Introduction To Vibration Monitoring (Compatibility Mode)

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universität Berlin
Vibration monitoring
Assoc Prof
Assoc. Prof. Dr
Dr. Pelin Gundes Bakir
Istanbul Tecnical University
g
gundesbakir@yahoo.com
@y
References
• Pete Avitable
Avitable’ss web page
http://faculty.uml.edu/pavitabile/22.515/ME22515_PDF_downloads.htm
• Safak E., ‘Structural monitoring, what is it, why is it done, how is it done, and what is
it worth?’,Sixth
worth?’ Sixth National Conference on Earthquake Engineering
Engineering, 16
16-20
20 October
2007, Istanbul, Turkey
• Celebi M. ‘Seismic instrumentation of buildings’, USGS Open-File Report 00-157,

2000.
2000
• Heylen W., Lammens S. And Sas P., ‘Modal Analysis Theory and Testing’, Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven, 1997.
• Ewins D.J., ‘Modal Testing, Theory, Practice, and Application’ (Mechanical

Engineering Research Studies Engineering Design Series), Research Studies Pre; 2
edition ((August
g 2001)) ISBN-13: 978-0863802188
• Maia, N. M. M. and Silva, J. M. M.Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis

Research Studies Press Ltd,, Hertfordshire, 1997, 488 pp.,ISBN 0863802087
P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 2

• The aim
Th i off vibration
ib ti monitoring
it i is i to
t describe
d ib a structure
t t in
i terms
t off its
it
modal parameters which are the frequency, damping and mode shapes.
• If we explain modal analysis in terms of the modes of vibration of a simple
plate:
• Suppose we apply a sinusoidal force. We will change the rate of oscillation

of the frequency but the peak force will always be the same. We will also
measure the
th response off the
th plate
l t due
d tto the
th excitation
it ti with
ith an
accelerometer attached to one corner of the plate.

• If we measure the
th response off the
th
plate, we will notice that the
amplitude changes as we change
the rate of oscillation of the input
force. There will be increases as
well as decreases in amplitude at
different points as we sweep in
titime.
• The response amplifies as we

apply
l a fforce with
ith a rate
t off
oscillation that gets closer and
closer to the natural frequency (or
resonant frequency) of the system
and reaches a maximum when the
rate of oscillation is at the
resonant frequency of the system.

Modal analysis
• The time
Th i data
d provides
id very usefulf l iinformation.
f i B
But if we take
k the
h
time data and transform it to the frequency domain using the Fast
Fourier Transform then we can compute something called the
frequency response function.
• Now, there are some very interesting items to note. We see that
there are peaks in this function which occur at the resonant
frequencies of the system. Now, we notice that these peaks occur at
frequencies where the time response was observed to have
maximum response corresponding to the rate of oscillation of the
input excitation.

Modal analysis
• Now, if we overlay
N l theh time
i trace with
i h the
h ffrequency trace what
h we
will notice is that the frequency of oscillation at the time at which the
time trace reaches its maximum value corresponds to the frequency
where peaks in the frequency response function reach a maximum.
• So we can see that we can either use the time trace to determine
the frequency at which the maximum amplitude increases occur or
the frequency response function to determine where these natural
f
frequencies
i occur. Clearly
Cl l th the ffrequency response ffunction
ti iis easier
i
to evaluate.

• The figure shows the deformation patterns that will result when the
excitation coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the
system.

• We see that when we dwell at the first natural frequency,
q y there is a first
bending deformation pattern in the plate shown in blue. When we dwell at
the second natural frequency, there is a first twisting deformation pattern in
the p
plate shown in red.

• When we dwell at the third and fourth natural frequencies,
q , the second bendingg and
second twisting deformation patterns are seen in green and magenta, respectively.
These deformation patterns are referred to as the mode shapes of the structure.

• Now these natural frequencies and mode shapes occur in all structures that
we design. Basically, there are characteristics that depend on the weight
and stiffness of my structure which determine where these natural
frequencies and mode shapes will exist
exist.
• As a design engineer, I need to identify these frequencies and know how

theyy might
g affect the response
p of my
y structure when a force excites the
structure.
• Understanding the mode shape and how the structure will vibrate when
excited helps the design engineer to design better structures
structures.
• Now we can better understand what modal analysis is all about-it is the
study of the natural characteristics of structures. Both the natural frequency
and mode shape (which depends on the mass and stiffness distributions in
my structure) are used to help design my structural applications.

How many points are enough for a vibration

measurement?
• For a totall off 45 measurement points,
F i we can see that
h there
h are
sufficient number of points to describe the mode shape for each
mode.

