible measures of performance:

1. Minimum empty weight
2. Minimum take-off weight (includes some measure of efficiency as fuel weight is
included)
3. Minimum direct operating cost (a commonly-used measure)
4. Minimum total operating cost (a bit more difficult to estimate)
5. Minimum system cost over X years (life-cycle cost)
6. Maximum profit
7. Maximum return on investment
8. Maximum payload per $ (Sometimes used for military aircraft)

Analyses and Modeling

Once we have decided on the definition of "best" we must find a way of relating the
"design variables" to the goal. This process is shown schematically, below.

For aircraft design, this process is often extremely complex. The number of parameters
needed to completely specify a 747 is astronomical. So one uses a combination of
approximation, experience, and statistical information on similar aircraft to reduce the
number of design variables to a manageable number. This may range from 1 or 2 for
back-of-the envelope feasibility studies to hundreds or even thousands of variables in
the case of computer-assisted optimization studies. Even when the situation is simplified
the model is usually very complicated and difficult. One generally must use a hierarchy
of analysis tools ranging from the most simple to some rather detailed methods.

Calculating the drag of even a simple wing is not just a matter of specifying span and
area. Other parameters of importance include: taper, sweep, Reynolds number, Mach
number, CL or alpha, twist, airfoil sections, load factor, distribution of bugs, etc.

This can be programmed and available as an analysis tool, but one must be very
cautious. Which of these variables is included in the model? What if the wing is
operating at 100,000 Reynolds number? Has it been compared with experiment in this
regime?
As the design progresses, more information becomes available, and more refined
analyses become part of the design studies. The expertise of a designer, these days,
involves knowing what needs to be computed at what time and identifying the
appropriate level of approximation in the analyses.

One of the most important, but least well understood parts of the design process is the
conceptual design phase. This involves deciding on just what parameters will be used
to describe the design. Will this be a flying wing? A twin-fuselage airplane? Often
designers develop several competing concepts and try to develop each in some
detail. The final concept is "down-selected" and studied in more detail.

Design Iteration and Optimization

1) First, the analysis, itself, of a complete aircraft configuration is rather complex, even
without the optimization. Program size and complexity are such that only very well-
documented and well-maintained computer programs can be used. These programs
are often written by many people (some of whom have retired) over many years and it
is very difficult for an individual to know what the program can and cannot do. Many
grandiose plans for completely integrated aircraft design systems have fallen by the
wayside because they quickly become unmanageable.

2) Any analysis makes certain approximations and leaves certain things out. Optimizers,
however, may not understand that certain considerations have been omitted.
Optimizers are notorious for breaking programs. They exploit any weakness in the
analysis if that will lead to a "better" answer. Even when the result appears reasonable,
several difficult-to-quantify factors are often omitted: the compatibility with future
growth versions for instance, or the advantages associated with fleet commonality.
Moreover, optimums are, by definition, flat, so that leaving something out of the
objective can cause large discrepancies in the answer - the optimum is never optimal.
Some examples are shown in figures 5 and 6. These are examples in which real-life
testing, rather than reliance on simulation, is critical.

3) Ruts, creativity, and local minima: New technology changes the assumptions,
constraints, experience. An optimizer is limited to consider those designs that are
described by the selected parameter set. Thus, an optimizer and analysis that was
written to design conventional structures may not know enough to suggest the use of
composites. An optimizer did not invent the idea of folding tips for a 777, nor would it
create winglets, canards, active controls, or laminar flow, unless the programmer
anticipated this possibility, or at least permitted the possibility, in the selection of design
variables. (Figure 7.)

4) Noisy objective functions: When the analysis involves table look-ups or requires
iterative intermediate computations, the objective function can appear to vary in a
non-smooth fashion. This causes difficulties for many optimizers, especially those that
require derivative information.

5) The dangers of sub-optimization: It is tempting to fix many design variables and select
a few at a time to optimize, then fix these and vary others. This is known as partial
optimization or sub-optimization and, while it makes each study more understandable,
it can lead to wrong answers. One must be very careful about the selection of design
variables and avoid partial optimization.

Figure 5. "Optimal" Flight Path for Landing a Sailplane - An example of what happens
when the analysis does not include sufficient constraints.
 Figure 6. "Optimal" Redesign of Cessna Cardinal. Optimizer has exploited simplified
lateral stability constraints.

Figure 7. A Variety of Designs Not Likely Invented by an Optimizer

6) Finally, optimization is sometimes not needed as there are few feasible designs may
exist. In aircraft design, problems are often constraint-bound. That is, the constraints,
themselves dictate the values of the design variables. When many constraints are
active at the optimum, the value of the gradient is not zero, and a modification the
gradient methods are needed. One approach to constrained optimization is simply to
add a penalty to the objective function when the constraints are violated. Such
penalty function methods sometime work, but lead to rather difficult design space
topologies and can cause problems for the optimizer. Often the constraints are
visualized (at least as they affect up to two design variables) in a plot called a summary
chart. Examples are shown on the following pages.

EVALUATION