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failure results mainly due to variable loading or more precisely due to cyclic
variations in the applied loading or induced stresses So starting from the basic
account them and finally how to design parts or components to resist failure by
fatigue
WHAT IS FATIGUE?
Fatigue loading is primarily the type of loading which causes cyclic variations in
Variable Loading
Variable loading results when the applied load or the induced stress on a
component is not constant but changes with time i.e load or stress varies with
time in some pattern. Most mechanical systems and devices consists moving or
rotating components. When they are subjected to external loadings, the induced
stresses are not constant even if the magnitude of the applied load remains
invariant.
operations-
There are different types of fatigue/variable loading. The worst case of fatigue
loading is the case known as fully-reversible load. One cycle of this type of
loading occurs when a tensile stress of some value is applied to an unloaded part
and then released, then a compressive stress of the same value is applied and
released.
reversible load. In order to visualize the fully-reversing nature of the load, picture
the shaft in a fixed position (not rotating) but subjected to an applied bending
load (as shown here). The outermost fibers on the shaft surface lying on the
convex side of the deflection (upper surface in the picture) will be loaded in
tension (upper green arrows), and the fibers on the opposite side will be loaded
in compression (lower green arrows). Now, rotate the shaft 180° in its bearings,
with the loads remaining the same. The shaft stress level is the same, but now
the fibers which were loaded in compression before you rotated it are now loaded
in tension, and vice-versa. Thus if the shaft is rotated let us say at 900
revolutions per minute then the shaft is cyclically stressed 900 times a minute.
To illustrate how damaging such type load is, take a paper clip, bend it out
straight, then pick a spot in the middle, and bend the clip 90° back and forth at
that spot (from straight to "L" shaped and back). When you bend it the other way,
you reverse the stresses (fully reversing fatigue). You can notice that the clip will
When you are bending it you are plastically-deforming the metal, you are, by
definition, exceeding its yield stress. When you bend it in one direction, you are
applying a high tensile stress to the fibers on one side of the OD, and a high
compressive stress on the fibers on the opposite side. In the next cycle the
phenomena is repeated, the tensile stress fibers are now compressed and vice
versa, thus the material is cyclically strained which ultimately results in their
premature failure.
Fatigue Failure
are found to have failed even when the actual maximum stresses were below the
ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently at stress values even below
the yield strength. The most distinguishing characteristics is that the failure had
occurred only after the stresses have been repeated a very large number of
Let us first make an attempt to understand the basic mechanism of fatigue failure
A fatigue failure begins with a small crack; the initial crack may be so
minute and can not be detected. The crack usually develops at a point of
concentration effect become greater and the crack propagates. Consequently the
stressed area decreases in size, the stress increase in magnitude and the crack
propagates more rapidly. Until finally, the remaining area is unable to sustain the
load and the component fails suddenly. Thus fatigue loading results in sudden,
unwarned failure.
-Crack initiation
-Crack propagation
-Fracture
Crack initiation
bolt holes and even scratches or tool marks are potential zones for crack
initiation.
induced stress goes above the yield strength (in normal ductile materials)
and cyclic plastic straining results due to cyclic variations in the stresses.
On a macro scale the average value of the induced stress might still be
gliding of planes one over the other. During the cyclic stressing, slip
Crack propagation
• This further increases the stress levels and the process continues,
propagating the cracks across the grains or along the grain boundaries,
• As the size of the crack increases the cross sectional area resisting the
Final fracture
• As the area becomes too insufficient to resist the induced stresses any
Extrusion
Intrusion
Animate
second is due to the sudden fracture. The zone of sudden fracture is very
experienced person) of the failed cross section could also reveal the site
of crack origin
The number of cycles that a metal can endure before it breaks is a complex function of the
static and cyclic stress values, the alloy, heat-treatment and surface condition of the
material, the hardness profile of the material, impurities in the material, the type of load
laboratory under fully reversed loading. His work lead to the existence of a relation between
applied stress and the number of cycles to failure. This relation or the S-N diagram became
the standard way to characterize the behavior of materials under cyclic stressing, and
A single test consists of applying a known, constant bending stress to a round sample of
the material, and rotating the sample around the bending stress axis until it fails. As the
sample rotates, the stress applied to any fiber on the outside surface of the sample varies
counts the number of rotations (cycles) until the specimen fails. A large number of tests is
run at each stress level of interest, and the results are statistically massaged to determine
The most widely used fatigue-testing device is the R.R Moore high-speed rotating beam
machine. This machine subjects the specimen to pure bending (no transverse shear).
Standard Testing
A rotating bending machine (RBM) is mostly suitable to test the fatigue properties
at zero mean stress. A schematic sketch of the test device is illustrated in the figure below.