How many
yppoints are enough
g for a vibration
measurement?
• For a total of 5 measurement points along one edge of the plate, if
we compare mode 1 and 3, we see that there are not enough points
to adequately describe the mode shape for each mode. The same
conclusion can be drawn from the comparison of modes 2 and 4 4.


measurement?
• If we increase the number of measurement points to 15, we see
that the modes can be measured well only if the measurement
points are selected with care
care. If we select the points as shown in the
figure, then it will be very hard to distinguish between modes 1 and
3. The mode shapes look almost the same.


measurement?
• If we only take measurements along the front and back edges of the
plate, then it would be very hard to distinguish between the first rigid
body mode and the first flexural mode.
• From all these simple examples above, it becomes obvious that we

need a distribution of points located appropriately such that each
mode shape can be uniquely distinguished.


measurement?
• If I am only interested in characterizing modes 1 and 2, then
possibly I could get a fairly good decription with only 6 points as
shown but fewer p points than that would be difficult especially
p y if we
needed to distingish the flexible modes from the rigid body modes.


measurement?
• If the only accessible surfaces are the 3 exterior surfaces
surfaces, and we can not
get any measurement from inside, modes 2 and 4 or modes 5 and 6 can not
be distinguished. The second storey beams are in phase for these two
modes but the first storey beams are out of phase.

What is the difference between time domain

and the frequency domain and the modal
space?
• First let’s consider a simple
cantilever beam and imagine
that the beam is excited by a
pulse at the tip of the beam.
• The response at the tip of the

beam will contain the response
off allll th
the modes
d off th
the system
t
(shown in the black time
response plot); notice that there
appears to response at se several
eral
different frequencies.


space?
• The time response at the tip of the
beam can be converted to the
frequency domain by performing a
Fourier Transform of the signal.
• Th frequency
The f domain
d i
representation of this converted
time signal is often referred to as
the frequency response function
function,
or FRF for short (shown in the
black frequency plot); notice that
there are peaks in the plot which
correspond to the natural
frequencies of the system.


space?
• We know that the cantilever beam
will have many natural frequencies
of vibration. At each of these
natural frequencies, the structural
deformation will take on a very
definite pattern, called a mode
shape. For this beam, we see that
there is a first bending mode
shown in blue, a second bending
mode shown in red, and a third
bending mode shown in green.
• Of course there are also other
higher modes not shown but only
three modes will be discussed
here.

space?
• Now, the physical beam could
also be evaluated using an
analytical lumped mass model or
finite element model (shown in
black in the upper right part of the
figure).
figure)
• This model will generally be
evaluated using some set of
equations where there is an
interrelationship, or coupling,
between the different points, or
degrees of freedom used to model
the structure. This means you pull
on one of the dofs in the model,
the other dofs are also affected
and also move.

space?
• This coupling means that the
equations are more complicated in
order to determine how the
system behaves. As the number
of equations used to describe the
system get larger and larger,
larger the
complication in the equations
become more involved. We often
use matrices to helpp organize
g all
of the equations of motion
describing how the system
behaves which looks like:


space?
• Usually, the mass is a diagonal
matrix and the damping and the
stiffness matrices are symmetric
with off-diagonal terms indicating
the degree of coupling between
the different equations or dofs
describing the system.
• The size of the matrices depend

on the number of equations that
we
e use
se to describe o
ourr ssystem.
stem


space?
• Mathematically, we perform
something called an eigensolution
and use the modal transformation
equation to convert these coupled
equations into a set of uncoupled
single degree of freedom systems
described by diagonal matrices of
modal mass
mass, modal damping and
modal stiffness in a new
coordinate system called modal
space described as:


space?
• We can see that the
transformation from physical
space to modal space using the
modal transformation equation is a
process whereby we convert a
complicated set of coupled
physical equations into a set of
simple uncoupled single dof
systems.


space?
• And we see in the figure that the
analytical model can be broken
down into a set of single dof
systems where the single dof
describing mode 1 is shown in
blue, mode 2 is shown in red and
mode 3 is shown in green.
• Modal space allows us to describe

the system easily using simple
single dof ssystems.
stems


space?
• Now let’s go back to the time and
frequency responses shown in
black We know that the total
black.
response can be obtained from
the contribution of each of the
modes The total response shown
modes.
in black comes from the
summation of the effects of the
response
p of the model shown in
blue for mode 1, red for mode 2,
and green for mode 3. This
applies
pp whether I describe the
system in the time domain or the
frequency domain. Each domain is
equivalent and just presents the
data from a different viewpoint.

space?
• So we can see that the total time
response is made up of the time
response due to the contribution
of the time response of mode 1
shown in blue, mode 2 in red and
mode 3 in green
green.
• We can also see that the total

FRF is made up of the part of the
FRF due to the contribution of the
FRF of mode 1 shown in blue,
mode 2 in red and mode 3 in
green.
.


space?
• Please note that we have only
shown the magnitude part of the
FRF here,
here this function is actually
complex which is correctly
displayed using both magnitude
and phase or real and imaginary
parts of the FRF.
• Since we can break the analytical
model up into a set of single dof
systems, we could determine the
FRF for each of the single dof
systems as shown with mode 1 in
blue, mode 2 in red, and mode 3
in green.


space?
• We could also determine the time
response for each of these single
dof systems due to the pulse input
• Or we could simply inverse
Fourier transform the FRF for
each of the single dof systems
systems.
• Or we could also measure the
response of the beam at the tip
due to the pulse and filter the
response of each modes of the
system, and we we would see the
response of each of the modes of
the system with mode 1 in blue,
mode 2 in red, and mode 3 in
green
green.


space?
• As a result, we see that there is no
difference between the time
domain frequency domain , modal
domain,
space and physical space. Each
domain is just a convenient way
for presenting or viewing the data
data.
• However, sometimes one domain
is much easier to see things than
another domain.
domain For instance
instance, the
total time response does not
clearly identify how many modes
there are contributing to the
response of the beam.


space?
• But the total FRF in the frequency
domain is much clearer in showing
how many modes are activated
and the frequency of each of the
modes.
modes
• So often, we transform one

d
domain i tto another
th d domain
i simply
i l
because the data is much easier
to interpret.

Single degree of freedom

systems
System equation and transfer

function
• The force equilibrium for a viscously damped SDOF structure:
M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx(t ) = f (t )
• Transforming this time domain equation into the Laplace domain:
( Mp 2 + Cp + K ) X ( p ) = F ( p )
or
Z ( p) X ( p) = F ( p)
where Z is the dynamic stiffness. Inverting Z gives the transfer function:

X ( p) 1/ M
H ( p) = = 2
F ( p ) p + (C / M ) p + ( K / M )

System poles, natural

frequencies, damping ratios
• Th d
The denominator
i t off th
the equation
ti
X ( p) 1/ M
H ( p) = = 2
F ( p ) p + (C / M ) p + ( K / M )
is referred to as the system characteristic equation. Its roots are called the
system poles which are given by:
λ1, 2 = −(C / 2M ) ± (C / 2M ) 2 − ( K / M )
• If there
h is
i no damping,
d i the
h system under
d consideration
id i iis a conservative
i
system (C=0).The undamped natural frequency (rad/s) is then defined
as:
Ω1 = K / M

System poles
poles, natural
• The critical damping Cc is the damping value that makes the term under
the square root of the equation
λ1, 2 = −(C / 2M ) ± (C / 2 M ) 2 − ( K / M )
equal to zero:
Cc = 2 M K / M
• Fraction of critical damping or damping ratio is:
ξ1 = C / Cc
• The first equation yields in the time domain a solution to the homogeneous
system equation:
λ1t λ2 t
x(t ) = x1e + x2 e

System poles
poles, natural
• Depending on the value of the damping ratio, the systems are classified as
overdamped (ζ1>1), critically damped (ζ1=1) or underdamped (ζ1<1)
systems.
• The response of overdamped systems consist of a decay only. They have

no tendency to oscillation.
• The response of underdamped systems is a decaying oscillation.
• Critically damped systems form the border case between over and
underdamped systems. For real world systems, the damping ratio is rarely
larger than ten percent unless the system contains some active damping
mechanisms.
• Here only the underdamped case will be considered.

System poles
poles, natural
frequencies,
q damping
p g ratios
• The equation
λ1, 2 = −(C / 2M ) ± (C / 2M ) 2 − ( K / M )
• Yields two complex conjugate roots
λ1 = σ 1 + jω1 λ1* = σ 1 − jω1

• Where σ1 is the damping factor and ω1 is the damped natural frequency
λ1 = (−ζ 1 + j 1 − ζ 12 )Ω1

Residues
• With the knowledge
g of the equation
q
λ1 = σ 1 + jω1 λ1* = σ 1 − jω1
the equation for the transfer function
X ( p) 1/ M
H ( p) = = 2
F ( p ) p + (C / M ) p + ( K / M )
becomes:
1/ M
H ( p) =
( p − λ1 )( p − λ*1 )
Applying the theory of partial fraction expansion yields:
A1 A1* 1/ M
H ( p) = + with A1 =
( p − λ1 ) ( p − λ1* ) j 2ω1
In this formula A1 and A1* are the residues.

Frequency response function

• The previous section discussed the relation between input (force) and
output (displacement) of a single degree of freedom system in the Laplace
domain.
• This relation can also be expressed in the frequency domain. The transfer
function evaluated along the frequency axis (jω) is called the frequency
response function (FRF).
A1 A1*
H ( p) = H (ω ) = +
p = jω
( jω − λ1 ) ( jω − λ1* )
• The FRF is a subset of the transfer function. The contribution of the

complex conjugate part (or negative frequency part) is negligible around
resonance Therefore
resonance. Therefore, the FRF for SDOF system is often approximated by:
A1
H (ω ) =
( jω − λ1 )
Impulse response function

• Inverse Laplace transforming the expression for the transfer function
A1 A1*
H ( p) = H ( jω ) = +
p = jω
( jω − λ1 ) ( jω − λ1* )
yields the expression in the time domain: the impulse response function.
λ1t * λ1*t
h(t ) = A1e + A1 e = eσ 1t ( A1e jω1t + A1*e − jω1t )
The residue A1 is the real part of the pole which defines the initial
amplitude σ1 is the imaginary part of the pole which defines the decay rate
amplitude,
and ω1 is the frequency of oscillation.
• The impulse
Th i l response off a system
t is
i th
the system
t response tto a Dirac
Di
impulse at time t=0.