A standard test specimen is clamped in bearings at the ends and loaded at two points as
shown. With this type of device the region of rotating beam between built-in ends is
subjected to pure bending with a constant bending moment all along its length. While under
the influence of this constant moment, the specimen is rotated by the drive spindles around
the longitudinal axis; any point on the specimen is thus subjected to completely reversed
stress pattern.
RBM-Fatigue Testing
Motor
Test piece
w w
2 2
Loading on the Test Specimen
w/2 w w/2
w/2 w/2
Bending Moment
M M
Tests on several specimens are conducted under identical conditions with varying levels of
stress amplitude. The cyclic stress level of the first set of tests is some large percentage of
the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS), which produces failure in a relatively small number of
cycles. Subsequent tests are run at lower cyclic stress values until a level is found at which
The results are plotted as an S-N diagram (see the figure) usually on semi-log or on log-log
paper, depicting the life in number of cycles tested as a function of the stress amplitude. A
typical plot is shown in the figure below for two class of materials.
Finite Life
Infinite Life
140 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sut120 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
MPa100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90
80 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
70 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
100 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 10
In the case of the steels, a knee (flattening or saturation) occurs in the graph, and beyond
this knee failure will not occur, no matter how large the numbers of cycles are. The strength
(stress amplitude value) corresponding to the knee is called the endurance limit (Se) or the
fatigue limit. However the graph never does become horizontal for non-ferrous metals and
Endurance Limit
value at or below which no fatigue failure will occur, no matter how large the number of
stress reversals are, in other words leading to an infinite life to the component or part being
stressed. For most ferrous materials Endurance limit (Se) is set as the cyclic stress level
In general, steel alloys which are subjected to a cyclic stress level below the EL (properly
adjusted for the specifics of the application) will not fail in fatigue. That property is
commonly known as "infinite life". Most steel alloys exhibit the infinite life property, but it is
interesting to note that most aluminum alloys as well as steels which have been case-
hardened by carburizing, do not exhibit an infinite-life cyclic stress level (Endurance Limit).
For such materials, which do not have an endurance limit, to use in design
the stress amplitude at a specified life (in terms of stress reversals) usually 5X106 or 107
cycles. The specification of fatigue strength without specifying the corresponding life is
Sut
The body of knowledge available on fatigue failure from N=1 to N=1000 cycles is generally
greater than 103 cycles.(Note that a stress cycle (N=1) constitutes a single application and
removal of a load and then another application and removal of load in the opposite direction.
Thus N= ½ means that the load is applied once and then removed, which is the case with
We also distinguish a finite-life and an infinite-life region. Finite life region covers
life in terms of number of stress reversals upto the knee point.(in case of steels) beyond
which is the infinite-life region. The boundary between these regions cannot be clearly
defined except for specific materials; but it lies somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles, for
Finite Life
Infinite Life
i) Loading
Nature and type of loading: -Axial tension, bending, torsion and combined loading-Mean
and Variable components in case of Repeated, Fluctuating and Alternating loading and
ii) Geometry
iii) Material
iv) Manufacturing
V) Environment
Material
As noted earlier there are two class of materials as for as the fatigue behavior is concerned,
those material which exhibit well defined endurance limit and those without do not show
endurance limit. Most ferrous materials and basic steels fall under the first category and
some heat treated alloys of steel, aluminum etc. fall under the second category.
Composition and strength of the material are interrelated and detail discussion on
strength follows later. Strength is also related to micro structure and in this respect it is
interesting to note that soft structure like ferrite resist fatigue better than hard structure
like cementite. However because of the higher strength that can be achieved from the
same material by altering the micro structure, such structures are preferred in spite of
STRENGTH?
The endurance limit of steel displays some interesting properties. These are shown, in a
general way,
280 420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260 1400 1540 1680 1820 1960 2100
UTS MPa
in this graph, and briefly discussed below. It is a simplistic rule of thumb that, for steels
having a UTS less than 1400 MPa, the endurance limit for the material will be
approximately 45 to 50% of the UTS if the surface of the test specimen is smooth and
polished.
That relationship is shown by the line titled "50%". A very small number of special case
materials can maintain that approximate 50% relationship above the 1400 MPa level.
However, the EL of most steels begins to fall away from the 50% line above a UTS of about
For example, a specimen of SAE-4340 alloy steel, hardened to 32 Rockwell-C (HRc), will
exhibit a UTS around 1400 MPa and an EL of about 700 MPa, or 50% of the UTS. If you
change the heat treatment process to achieve a hardness of about 50 HRc, the UTS will be
about 1820 MPa, and the EL will be about 590 MPa, which is only about 32% of the UTS.
Several other alloys known as "ultra-high-strength steels" and some maraging steels have
MPa. Also note that these values are EL numbers for fully-reversing bending fatigue.