Multi degree of freedom

systems
System equation and the transfer

• The
Th equation
ti off motion
ti is:
i
function
[ M ]{&x&}+ [C ]{x&}+ [ K ]{x} = { f }
• If we transform this time domain equation into the Laplace domain (variable
p), assuming the initial displacements and velocities are zero yields:
( p 2 [M ] + p[C ] + [K ]){X ( p )} = {F ( p )}
[Z ( p)]{X ( p)} = {F ( p)}
where [Z(p)] is the dynamic stiffness matrix. The inverse of [Z(p)] is [H(p)]
{X ( p)} = [H ( p)]{F ( p)}


function
• Standard calculus proves that the inverse of a matrix can be calculated
from its adjoint matrix:
adj[Z ( p )]
[H ( p)] = [Z ( p)] −1
=
Z ( p)
• Where adj([Z(p)]) is the adjoint matrix of [Z(p)] which can be expressed as.
adj ([ Z ( p )]) = [ε ij Z ij ]t
Z ij : the determinant of [ Z ( p)], without row i and column j
ε ij = 1, if i + j is even; = -1 if i + j is odd
Z ( p ) : the determinant of [ Z ( p)]


function
• The frequency response function can be written as:
m
[ Ak ] [ Ak* ]
[ H ( p )] p = jω = [ H ( jω )] = ∑ +
k =1 ( jω − λk ) ( jω − λ*k )
• The individual term can be written as:
*
m aijk aijk
hij ( jω ) = ∑ +
k =1 ( jω − λk ) ( jω − λ*k )
• hij(ω) means a particular output response at point i due to an input force at point j.
Since [M], [C], [K] are symmetric, [H(j ω)] is also symmetric. This implies that
hij=hhji which is called reciprocity. This means that you can measure the FRF by
impacting point i and measuring the response at point j and get exactly the same
FRF as impacting point j and measuring the response at point i. This is what is
meant by reciprocity.

Residues
• The residues are directly related to mode shapes and a scaling factor as:
• This shows that the frequency response function can be written in terms of
residues.
id
• When written as a mode shape,

p , then it becomes very y clear that if the value
of the mode shape at the reference point is zero (or almost zero) then that
mode will not be seen in the frequency response function.
• Always select a reference point where all the modes can be seen all the
time from that reference point.

Residues
• Never select the reference point at the node of a mode!

The big picture

• FRFs can be generated from residues and poles. The residues are directly
related to the mode shapes and the poles are the frequency and damping
of the system.

The big picture

• First let's start with an analytical
representation such as the finite
element model shown. Basically,
we use the FEM to approximate a
lumped mass system that is
interconnected by springs to
represent the physical system.
• Since the analytical approximation

is described in terms of a force
balance for each mass that is
described in the system, we end up
with one equation for each mass (or
degree of freedom) used to
approximate the system.

The big picture

• Since we need many small little
finite elements to accurately
describe the system, I end up with
many equation and unknowns.
• Right away, it becomes convenient

to describe all these equations
using
i matrices.
ti N
Now once I h
have
assembled all these equations, a
mathematical routine called an
eigensolution is used to represent
the system in simpler terms - the
system's frequencies and mode
shapes This is what we do in the
shapes.
finite element process.

The big picture

• I can take those same equations
and transform them into the
Laplace domain.
• Now in the Laplace domain, we

have, [B(s)], the system equation
and its inverse,[Hs)], the system
t
transfer
f function.
f ti Now
N we know
k that
th t
this inverse is the adjoint of the
system matrix (or the cofactors of
the system matrix) divided by the
determinant of the system matrix.
This inverse is described in all
vibrations text books

The big picture

• It turns out that the adjoint matrix
contains the modal vectors and we
call this the Residue Matrix.
• The determinant of [B(s)] contains

the roots, or poles of the system.
Well, this is the same basic
i f
information
ti that
th t is
i obtained
bt i d ffrom th
the
analytical model.
• So we could determine the system

dynamic characteristics from either
the analytical model or from the
Laplace domain representation -
they both will give the same results.
• .

The big picture

• Now another important
p relationship
p
is the Frequency Response
Function, FRF. This is the system
transfer function evaluated along
the jω axis. The FRF is actually a
matrix of terms, [H(jω)].
• Well, since we are dealing with a

matrix, it is convenient to identify
input-output
p p measurements with a
subscript. So a particular output
response at point 'i' due to an input
force at p
point 'j'j is called hij(j
(jω).
)
• .

The big picture

• Now what we need to realize is that
those FRFs that were generated
(synthesized) contain information
relative to the system
characteristics.
• Remember that the FRFs can be

generated from residues and poles.
And that the residues are directly
related to the mode shapes
p and the
poles are the frequency and
damping of the system.
.

The big picture

The big picture

• Upp until now we have only y discussed
using the mass, damping and stiffness
approximations to compute system
characteristics from the finite element
model or from the Laplace domain
representation of the system.
• Both these approaches use

approximations of the physical
parameters of mass,, damping
p p g and
stiffness to describe the system and so
they will both provide the same basic
information.
.

The big picture

• If there were some other wayy to
estimate those FRFs without assuming
physical properties then I could employ
the modal parameter estimation
techniques to extract the desired
information. This is where modal
testing comes in.
• Basically, my structure is excited with
some measured force. The response
of the system due to the applied force
is measured along with the force. Now
this time data is transformed to the
frequency domain using the FFT and
basically a ratio of output response to
input force is computed to form an
approximation of the FRF.
. P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 56

The big picture

• So we could measure one input-output
p p
FRF based on this approach. If we
used a shaker to excite the structure
and move the accelerometer to many
points then we could measure a
column of the FRF matrix. So the big
advantage of making measurements is
that I measure the response of the
system due to the applied force – I
don't ever make any assumptions as to
th mass, d
the dampingi and d stiffness
tiff off th
the
system - and I avoid any erroneous
approximations I may make. Of
co rse I need to make ssure
course, re that I
make very good measurements
otherwise I will distort my system
characteristics
characteristics.

.
Vib ti
it i in
i
buildings
Seismic behaviour and performance

of structural systems
There are three main approaches to evaluate seismic behavior
and performance of structural systems (Celebi et al
al.):
):
1. Laboratory Testing
2. Computerised analysis
3. Natural Laboratory of the Earth:Integral to the “natural

laboratory” approach is the advance instrumentation of selected
structures so that their responses can be recorded during future
earthquakes.

Structural response
The methods used in studying structural response records are quite diverse:
((a)) Mathematical modeling g ((finite element models varying

y g from crude to very
y
detailed, subjected to timehistory, response spectrum or modal analyses).
The procedure requires the blueprints of the structures which may not be
readily accessible;
(b) System identification techniques: single input/single output or multi

input/multi output. In these procedures, the parameters of a model are
adjusted for consistency with input and output data (Ljung
(Ljung, 1987);
(c) Spectral analyses: response spectra, Fourier amplitude spectra,

autospectra Sx or Sy,
autospectra, Sy cross-spectral
cross spectral amplitudes Sxy,Sxy and coherence
functions ( γ) [using the equation : γ2xy (f) = S2xy (f)/ Sx (f)Sy (f)] and
associated phase angles

Why do we instrument buildings?

• Improve our understanding of
the behavior and potential for
damage in structures under the
dynamic loads of earthquakes.
• Emergency response : A
detailed real time hazard analysis
i urban
in b environments
i t
• Improvement in mathematical
models: An instrumentation
program should provide enough
information to reconstruct the
response of the structure in
enough detail to compare with the
response predicted by
mathematical models and those
observed in laboratories.


• Damage detection: Explain the reasons for any damage to structures
• Quantify the interaction of the soil and the structure: The nearby free-
field and ground-level
ground level time history should be known in order to quantify the
interaction of soil and structure.
• Determine the importance of nonlinear behavior on the overall and local

response off the
th structure,
t t


• Follow the spreading nonlinear behavior throughout the structure
as the response increases and determine the effect of this nonlinear
behavior on the frequency and damping
• Correlate the damage with inelastic behavior
• Determine the ground

ground-motion
motion parameters that correlate well with
building response damage
• Make recommendations to improve the building codes
• Facilitate decisions to retrofit/strengthen the structural system as

well as securing the contents within the structures


• Determine whether the structure has to be retrofitted or not in an
objective way following big earthquakes and aftershocks
• Determining the structural members and parts that have to be

retrofitted in the structure
• Determine the best retrofit technique
• Evaluating whether the intended benefit from retrofitting is

obtained or not
• Determine the maximum interstory drifts in the structure
• Providing an early warning system for traffic closure when the

bridges are subjected to excessive wind loading


• Prediction of the behaviour of the buildings under future earthquakes
by monitoring their behaviour under small magnitude earthquakes or
ambient vibrations.
• Real time assessment of the performance level of the structure

following catastrophic earthquakes and aftershocks.
• Immediate occupancy?
• Life safety performance level?
• Collapse prevention?
• Collapse??