In above figure illustrated, the line titled "Notched" shows the dramatic reduction in fatigue
strength as a result of the concentration of stress which occurs at sudden changes in cross-
sectional area (sharp corners in grooves, fillets, etc.). The highest EL on that curve is about
The surface finish of a material has a dramatic effect on the fatigue life. That fact is clearly
illustrated by the curve titled "Corroded". It mirrors the shape of the "notched" curve, but is
much lower. That curve shows that, for a badly corroded surface (fretting, oxidation,
galvanic, etc.) the endurance limit of the material starts at around 140 MPa for materials of
280 MPa UTS (50%), increases to about 180 MPa for materials between 280 and 1400
MPa UTS, then decreases back toward 140 MPa as the material UTS increases above
1400 MPa.
Fatigue failures almost always begin at the surface of a material. The reasons are that (a)
the most highly-stresses fibers are located at the surface (bending fatigue) and (b) the
intergranular flaws which precipitate tension failure are more frequently found at the surface.
Suppose that a particular specimen is being fatigue tested (as described above). Now
suppose the fatigue test is halted after 20 to 25% of the expected life of the specimen and a
small thickness of material is machined off the outer surface of the specimen, and the
surface condition is restored to its original state. Now the fatigue test is resumed at the
same stress level as before. The life of the part will be considerably longer than expected. If
that process is repeated several times, the life of the part may be extended by several
hundred percent, limited only by the available cross section of the specimen. That proves
or elevated temperatures
Waveform: Is the stress history a shine wave, square wave, or some other wave form?
As with frequency, generally only influences fatigue if there are environmental effects.
It is important to remember that the Endurance Limit of a material is not an absolute nor
fully repeatable number. In fact, several apparently identical samples, cut from adjacent
sections in one bar of steel, will produce different EL values (as well as different UTS and
YS) when tested, as illustrated by the S-N diagram below. Each of those three properties
(UTS, YS, EL) is determined statistically, calculated from the (varying) results of a large
The plot below shows the results of a battery of fatigue tests on a specific material. The
tests at each stress level form statistical clusters, as shown. a curve is fitted through the
clusters of points, as shown below. The curve which is fitted through these clusters, known
as an "S-N Diagram" (Stress vs. Number), represents the statistical behavior of the fatigue
properties of that specific material at that specific strength level. The red points in the chart
represent the cyclic stress for each test and the number of cycles at which the specimen
broke. The blue points represent the stress levels and number of cycles applied to
specimens which did not fail. This diagram clearly demonstrates the statistical nature of
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
1*100 1*101 1*102 1*103 1*104 1*105 1*106 1*107 1*108
Cycles
Unfortunate experience has taught engineers that the value of the Endurance Limit found in
laboratory tests of polished, optimized samples does not really apply to real-world
components.
Because the EL values are statistical in nature, and determined on optimized, laboratory
samples, good design practice requires that one tries to determine what the actual EL will
be for each specific application. This is a time consuming process and at preliminary design
levels may not be feasible or desirable. As more and more knowledge is gained on the
fatigue aspects, this is now over come by applying a number of correction or modification
Our real concern is how to design a component so that failure by fatigue could be precluded.
-Materials response to fatigue loading is characterized by its S-N behavior obtained through
a standard test
-The most important factors that affect the fatigue performance (strength) are also noted in
In order to design for satisfactory fatigue life (prior to testing actual components), good
practice requires that the "laboratory" Endurance Limit value be reduced by several
(a) the differences between the application and the testing environments, and
This procedure is to insure that both the known and the unpredictable factors in the
impurities, alloy variations, heat-treatment variations, stress concentrations, etc. etc. etc.)
will not reduce the life of a part below the required value. Please read that paragraph again,
specific design can survive is the Marin method, in which the laboratory test-determined EL
This adjustment of the EL is the result of six fractional factors. Each of these six factors is
calculated from known data which describe the influence of a specific condition on fatigue
life.
(a) Surface Condition (ka): such as: polished, ground, machined, as-forged, corroded, etc.
(b) Size (kb): This factor accounts for changes which occur when the actual size of the part
(c) Load (Kc): This factor accounts for differences in loading (bending, axial, torsional)
(d) Temperature (kd): This factor accounts for reductions in fatigue life which occur when
the operating temperature of the part differs from room temperature (the testing
temperature);
(e) Reliability (ke): This factor accounts for the scatter of test data. For example, an 8%
standard deviation in the test data requires a ke value of 0.868 for 95% reliability, and 0.753
(f) Miscellaneous (Kf): This factor accounts for reductions from all other effects, including
These six fractional factors are applied to the laboratory value of the material endurance
limit to determine the allowable cyclic stress for an actual part: Real-World Allowable
Cyclic Stress = ka * kb * Kc * kd * ke * kf * EL
Thus designers are now able to tackle this situation by applying as many modification
factors as possible so that most important deviations of the real design condition from the
standard test conditions are accounted. So the next part of the discussion will deal with the
The most important deviations that occur in design situation compared to standard test
conditions are
• Size variations
• load variations
• temperature differences
• Other miscellaneous-effects
for these conditions a variety of modifying factors, each of which is intended to account for
a single effect, is applied to the endurance limit value of test specimen obtained under
endurance limit of test specimen. ka = surface factor kb = size factor kc = load factor kd =
Modification Factors
Surface Factor ka
the surface of the rotating-beam specimen is highly polished, with final polishing in the axial
direction to smooth out any circumferential scratches. For other conditions the modification
factor depends upon the quality of the finish and upon the tensile strength. Sufficient data
is available in the literature relating the basic strength of the material and its surface finish
or surface condition to the modification factor which is nothing but the percentage of
standard endurance that could be realized under this condition. Typical charts are given
below. A more practical approach can be to use an empirical relation of the type ka = aSbut
is available in literature to account for the various surface condition values of constant a
FACTOR a
SURFACE FINISH EXPONENT b
Kpsi MPa
100
Polished
90
Ground
80
Machined
70
60
50
Hot rolled
40
As Forge
30
corroded in
tap water
20
corroded in salt water
10
0
300 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Tensile Strength (MPa)
1.1
1.6
1.0 0.025
0.05
0.9 0.1
0.2
0.4
0.8 1.6 0.8
6.3 3.125
0.7 12.5
25.0
0.6 50.0
0.5
0.4
560 840 1120 1400 1680
280
Failute Strength Sut (MPa)
Size Factor Kb
The size factor accounts for the variations in the size of the component when
compared to the test specimen. The size factor has been evaluated using sets of data
points, from available literature. The larger the size higher the probability of internal defects,
hence lower the fatigue strength. An empirical relation for the case of bending and torsion
Size Factor
For large sizes, kb further reduces to 0.60 and lower Note that for axial loading there is
Though there is no apparent size effect for specimens tested in axial or push–pull
fatigue, there is definite difference between the axial fatigue limit and that in reserved
bending. A very extensive collection of data has been made by R.W.Landgraf (Ford motor
company), on axial fatigue. These results were analyzed, resulting in the modification
A collection of 52 data points comparing the torsional endurance limit with the bending
endurance limit yielded a load factor for torsion of 0.565. Using a different set of data points,
Mischke obtained the result kc =0.585. Both of these are very close to the value of 0.577
shown in the table. Note that this value incidentally happen to be the relation between
torsional and tensile yield strengths according to the distortion energy theory.
Load Factor
Hence for the three basic types of loading normally encountered in most practical
applications, namely axial, bending and torsional stressing the effect could be accounted by
Temperature factor
The limited amount of data available show that the endurance limit for steels in creases
slightly as the temperature rises and then begins to fall off in the 400 to 700 ˚F range, not
1.0
Sut
0.9
0.8 Sy
ST/SRT
0.7
0.6
0.5
0 RT
200 400 600
Temperature, oC
For this reason it is probably true that the endurance limit is related to tensile strength at
clevated temperatures in the same manner as at room temperature. It seems quite logical,
therefore, to employ the same relations to predict endurance limit at elevated temperatures
as are used at room temperature, at least, this practice will provide a useful standard
Two types of problems arise when temperature is a consideration. If the rotating- beam
ST
kd =
SRT
Similarly the other factors take into account the deviations of actual condition of use
from the standard testing. Though the factor ke is intended to account for the reduction in
endurance limit due to all other effects, it is really intended as a reminder that these must
be accounted for, because actual conditions of use vary from standard test condition;
lengthy procedure. Generally stress testing is preferred to strain testing for endurance limits.
For preliminary and prototype design and for some failure analysis as well, a quick method
of estimating endurance limit is needed. There are great quantities of data in the literature
on the results of rotating-beam tests and simple (static) tension tests of specimen taken
from the same bar or in got. By plotting the resulting tensile and endurance strength values
as in shown in Figure, it is possible to see whether there is any correlation between the sets
of results. The graph appears to suggest that the endurance limit ranges from about 40 to
60 percent of the tensile strength for steels up to about 1400 MPa (200 kpsi). Beginning at
about Sut = 1400 MPa (200 kpsi), the scatter appears to increase, but the trend seems to
level off, as suggested by the dashed horizontal line at S’e=700MPa (100 kpsi).
Hence for preliminary design purposes the standard laboratory endurance strength of can
be derived from its ultimate tensile strength values using the following relations
notches, in a part increase the magnitude of stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity
of the discontinuity. Fatigue failure mostly originates from such places. Hence its effect
Recall that a stress concentration factor need not be used with ductile materials
when they are subjected to only static loads, because (local) yielding will relieve the stress
concentration. However under fatigue loading, the response of material may not be
adequate to nullify the effect and hence has to be accounted. The factor Kf commonly
called a fatigue stress concentration factor is used for this. Normally, this factor is used to
indicate the increase in the stress; hence this factor is defined in the following manner.
The other form of use, where necessary is the miscellaneous-effects factor ke applied as a
strength reduction factor on the fatigue limit value. With this approach we define
1
ke =
Kf
840
Alloy Steel 120
+ Wrought irons
700 100 Kpsi
560 80
420 60
280 40
+ +++
140 +++ 20
0 0
0 140 280 420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260 1400 1540 1680 1820 1960 2100
notches, in a part increase the magnitude of stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity
of the discontinuity. Fatigue failure mostly originates from such places. Hence its effect
Recall that a stress concentration factor need not be used with ductile materials
when they are subjected to only static loads, because (local) yielding will relieve the stress
concentration. However under fatigue loading, the response of material may not be
adequate to nullify the effect and hence has to be accounted. The factor Kf commonly
called a fatigue stress concentration factor is used for this. Normally, this factor is used to
indicate the increase in the stress; hence this factor is defined in the following manner.
The other form of use, where necessary is the miscellaneous-effects factor ke applied as a
strength reduction factor on the fatigue limit value. With this approach we define
1
ke =
Kf
Concentration factor Kf
This form of definition needs that the fatigue stress concentration factor or the
endurance strength values for different notch geometries on each of the material to be used
should be evaluated. However once sufficient data was available a simple approach, useful
at preliminary design stages was evolved to determine the fatigue stress concentration
factor value from the geometrical (theoretical) stress concentration values, data charts for
Notch Sensitivity
Kf − 1
q=
Kt −1
The values of q are between zero and unity. It is evident that if q=0, then Kf =1, and the
material has no sensitivity to notches at all. On the other hand if q=1, then Kf = Kt, and the
material has full notch sensitivity. In analysis or design work, find Kt first, from geometry of
the part. Then select or specify the material, find q, and solve for Kf from the equation
K f = 1 + q(K t − 1)
0.9
0.8
0.7
q 0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
Notch radius r (in.)
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Notch radius r (mm)
stress situations other than complete reversals. Many times in design the stresses fluctuate
without passing through zero. Some of the stress time relationships and the components of
stresses involved with such situations and the relations among them will be discussed now.
One type is zero-to-max-to zero, where a part which is carrying no load is then subjected to
a load, and later, the load is removed, so the part goes back to the no-load condition. An
example of this type of loading is a chain used to haul logs behind a tractor.
Another type of fatigue loading is a varying load superimposed on a constant load. The
suspension wires in a railroad bridge are an example of this type. The wires have a
constant static tensile load from the weight of the bridge, and an additional tensile load
when a train is on the bridge. For such type of stressing how to proceed will be looked now.
Cyclic Stressing
As the name implies, the induced stresses vary in some pattern with time. This
can be due to variation in the applied load itself or because of the conditions of use as seen
earlier. Let us assume that the pattern of such a variation is sinusoidal. Then the following
are the basic terminology associated with variable stresses. The definitions included here
The largest or highest algebraic value of a stress in a stress cycle. Positive for
tension
1.2
A B
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
C
-1.2-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Compression Sm /S uc Tension S m / S ut
The smallest or lowest algebraic value of a stress in a stress cycle. Positive for
tension.
As obtained or calculated from simple theory in tension, bending and torsion neglecting
geometric discontinuities
Mean stress (Mid range stress) : σm The algebraic mean or average of the
maximum and minimum stress in one cycle.
σ + σmin
σm = max
2
Stress range: σr The algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stress in
one cycle.
σr = σmax − σmin
Stress Amplitude: σa Half the value of the algebraic difference between the maximum
and minimum stress in one cycle or half the value of the stress range.
σmax − σmin σr
σa = =
2 2
Types of Variations
Stress variation is such that the mean stress is zero; Same magnitude of
maximum and minimum stress, one in tension and the other in compression .Now for
Stress
+
max
a
0 t
r
_ m=0 min
Stress variation is such that the minimum stress is zero. Mean and amplitude
σmin = 0
σ = σa = σmax / 2
R = 0 and A = 1
Stress
+ max
a
------------------------------------------------------
r
t=0
0
min
m
_
(b) Repeated
Both minimum and maximum stresses are positive and mean stress also being positive
(tensile)
Stress
+
max
a
------------------------------------------------------
r
0 t
min
m
_
(b) Flutuating
Positive maximum stress and negative minimum stress; mean stress is generally positive
Stress
+
σmax
------------------------------------------------------
σa
σr
0 t=0
------------------------------------------------------
σmin
_
σm
Note that the following parameters are common to all such types of variations
1
Stress amplitude: σa = ( σmax − σmin )
2
1
Mean stress: σm = ( σmax + σmin )
2
σmin
Stress ratio: R=
σmax
Some typical types of variation in the cyclic stressing of materials have been highlighted
All such and several other types of variations can be bounded by two main parameters the
variable component of the stress or the stress amplitude and the mean component of stress
or the mean stress. The effect of stress amplitude is already noted in the S-N diagram.
By varying both the mean stress and the stress amplitude, or the alternating
component, we can learn some thing about the fatigue resistance of parts when subjected
to such situations. Three methods of plotting the results of such tests are in general use
Su
Sy
σmax
Se
σmin
0 45
σm Sy S
u
Se Mean Stress
1.2
A B
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
C
-1.2-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Compression Sm /S uc Tension S m / S ut
A= S ut
R=-1.0
840
700
560
420
280
140
-840 -700 -560 -420 -280 -140 0 140 280 420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260
It is evident from the above figures that the presence of mean stress reduces the magnitude
of variable component or the stress amplitude that can be sustained before failure. The
higher the magnitude of mean stress the lower is the magnitude of amplitude stress that
can be sustained. However note that if the nature of mean stress is compressive, then it
has no effect on the magnitude of the variable component or the stress amplitude value.
Failure Criteria
Yield line
Gerber line
Se
Goodman line
Sa
A
Soderberg line
0
0 Sm S yt S ut
Alternating stress σm
Four criteria of failure are diagrammed in figure, the Soderberg's, the modified
Goodman, the Gerber, and yielding. It is evident that only the Soderberg’s criterion guards
against yielding. The linear theories of Figure can be placed in equation form: The equation
Sa Sm
+ =1
Se Syt
It has been noted that if a plot is made of the applied stress amplitude verses the number
σe
103 104 105 106 107
Cycle of failure, Nf
If the stress is below the (the endurance limit or fatigue limit), the component
has effectively infinite life. σe ≈ 0.35σTS − 0.50σTS for the most steel and copper alloys. If
the material does not have a well defined σe , often σe , is arbitrarily defined as Stress that
gives N f = 107 For a known load (Moment ) the section area/(modulus) will be designed
such that the resulting amplitude stress will be well below the endurance limit.
Determine a suitable diameter for the axle of a rail carriage of tentative dimensions and
This design criterion in the case is that to induced stress should be less than the endurance
limit of the material used for the axle. So the giving equation is
σ ≤ se
1 2
200
F
F
100 1500
2200
w/2 w/2
Bending Moment
M M
A suitable material suggested for the application can be medium carbon material like 45 C8,
If is evident that the shaft is subject to binding bonds. By drawing to bending moment
M max = F.l
= 82*103 * 200
= 16.4*106 Nmm
M
τ=
Z
For circular cross section
32M 0.16705*106
= = MPa
πd3 d3
The number of stressing is going to be fully reversed because of rotating shaft with constant
load application point. Now we have to estimate the endurance limit for the material of the
shaft. The ultimate strength of this steel =670 Mpa. Based on the relation between the EL
and UTS the basic endurance limit is =0.5Sut = 335 Ma. The design endurance limit Se is
Se = Se * k a k b k c
k a = aSbut = 4.45(670)−0.265
= 0.793
ks - size factor . The diameter is unknown. Instead of taking this factor to be one, assuming
the diameter can be in the range 60-140 mm, for an average value of 100mm the factor is
going to be
Kc – load factor
. = 0.5*670*0.793*0.775
1
32.M ⎡ 32.M ⎤ 3
= 206 MPa or d = ⎢ ⎥
πd 3 ⎢ π ⎡ s ⎤ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ e⎦⎦
Assuming a factor safety (N) of 1.5 the design Endurance strength is going to be 137.31
1
⎡ 3.2 *16.4 *106 ⎤ 3
d=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ π *137.31 ⎥⎦
106.75 mm
This values can be rounded off to the nearest Preferred size of = 110mm. In the next step,
let us perform a critical analysis of the problem. Because of the step in diameter between
the bearing and wheel region (1-2) stress Concentration is going to be there and this
section may be critical where failure can Occur. Accounting for the stress concentration
32M
σ = Kf
πd3
K f = 1 + (k t − 1)q
D r 5
For = 1.22 and = = 0.05k t = 1.96
d d 90
Now that the surface condition is not the same and correction factor for size is to be
0.5*670*0.903*0.783*1.0 = 231.86
S 231.86
N= e = = 1.11
σ 207.379
The factor of safety may not be adequate and the diameter can be modified accordingly.
fatigue load, so that the mean stress σm is zero. How do you handle the case where
σm ≠ 0?
Soderberg line
0
log N1 0 σa σy σTS
Alternating stress σm
The four different failure criterion and their mathematical equations have been note earlier
For design applications the induced stresses σa and σm can replace Sa and Sm in the
above equations and each strength is divided by a factor of safety N. The resulting equation
is
σa σ 1
Kf + m =
Se Sut N
σa σ 1
Kf + m =
Se Sut N
2
⎛ Nσ
Nσ a ⎞
Kf +⎜ m ⎟ =1
Se ⎜ S ⎟
⎝ ut ⎠
(Note Se is corrected endurance limit values and Kf factor accounts for stress concentration
effects.) The meaning of these equations is illustrated in Figure, using the modified
From the above approach we can evolve basic design equations involving the three main
assumption that all stress components are always in time phase with each other.
Method I
σ 'a σ 'm 1
+ =
Se Sut N
1
⎡ 2⎤2
(
σ 'a = ⎢ K fb σ xa
⎣
) 2
(
+ α K fs τa ⎥
⎦
)
1
⎡ 2 2⎤
Where (
σ 'm = ⎢ σ xm + σ τm ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦
) ( )
Method II
σeq = σm + K fb σa Sut / Se ) (
τeq = τm + K fs τa ( sSut / sSe )
the pulsating torsional fatigue. Smith’s first results based on 72 tests, shows that
the existence of a torsional mean stress not more than the torsional yield
strength has no effect on the torsional endurance limit, provided the material is
ductile, polished, notch free, and cylindrical. However he finds that for materials
limit decreases steadily with torsional mean stress. Hence modified Goodman’s
relation is recommended for pulsating torsion also, since great majority of parts
will have surface imperfections. Thus the theory could be directly applied with the
Recall that in the last lesson we have designed an axle taking into account the
torsion.
The torque on the axle is going to be coefficient of friction times the normal bond.
According to T= 2XfXN
Where f is the co-efficient of friction between the wheel and the rail and
Adopting approach I
1
σm ' = ⎡σbm + 3cm ⎤ 2
2 2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
167
σ'm = 0 + 3.
πd 3
16 *164 *103 1.447 *106
3* =
πd 3 d3
Neglecting the stress concentration effect and assuming the torque is going to be
constant
Kfs=0
σm ' σ ' 1
+ a .
s ut se N
1.214 *106
d = 106mm
As noted earlier the finite life region covers a life ranging from 10 3 to 10 6
stress
a stress life and fatigue strength based approaches, or through the strain life
relations based. At very low and moderate cycles the plastic strain induced has
a greater effect on the fatigue life rather than the stress magnitude.
The finite life fatigue domain extends from 103 cycles, for steels, to the
endurance-limit life se, which is about 106 cycles or only slightly more. The
to define the fatigue strength Sf corresponding to any life N between 103 and 106
the log S-log N chart joining 0.9Sut at 103 cycles and Se at 106 cycles. Let the
equation of the S-N line be Sf = a Nb Then log Sf = log a + b log N. This line is to
Substituting these values into the equation and solving for a and b we have,
( 0.9Sut )
2
1 0.9Sut
a= b = − log
Se 3 Se
corresponding to this stress can now be found by substituting σa for Sf, the result
is
1
⎛ σ ⎞b
N=⎜ a ⎟
⎝ a ⎠
If a component is to be designed for any finite life N ( 103< N<106) then value of
Δσ b
2
(
= σa = σ 'f 2Nf )
εf
c
εp/2 ε p /2
b
ε p /2
2Nf
Reversal of failure 2Nf(log scale)
situation involving the primary elastic deformation. Under these conditions the
Strain-Life Approach
Rather than the stress amplitude σa, the loading is characterized by the plastic
Δε p
strain amplitude
2
Δε p
Under these conditions if the plot is made of log(2N f ) verses the following
2
εf
c
ε
101
To represent this behaviour, the following relationship between the plastic strain
Δε p
amplitude and life in terms of stress reversals 2Nf has been proposed.
2
Δε p
= ε 'f ( 2N f )c
2
Where ≈ εf , is the fatigue ductility coefficient (for the most metals it is equal to
the true strain at fracture) and c is the fatigue ductility exponent (-0.5 to -0.7 for
many metals).
Δε p
= ε 'f ( 2N f )c
2
Δε p
1955) has been proposed. Where is the plastic strain amplitude, ε 'f is the
2
fatigue ductility coefficient (for most metals ≈ εf is the true fracture ductility) and
The above approach is more useful for analysis rather than for design.
Different amplitudes
case 1 case 2
n1 cycles n2 cycles
σ n2 cycles σ n1 cycles
σa1
σa1 σa2
σa2
t t
σa1
σa
σa2
Nf1 Nf2
cycles to failure Nf
which has been in service is removed and tested for cracks by a certified aircraft
inspection are known). Suppose the part passes the inspection, (i.e., no cracks
are found) and the owner of the shaft puts it on the "good used parts" shelf.
Later, someone comes along looking for a bargain on such a part, and purchases
this "inspected" part. The fact that the part has passed the inspection only proves
that there are no detectable cracks RIGHT NOW. It gives no indication at all as to
how many cycles remain until a crack forms. A part which has just passed a
Magnaflux inspection could crack in the next 100 cycles of operation and fail in
the next 10000 cycles (which at 2000 RPM, isn't very long!).
subjected to σ1 for n1 cycles σ1 for n2 cycles. etc. Under these conditions our
stresses, or to estimate the factor of safety if the part has an infinite life. A search
of the literature reveals that this problem has not been solved completely.
Different Amplitudes
rule. If we defines 2Nfi as the number of reversals to failures at σai then the
partial damage for d for each different loading applied for known number of
cycles ni is σai
2n i Reversal at σai
d= =
2Nfi Reversal to failure at σai
The component is assumed to fail when the total damage becomes equal to 1, or
n
∑ i =1
i Nfi
It is assumed that the sequence in which the loads are applied has no influence
on the lifetime of the component. In fact the sequence of load can have a larger
Consider the sequence of the two cyclic loads σa1 and σa2 . Let σa1 > σa2
n
In this case ∑ i can be less than 1. During the first loading ( σa1 ) numerous
i Nfi
n
( σa2 ) Case2: Apply σa2 then σa1 . In this case ∑ i can be greater than 1. The
i Nfi
first loading ( σa2 ) is not high enough to cause any microcracks, but it is high
enough to strain harden the material. Then in the second loading ( σa1 ), since the
material has been hardened it is more difficult to initiate any damage in the
material.
Thus the theory which is in greatest use at the present time to explain
n1 n 2 n
+ + ..... + i = C
N1 N 2 Ni
Where n is the number of cycles of stress σ applied to the specimen and N is the
n
∑ =1
N
for fatigue endurance. This design criteria in the case is that to induced stress
should be less than the endurance limit of the material used for the axle. So the
giving equation is
σ ≤ se
1 2
200
F
F
100 1500
2200
w/2 w/2
Bending Moment
M M
A suitable material suggested for the application can be medium carbon material
like 45 C8, If is evident that the shaft is subject to binding bonds. By drawing to
this case
M max = F.l
= 82*103 * 200
= 16.4*106 Nmm
M
τ=
Z
32M 0.16705*106
= = MPa
πd3 d3
with constant load application point. Now we have to estimate the endurance limit
for the material of the shaft. The ultimate strength of this steel =670 Mpa.
Based on the relation between the EL and UTS the basic endurance limit is
noted earlier
Se = Se * k a k b k c
k a = aSbut = 4.45(670)−0.265
= 0.793
one, assuming the diameter can be in the range 60-140 mm, for an average
. = 0.5*670*0.793*0.775
1
⎡ ⎤
32.m 32.m ⎥ 3
= 206 Mpa or d = ⎢
πd3 ⎢ π ⎡s ⎤ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ e⎦⎦
Assuming a factor safety (N) of 1.5 the design Endurance strength is going to be
137.31
1
⎡ 3.2 *16.4 *106 ⎤ 3
d=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ π *137.31 ⎥⎦
106.75 mm
This values can be rounded off to the nearest Preferred size of = 110mm. In the
next step, let us perform a critical analysis of the problem. Because of the step in
diameter between the bearing and wheel region (1-2) stress Concentration is
going to be there and this section may be critical where failure can Occur.
32M
σ = Kf
πd3
K f = 1 + (k t − 1)q
D r 5
For = 1.22 and = = 0.05k t = 1.96
d d 90
Now that the surface condition is not the same and correction factor for size is to
0.5*670*0.903*0.783*1.0 = 231.86
S 231.86
N= e = = 1.11
σ 207.379
The factor of safety may not be adequate and the diameter can be modified
accordingly.
torsion. The torque on the axle is going to be coefficient of friction lesser than the
normal bond. According to T= Friction factor* 2(for the?) = 0.25 * 82*103*2= 164
N. m
Adopting approach I
1
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
σm ' = σbm + 3cm 2
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
167
σ'm = 0 + 3.
πd 3
16 *164 *103 1.447 *106
3* =
πd 3 d3
Kfs=0
3
2 = 32M = 32 *12 *10 * 200
∴ σa ' = σba
πd3 πd3
167.04 *106
=
d3
σm ' σ ' 1
+ a .
s ut se N
1.214 *106
d = 106mm