• The most widely
Th id l usedd code
d iin the
h
United States, the Uniform
Building Code (UBC-1997 and
prior editions), recommends, for
seismic zones 3 and 4 a minimum
of three accelerographs
g p be
placed:
– in every building over six stories with

an aggregate floor areas of 5500m2 or
more
– in every building over ten stories

regardless of the floor area.


• UBC-Code
UBC Code type instrumentation is
illustrated in Figure.
• Experiences from past

earthquakes show that the UBC
minimum guidelines do not ensure
sufficient
ffi i t data
d t to
t perform
f
meaningful model verifications.
• As an example, three horizontal

accelerometers are required to
define the horizontal motion of a
floor (two translations and
torsion).

• Rojahn and Matthiesen

(1977) concluded that the
predominant response of a
high-rise building can be
described by the
participation of the first four
modes of each of the three
sets of modes (two
translations and torsion).
• Therefore, a minimum of 12
accelerometers would be
necessary to record these
modes.


• If vertical motion and rocking are expected to be significant and
need to be recorded,
recorded at least three vertical accelerometers are
required at the basement level.
• This type off instrumentation

Thi i i scheme
h is
i called
ll d the
h id
ideall extensive
i
instrumentation scheme herein and is illustrated in the Figure.


• Diaphragm effects are best captured by adding sensors at the
center of the diaphragm as well as the edges.
• Performance of base-isolated systems and effectiveness of the

isolators are best captured by measuring tri-axial motions at top
and bottom of the isolators as well as the rest of the
superstructure.


• Engineers usese free-field
free field motions as input
inp t motion at the foundation
fo ndation
level, or they obtain the motion at foundation level by convoluting the
motion through assumed or determined layers of strata to base rock and
deconvoluting the motion back to foundation level
level.
• To confirm these processes requires downhole instrumentation near or

di
directly
l bbeneath
h a structure. D
Downhole
h l ddata are especially
i ll scarce,
although a few such arrays have been developed outside of the United
States. These downhole arrays will serve to yield data on:
(1) the characteristics of ground motion at bedrock at a defined distance from a

source
(2) the amplification of seismic waves in layered strata.

Steps in instrumenting
structures
Selection of Structures to be
Instrumented
1. Structural parameters: the construction material,

structural system
system, geometry
geometry, discontinuity
discontinuity, and age
2 Site-related
2. Site related parameters:
a. Se
a Severity-of-shaking
e ty o s a g factor
acto to be ass
assigned
g ed to eac
each
structure on the basis of its closeness to one or more of
the main faults within the boundaries of the area
considered (e
(e.g.
g for the San Francisco Bay area
area, the San
Andreas, Hayward, and Calaveras faults are
considered).

Instrumented
b. Probability of a large earthquake (M = 6.5 or 7 occurring on the
fault(s) within the next 30 years was obtained. The purpose of this
parameter is to consider the regions where there is strong chance of
recording useful data within an approximately useful life of a
structure.
c. Expected value of strong shaking at the site, determined as the

product of a and b.
3. Building usage, functionality, occupancy and relevance to life safety

requirements following damaging earthquakes.
4. Other parameters of interest to owners or public officials.

Instrumented
Once the particular structure to be instrumented is
identified, the engineering staff
• obtains instrumentation permits for selected structures
• gathers information relative to the project including

structural plans and design and model information
• directs structural evaluation and if necessary performs

ambient response studies.

Instrumented
• study of available design and analysis information after permission
for instrumenting is granted by the owner,
• site visit
• required analytical studies and tests, if feasible and necessary.
• In general, the following information, if available, will be required:
(1) relevant blueprints and design calculations
((2)) dynamic
y analysis
y (mode
( shapes
p and frequencies)
q )
(3) if available, forced-vibration test results, and ambient-vibration

test results.

Instrumented
• Seldom is all this information available for any structure.
• The collected set of data is then used as a basis for determining transducer
locations that will
ill adeq
adequately
atel define the response of the str
structure
ct re d
during
ring a
strong earthquake.
• After the sensor locations have been agreed upon by the engineering staffstaff,
the installation team, a representative of the owner of the structure, and an
electrical contractor is called in to plan placement of the data cable.
• The installation
Th i ll i team works k with
i h the
h contractor d
during
i this
hi phase
h andd
subsequently calibrates and installs sensors and recording systems. A final
step is a complete documentation of each transducer location and
orientation, characteristics of total system
y response,
p and any
yppeculiarities of
the instrumentation or access to required sites.

Importance of Building Specific Free-

Free
Field Station
• If physically feasible, it is advisable to include into the
instrumentation scheme, a building specific free-field station.
• Such a free-field station is usually deployed at a distance greater

than 1.5-2 times the height of the nearest/tallest building. This is
due to the desire that motions recorded by a free-field station should
not be influenced by the shaking of the buildings
buildings.
• In general, free-field and ground-level motions should be known in

order to quantify the interaction of the soil and the structure
structure.
• However, data recorded at building specific free-field stations can be

used to augment data bases used for structural response studies as
well as ground motion studies including development of attenuation
relationships and quantification of site response transfer
functions and characteristics.

Tests on Existing Structures to

Determine Dynamic Characteristics
• Although it is possible to obtain a satisfactory understanding of a
structure's expected dynamic behavior by preliminary analytical
studies, an ambient-vibration and/or a forced vibration test on an
existing structure can be performed to identify mode shapes and
frequencies.
• Ambient vibration tests can be performed efficiently using portable

recorders at three to five locations that are expected (from analytical
studies or other information) to have maximum amplitudes during
the first three to four vibrational modes.
• Thus, elastic properties of the structure can be determined. If the

j
subject structure experiences
p nonlinear behavior during
g a strongg
shaking, it will be much easier to evaluate the nonlinear behavior
once linear behavior is determined before the nonlinear behavior
occurs during the strong shaking.

Tests on Existing Structures to

Determine Dynamic Characteristics
• Compared to ambient-vibration test, a forced-vibration
ambient vibration test forced vibration test is
more difficult to perform. The required equipment (vibration
generator with control consoles, weights, recorders, accelerometers,
and cables)) is heavier,, and the test takes longer
g than the ambient-
vibration test.
• State-of-the-art vibration g
generators do not necessarilyy have the
capability to excite to resonance all significant modes of all
structures (Çelebi and others, 1987).
• Dynamic Analysis
• A simplified finite-element model can be developed to obtain the
elastic dynamic characteristics.
• This is performed with any one of the several tested computer

programs available (e.g. SAP2000, ANSYS, and STRUDL).

Selection and installation of

instruments
Selection and installation of instruments
• In selection and defining an

instrumentation scheme, an
optimum list of hardware is
p after careful
developed
consideration of cost and data
requirements.
• While developing the

instrumentation scheme within the
budgetary constraints, it is best to
consider the maximum available
channels for each recording
system. Most recording systems
have maximum of 12 or 18
channels of recording capability.


• The following general approach is followed
to install seismic instruments:
1. After an instrumentation scheme is

developed and approximate sensor
locations are chosen, monitoring team
and the owner's representative review
the site to determine exact sensor
locations and routing of cables
satisfactory to both parties.
This is important from viewpoint of long-

term accessibility
accessibility, potential interference
with the occupant's space, placement of
data cable runs, and aesthetic
requirements of the owner.
Figure exhibits a sample schematic

showing locations of sensors, routing of
cables, location of junction boxes and
recordingg units.

2 Next
2. N t a technician
t h i i should
h ld iinspectt th
the entire
ti structural
t t l scheme
h
with an electrical contractor who will install the data cable,
junction boxes at key locations and terminal boxes (if required)
att each
h sensor site.
it The
Th modern
d recording
di systemst may nott
require terminal boxes as they have internal terminals. Actual
cabling by the contractor is monitored by the monitoring team
and the owner's
owner s representative to be sure the cable is installed
as desired and that all building code regulations are followed.
3. The cable-termination box includes data circuits, batteries and

battery charges. This box is normally mounted on the wall above
the recorder. The recorder location is selected on the basis of
security,
it typically
t i ll iin a ttelephone
l h or electrical
l t i l switch
it h room, and
d iin
some circumstances is enclosed with separate fencing in an
open area.

4 Th
4. The iinstrumentation
t t ti undergoes
d a preliminary
li i
calibration in the strong-motion laboratory and is then
installed in the structure with appropriate test
procedures
d iincluding
l di a static
t ti tilt sensitivity
iti it ttestt ffor
each component and determination of direction of
motion for upward trace deflection on the record.
For modern digital systems, this information is entered

into the recorder data section and is stored in a
general database.
Other documentation includes precise sensor

location, period and damping of each unit, location of
cable runs,, access information,, and circuit diagrams.
g
Sensor locations
• The number of required sensors and sensor locations depend on the
condition that whether 2 dimensional or 3 dimensional motions of the
structure are going to be monitored.
• In 2 dimensions, the degrees of freedom are 2 translations and one rotation.
• A typical example to such a structure is a multistorey building with shear

walls
ll and
d a rigid
i id di
diaphragm.
h
• In order to determine these two translations and one rotation, three

measurements are needed
needed.
• These three measurements have to satisfy the following conditions:
– The measurements have to be taken from two separate locations

– The three measurement directions should not be parallel.
– The three measurement directions should not intersect each other.

Sensor locations
• In 3 D space
space, the vibrations of the structure can be fully described by
3 translations and 3 rotations.
• In such a structure
structure, we need at least 6 measurements which have to
satisfy the following conditions in order to solve for the 3 rotations
and 3 translations from the dynamic equilibrium equations:
– The measurements have to be taken at least from 3 separate locations.
– The measurement locations should not be on a straight line.
– The 6 measurement directions should not be parallel.
– The 6 measurement directions should not intersect each other.

Sensor locations
• Sensor locations should not be determined based on the locations of
maximum displacements, because that displacement can be dominated by
a single mode. That means, if you put a sensor there you would only identify
that mode. The location you should search for is the one whose
displacement has contrib
contributions
tions from a maximum
ma im m n number
mber of modes
modes. That
way you can identify more modes (Şafak,2009).
• For typical multi-story

multi story buildings,
buildings there is no reason to put a vertical sensor in
the middle of floor slab, unless it has a huge span with no beams and
columns to support it. Even then, it would record only the local behavior of
the floor slab, not the global behavior of structural system, which is more
important when matching analytical models (Şafak,2009).
(Şafak 2009)
• For torsion, the larger the distance between the two parallel horizontals, the
more accurate the calculated torsion (i(i.e.,
e the better the signal to noise ratio
in the torsional signal) (Şafak,2009).
•
Sensor locations
IIn generall the
h order
d ffor placing
l i sensors:
• Roof
• Ground floor
• Basement
• Any location where stiffness and/or mass changes significantly
• Any location where the curvature of the deformed shape is expected
to change.

Sensor locations in buildings

1.
1 The first group of sensors should be located on the roof of structures
structures.
2. The second group of sensors should be placed on the top of the
foundations (in the ground floor or basement).
3. The third group of sensors should be placed at the locations where the
rigidity and the mass of the structure change.
4. The rest of the sensors should be placed on locations where the
amplitudes of the vibration modes of the structure are expected to be
large.
large

Optimal sensor placement
1. Effective Independence Technique
2. Optimum Driving Point Based Method
3. Non-optimum driving point based method
4
4. EFI Driving point residue method
EFI-

Effective Independence
Technique

Technique
where Q is the Fisher information matrix

Technique
The best state estimate can be obtained by maximizing Q which results in
the minimization of the covariance matrix
matrix. For simplicity
simplicity, it is assumed
that the measurement noise is uncorrelated and possesses identical
statistical properties of each sensor. The Fisher Information Matrix can
then be simplified as:

Technique

Non-Optimum driving point
based method

Optimum driving point based
method

Effective Indepence Driving
Point Residue Technique

Maintenance
• It is essential to have periodic and consistent maintenance of instruments in
order to have a successful program. Unless maintenance arrangements
are made, successful recording of data cannot be accomplished. Therefore,
routine maintenance is conducted every 3-12 months if circumstances and
e perience so allow.
experience allo
• This maintenance includes the following:
1. Remote calibration of period and damping.
2. Inspection
p of battery
y terminals, load voltage,
g and charge
g rate ((batteries are
replaced every 3 years).
3. Measurement of threshold of triggering system and length of recording cycle.
• As a final maintenance procedure, a calibration record is obtained and then

examined for the desired characteristics. All inspection procedures are
recorded in the permanent station file at the laboratory.

GPS units
• Until recently
recently, in general,
general only accelerometers (single
(single,
biaxial or triaxial) were used to instrument structures.
• However, observations of damages during the 1994

Northridge and 1995 Kobe earthquakes, have forced
engineers and scientists to focus on performance
based seismic design methods and to find new
techniques to control drift and displacements.
• To verify these developments, sensors directly

measuring g displacements
p or relative displacements
p
(transducers, laser devices and GPS units) are now
being considered.

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ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universität Berlin

• Celebi M. ‘Seismic instrumentation of buildings’, USGS Open-File Report 00-157,

• Ewins D.J., ‘Modal Testing, Theory, Practice, and Application’ (Mechanical

• Maia, N. M. M. and Silva, J. M. M.Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 2

• Suppose we apply a sinusoidal force. We will change the rate of oscillation

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 3

• The response amplifies as we

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 4

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 5

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 6

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 7

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 8

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 9

• As a design engineer, I need to identify these frequencies and know how

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 10

How many points are enough for a vibration

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 11

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 12

How many points are enough for a vibration

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 13

How many points are enough for a vibration

• From all these simple examples above, it becomes obvious that we

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 14

How many points are enough for a vibration

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 15

How many points are enough for a vibration

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 16

What is the difference between time domain

• The response at the tip of the

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 17

What is the difference between time domain

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 18

What is the difference between time domain

What is the difference between time domain

What is the difference between time domain

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 21

What is the difference between time domain

• The size of the matrices depend

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 22

What is the difference between time domain

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 23

What is the difference between time domain

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 24

What is the difference between time domain

• Modal space allows us to describe

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 25

What is the difference between time domain

What is the difference between time domain

• We can also see that the total

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 27

What is the difference between time domain

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 28

What is the difference between time domain

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 29

What is the difference between time domain

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 30

What is the difference between time domain

• So often, we transform one

P. Gundes Bakir, Vibration based structural health monitoring 31

Single degree of freedom

System equation and transfer

where Z is the dynamic stiffness. Inverting Z gives the transfer function: