Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Activated carbon from lignocellulosics precursors: A review of the synthesis

methods, characterization techniques and applications
P. González-García
CONACYT-Centro de Ingeniería y Desarrollo Industrial, 76130 Querétaro, Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Activated carbon is a porous material that has been in many important ages of the human history.
Activated carbon Lignocellulosic precursors and biomass sources have become important materials to produce it because their
Biomass precursors use produces many benefits, mainly environmental. Nowadays, it is possible to find numerous research papers
Characterization techniques devoted to the synthesis characterization and applications of novel precursors to produce activated carbon.
Applications
Hence, special attention must be given to the relationship among the selected precursor characteristics, the final
microstructure and properties of carbon. The present work provides a summary of research works outlining the
use of lignocellulosic–based precursors to obtain activated carbons. A brief description of the characterization
techniques for both, the precursors and activated carbons, comprising: physicochemical, micro/nanostructural,
surface chemistry, textural and adsorption capacity features is presented. Finally, the application of these
materials in adsorption of heavy metals, dyes, volatile organic compounds, gas storage and electrochemical
capacitors is also included.

1. Introduction
Presence of activated carbon into the human history extends so far
back in time that its origin is impossible to be accurately determined.
Prior to the use of what today is called activated carbon (which has a
highly developed porous structure), either wood char, or coal char or
simply a partially devolatilized carbonaceous material, was employed
as an adsorbent. The first recorded case dates back to 3750 BCE, when
both the Egyptians and Sumerians used wood char for the reduction of
copper, zinc and tin ores in the manufacturing of bronze, and also as a
smokeless fuel [1]. The first proof of the medicinal use of carbon was
found in Thebes (Greece), in a papyrus document from 1550 BCE.
Later on, Hippocrates (around 400 BCE), recommended that water
should be filtered with wood char prior to consumption to eliminate
bad taste and odor and to prevent several diseases, including epilepsy,
chlorosis and anthrax [2].
The first reported application of activated carbons, as a gas phase
adsorbent, took place until 1793, when Dr. D.M. Kehl applied wood
char in order to mitigate the odors emanating from gangrene. The first
application of activated carbon in the industrial sector was in England
in 1794, when it was used as a decolorizing agent in the sugar
production industry. The first large scale gas-phase application of
activated carbon took place in the mid-19th century. In 1854, the
Mayor of London ordered the installation of wood char filters in all the
sewer ventilation systems to remove nasty odors. In 1872, gas masks
with carbon filters were used in chemical industries to prevent
inhalation of mercury vapors [2].
The rapid development of modern society over the 20th century
promoted a fast growing production and utilization of activated carbon,
especially in the second half of the last century due to the stricter
environmental regulations regarding water resources, clean gas appli-
cation, air quality control, energy storage/conversion and economic
recovery of valued chemicals. In addition, the search of an alternative
use for several agro industrial waste, besides the replacement of

Abbreviations: (2D)-NLDFT, two dimensional non-local density functional theory; ASTM, American Society for Testing of Materials; BC, before Christ; BET, Brunauner, Emmett and
Teller; BJH, Barrett–Joyner–Halenda; BWF, Breit–Wigner–Fano; DFT, density functional theory; DOE, Department of Energy; DTA, differential thermal analysis; EDLC,
electrochemical double layer capacitors; EDS, energy dispersive spectroscopy; EELS, electron energy–loss spectroscopy; F–R, Ferrari and Robertson equation; HRTEM, high
resolution transmission electron microscopy; IR, infrared spectroscopy; IUPAC, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry; MBI, methylene blue index; MOF, metal-organic
framework; NLDFT, non-local density functional theory; NREL, National Renewable Energy Laboratory; PSD, pore size distribution; PZC, point of zero charge; SAED, select area
electron diffraction; SANS, small angle neutron scattering; SAXS, small angle X-ray scattering; SBET, surface area calculated according to BET method; Se, external or non-microporous
surface; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; Stot, total surface area; STP, standard temperature and pressure; TAPPI, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry; TEM,
transmission electron microscopy; TGA, thermogravimetric analysis; T–K, Tuinstra–Koenig model; Vmi, micropore volume; VOCs, volatile organic compounds; XPS, X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy; XRD, X-ray diffraction.
E-mail address: pedro.gonzalez@cidesi.edu.mx.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.117

1364-0321/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Please cite this article as: Gonzalez-Garcia, P., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.117
P. González-García
List of symbols and acronyms
1.84 and 0.91 shape factors for the Scherer equations.
C(λ) wavelength dependent parameter.
C′(λ) wavelength dependent parameter.
e electron charge (C).
Ep position of the maximum of the bulk (π+σ) plasmon peak
(eV).
ID height or integrated intensity of the D band from the first
order Raman spectrum.
IG height or integrated intensity of the D band from the first
order Raman spectrum.
Iπs + Iσs integrated intensities from the 1s→π* and 1s→σ* transi-
* *
tion peaks in the sample.
Iπg + Iσg integrated intensities from the 1s→π* and 1s→σ* transi-
* *
tion peaks in graphite.
petroleum-derived products, has proposed the use of these lignocellu-
losic products and other sources of waste biomass for the production of
activated carbons. In this sense, it is well known that wood and coconut
shells are the most common precursors for the largescale synthesis of
activated carbon, yielding to a global production of more than 300,000
tons/year [3]. However, this is just a small fraction of the worldwide
demand of 12,804,000 tons of activated carbon consumed just in 2015
[4].
On the other hand, scientific production in carbon materials during
last 20 years has been very active. A recent search conducted in Scopus,
for the present manuscript, resulted in approximately 193,250 papers
related to the next seven materials: activated carbon, graphite,
graphene, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, carbon fibers and carbon
black. Fig. 1 depicts the number of these published papers from 1995
to 2016. Here, it is clearly observed an exponential increase in the
contributions related to carbon nanotubes and graphene. However,
research in classic materials such as carbon fibers and activated carbon
has also an important increase, in the period of time selected for this
study, yielding a production of 18,600 and 17,516 research papers,
respectively. Note that 1668 manuscripts on activated carbon were
published only in 2016. For all these reasons, and with the incipient
interest in the use, or reuse, of lignocellulosic precursors and biomass
waste as precursors of activated carbon, the present work summarizes
the processes of synthesis, the techniques for the analysis of the
physicochemical, microstructural and textural properties, besides the
most common applications.
2. Biomass and lingocellulosics as activated carbon
precursors
Activated carbon is a common term used to describe carbon-based
materials that have developed high surface area, an internal porous
structure (consisting of pores having diverse size distribution), as well
as a wide spectrum of oxygenated functional groups. Another char-
acteristic of activated carbons that has reached a significant importance
is the wide variety of materials, reported in the scientific literature,
selected as carbon precursors; since their physicochemical character-
istics, besides the preparation method, are responsible for carbon
adsorption properties, micro-nanostructure, textural features, and the
possible applications. In this sense, the use of lignocellulosic resources
and waste biomass has had an important impulse in last years [5–9], as
previously mentioned.
Selection of the precursor for the development of low-cost activated
carbons depends upon several factors. The precursor should be
preferable freely available, inexpensive, and nonhazardous for nature.
Furthermore, for good development of the surface, structural and
textural characteristics, high contents of fixed carbon and low amount
2
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
La apparent crystal size along the “a” direction (nm).
La in–plane length of the graphene–like layer.
Lc apparent crystal size along the “c” direction (nm).
Leq graphene average length including curvature.
m* effective electron mass defined as 0.87 m (g).
m free electron mass (g).
Mc carbon molar mass (g).
NA Avogrado number (g).
ε0 vacuum dielectric function (C/Vm).
ℏ Planck's constant (eV*s).
β full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the lines in a
typical diffractogram.
θ Bragg angle (°).
λ X-ray wavelength (nm).
ρ carbon mass-density (g/cm3).
of ash are desirable [9–13]. Many useful and interesting precursors
have been obtained from wood and woody biomass, herbaceous and
agricultural waste, industrial biomass waste and mixtures. An impor-
tant aspect in the activated carbon fabrication is the use of various
parts of plants including the core, stems, shells, peels, flowers, fruits,
seeds, stones, husks and leaves. Recently, the use of aquatic biomass,
fibers, grass, starch, cakes and other non-conventional precursors are
more frequently described as activated carbon precursors; some of
these raw materials are summarized in Table 1.
Producing activated carbon from lignocellulosic biomass has many
advantages: the precursors are diverse, abundant, and renewable; the
synthesis is a process relatively simple due to the high reactivity of the
biomass; and it contributes to decreasing costs of waste disposal and
the negative impact to the environment [14]. Nonetheless, one of the
most significant advantages of using renewable and waste materials
(derived from agro-industrial crops waste and municipal residuals) lies
on the possibility of obtaining functional materials such as electrodes
[15], catalysts [16], fertilizers [17], liming and neutralizing agents [18],
and adsorbents of certain elements and compounds from water and air
[19].
3. Chemical composition of the lignocellulosic biomass
Natural biomass is a renewable energy and matter source. The bulk
elemental composition of biomass consists of (in decreasing order of
abundance): C, O, H, N, Ca and K. In lower concentration, it normally
includes Si, Mg, Al, S, Fe, P, Cl, and Na. Mn, Ti, and other elements
could be considered as traces. Nevertheless, there are many biomass
Fig. 1. Articles published, from 1995 to 2016, related to carbon materials.
P. González-García Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Summary of the lignocellulosics precursors used as precursors for the synthesis of activated carbon.

Stem Shells Stones Fibers Peels Seeds Husks Waste Others Woods

Oil palm Walnut Dindé Kapok Orange Guava Rice Tabacco Corncob Chestnut
Grape Almond Olive Hemp Pomelo Albizia lebbeck Rye Vine shoots Cellulose Chinese fir
Date palm Coconut Date Flax Banana Choerospondias Moringa Starch-rich Enteromorpha Eucalyptus
axillaris Oleifera Banana prolifera
Cotton Peanut Peach Kenaf Durian Cotton Barley Pineapple Vetiver roots Beech
Wheat Hazelnut Apricot Cotton Rambutan Elaeagnus Sky fruit Soybean oil Euphorbia rigida Prosopis
angustifolia cake ruscifolia
Plum Oil-palm Avocado Agave Grape Coffee Carrageenan Pine
Flax Pine nut Cherry Coir Pongam Apple pulp Agar Wood apple
Arundo Phaseolus aureus Aguaje Opuntia ficus Cicer Palm kernel Jacaranda Pinus sylvestris
donax indica Arietinum shells mimosifolia fruit
Linn
Vetch Palm kernel Sisal Acacia fumosa Coir pith Cork Finish wood
Crofton weed Flamboyant pods Cannabis Sesame Oil cake/ Gelatin Almond tree
sativa walnut pruning
Pistachio Longan Potato waste Paulownia flower Jatropha wood
Nut Apple pulp Vetiver roots Orange
Pomegranate Plum pulp Palm flower Tamarind
Groundnut Tea Corn starch
Apricot Willow catkins
Ceiba pentandra Chicken droppings
Coffee Sago
Lemna minor

varieties where the above composition, for certain elements, is variable
[20]. Presence of high amounts of C, O, and H are related to the nature
of the three major structural polymers present in most of lignocellu-
losic precursors: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin; as well as by some
minor non-structural components such as proteins, chlorophylls, ash,
waxes, tannins (in the case of wood) and pectin (in most of fibers).
Table 2 summarizes the main structural and chemical characteristics of
cellulose, lignocellulose and lignin.
Cellulose is the most abundant renewable natural biopolymer on
earth. It is present in a wide variety of living species including plants,
animals, and some bacteria. The annual production of cellulose is
estimated to be over 7.5 × 1010 tons [21]. Cellulose is the principal
component in most natural fibers such as cotton or linen where over
90% of the total mass can be constituted only by cellulose. However,
most of lignocellulosic biomass consists in 17–77% of cellulose (see
Table 3). Hemicellulose, located in secondary cell walls, is another
main component in natural fibers. Note in Table 3 that the hemi-
cellulose content reaches up to 53.76% in bagasse [22]. Hemicellulose
is relatively easy to hydrolyze because of their disordered and branched
structure (with short lateral chain) as well as their low molecular
weight [23]. Hemicelluloses are relatively sensitive to operation con-
ditions; therefore, parameters such as temperature and retention time
must be controlled [24].
Lignin is a biochemical (Table 2) polymer that functions as a
structural support material in plants. It is a high molecular-weight
phenolic compound, generally resistant to microbial degradation; in
addition, it provides structural strength and a sealing of water
conducting system that links roots to leaves, and protects plants
against degradation [12].
Lignin based biomass is the most abundant renewable carbon
resource on earth after cellulose, with a worldwide production of 40–
50 million tons per year [51]. Among the three fractions of the
lignocellulosic materials, lignin has been identified as the main
component in lignocellulosic biomass responsible for the adsorption
process [6]. Due to the rich carbon content of lignin, lignocellulosic
biomass is a good option to be used as precursor to produce activated
carbon. Note in Table 3 that the lignin content varies from 2.5% in flax
[26] to 59.5% in coconut coir [22]. The amount of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose and lignin in the precursors (see Table 3), vary depending on
the plant species, origin, weather conditions, quality, age of plants
(especially for wood and natural fibers) and the season of the year when
they are collected prior to their conversion into activated carbon.
Finally, an important fraction of the lignocellulosic precursors are
the extractives that can provide by-side products. Organic substances
with low molecular weight and soluble in neutral solvents, such as
resins (combination of the following components: terpenes, lignans
and other aromatics), fats, waxes, fatty acids and alcohols, terpentines,
tannins and flavonoids, are considered extractives. Chlorophylls are
also considered extractives [52]. Note that extractives are not always
considered in the characterization.

Table 2
Structure and chemical composition of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in cell walls of plants [25].

Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin

Subunits D-Pyran glucose units D-Xylose, mannose, L-arabinose, galagtose, Guaiacylpropane (G), syringylpropane (S),
glucoronic acid phydroxyphenylpropane (H)
Bonds between the β-1,4-Glycosidic bonds β-1,4-Glycosidic bonds in main chains; β-1.2-, β Various ether bonds and carbon-carbon bond,
subunits -1.3-, β-1.6-glycosidic bonds in side chains mainly β-O-4 ether bonds
Polymerization Several hundred to tens of thousands Less than 200 4000
Polymer β-Glucan Polyxylose, galactoglucomannan G lignin, GS lignin, GSH lignin
(Gal-Glu-Man), glucomannan (Glu-Man)
Composition Three-dimensional linear molecular Three-dimensional inhomogeneous Amorphous, inhomogeneous, nonlinear three-
composed of crystalline and amorphous molecular with a small crystalline region dimensional polymer
regions
Bonds between the Without chemical bond Contains chemical bond with lignin Contain chemical bond with hemicellulose
components

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Table 3
Proximal and lignocellulosic composition of some natural resources used as precursor for activated carbon and their publication year.

Precursor Moisture Ash Volatile matter Fixed carbon Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Year

Flax [26] 7.4 1.8 75.2 15.6 56.5 15.4 2.5 2003
Hemp [26] 7.7 1.6 74.9 15.8 67.0 16.1 3.3 2003
Orange peel [27] 9.2 3.1 76.5 20.4 n.a. n.a. n.a. 2015
Silver fir [28] 14.4 0.4 78.7 6.5 52.1 15.0 29.9 2013
Holm oak [28] 9.5 2.3 80.8 7.4 39.7 25.9 27.8 2013
Stone pine [28] 9.8 0.7 82.1 7.4 41.0 20.1 31.2 2013
Pyrenean oak [28] 11.1 2.4 80.5 6.0 33.9 25.5 31.2 2013
Palm shell [29] 7.9 1.1 72.5 18.7 29.7 n.a. 53.4 2007
Jatropha curcas [30] 1.0 6.0 55.0 37.0 56.0 18.0 24.0 2011
Bagasse [22] 52.2 4.5 n.a. 53.0 30.3 56.7 13.02 2007
Coconut coir [22] 27.1 5.1 n.a. 51.5 32.6 7.9 59.4 2007
Grape stalk [31] 7.00 8.7 63.1 21.2 n.a. n.a. n.a. 2014
Jute [32] 8.0 0.3 78.8 12.9 64.4 12 11.8 2004
Abaca [32] 6.3 0.8 78.7 14.2 39.5 0.25 43 2004
Tomato stems [33] 3.58 10.6 n.a. n.a. 27.03 21.1 16.01 2014
Banana peel [34] 5 10 75 10 52.3 9.9 11.2 2011
Waste tea [35] 5.8 4.2 n.a. n.a. 17.1 19.9 47.1 2012
Peach stone [36] 9.3 1.1 71.7 17.0 46.0 14.0 33.0 2014
Tobacco residue [37] 8.13 11.7 67.5 12.6 42.3 n.a. 8.75 2011
Carya illinoinensis [38] 8.7 1.7 84.4 5.2 30.0 26.0 41.0 2011
Siriguela seeds [39] 9.1 8.7 n.a. n.a. 18.8 9.0 16.8 2014
Cocoa shell[39] 9.4 2.0 n.a. n.a. 13.2 10.8 13.2 2014
Jackfruit peel [40] 10.0 4.0 50.0 36.0 n.a. n.a. n.a. 2007
Barley husks [41] 8.8 6.7 75.0 18.1 n.a. n.a. n.a. 2013
Apple pulp [42] 5.7 2.63 79.03 3.3 43.9 n.a. 17.3 2002
Guava seeds [43] 6.5 0.3 28.8 65.2 28.0 15.5 41.7 2015
Dindé stones [43] 8.3 3.2 19.7 68.8 24.9 27.0 45.4 2015
Tropical almond shell [43] 7.6 2.7 43.7 46.0 37.9 21.6 40.3 2015
Walnut shell [44] 11.0 1.3 71.8 15.9 40.1 20.7 18.2 2009
Olive stone [44] 10.4 1.4 74.4 13.8 30.1 17.1 32.6 2009
almond tree pruning [44] 10.6 1.2 72.2 16.0 33.7 20.1 25.0 2009
Pecan shell [45] 10.4 3.1 n.a. n.a. 29.4 8.6 43.3 1997
Peanut shells [46] n.a. 3.7 73.5 26.6 24.7 39.4 33.5 2014
Kenaf [47] 7.2 3.4 73.4 15.7 35 21.5 17 2015
Henequen [48] n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 77.6 6 13.1 2005
Tamarind wood [49] 10 4.5 36.5 48.9 n.a. n.a. n.a. 2009
Eichhornia crassipes root [50] 9.45 1.92 47 70.4 n.a. n.a. n.a. 2012

4. Experimental procedure for activation of lignocellulosic
biomass
There are two wide spread methods to activate carbonaceous
materials, commonly known as chemical and physical activation.
Nevertheless, simple thermal activation in nitrogen atmosphere [53]
and microwave radiation [54] have been proposed as effective methods
to obtain activated carbon. In addition, the use of combined activation
(chemical and physical) is also an alternative to increase the textural
features and create hierarchical porosity.
4.1. Carbonization/pyrolysis
Carbonization is a process, sometimes used prior to activation,
where the raw lignocellulosic undergoes a thermal treatment (pyroly-
sis) to enrich carbon content in the precursor [55,56]. Here, moisture
and low molecular weight volatiles are first released, followed by light
aromatics and finally, hydrogen gas [11]. The resultant product
obtained is a fixed carbonaceous skeleton [57]. In this process, an
initial porosity is formed even though it is still comparatively low. The
pores formed during carbonization are filled with tarry pyrolysis
residues and require activation in order to develop the specific
characteristics of the carbon. Careful selection of carbonization para-
meters is important because this process leaves a significant effect on
the final product [58]. In this process, the carbonization temperature
has the most significant effect, followed by the heating rate, presence
(or not) of an inert atmosphere and its rate, and finally, the residence
time [9,59]. Normally, carbonization temperatures higher than 600 °C
result in reduced yield of char while increasing the liquid and gases
release rate [9]. Higher temperatures will also increase ash and fixed
carbon content and lower the amount of volatile matter. Thus, high
temperatures result in better quality char but also decreased yield.
4.2. Chemical activation
In chemical activation, most of the times, raw lignocellulosic
precursor is directly impregnated with certain chemical agent such as
H3PO4, H2SO4, HNO3, ZnCl2, NaOH and KOH. Although not common,
H2O2 [60], K2CO3 [35,61], CaCl2 [62], formamide [63] and some
(Table 4) others acid salts [64] have been also used as activating agents.
During this step, the ratio between the chemical agent and precursor
mass, the impregnation agent, temperature time and stirring are
strictly controlled, since the function of the dehydrating agents is to
inhibit the formation of tar and other undesired products during the
carbonization process.
The resulting precursor-agent mixture is later on thermally treated
at temperatures ranging from 400 to 1000 °C, normally, under a
controlled atmosphere, and finally washed to eliminate the activating
agent. The application of a gaseous stream such as air, nitrogen, or
argon is a common practice during pyrolysis, which generates a better
development of the internal porosity in the material. The chemical
agents help to develop the porosity, by means of dehydratation and
degradation of the biomass structure, especially when the activation
agent is highly alkaline. Here, it is important to mention that the pore
size distribution and surface area are determined by the ratio between
the chemical agent and precursor [2,7]. In this sense, ZnCl2 activation
reacts with lignocellulosics at T < 500 °C. ZnCl2 produces a template
effect and induces a uniform micropore formation; this is why efficient

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Table 4
Surface area values (m2/g) for chemically activated carbons obtained from different precursors.

Precursor Activation Surface Precursor Activation Surface Precursor Activation Surface

agent area agent area agent area

Opuntia ficus indica HNO3 5 Oil palm shell [69] KOH 1630 Hazelnut shells [70] KOH 1700
[68]
Sisal [71] ZnCl2 616 Banana [72] KOH 2086 Oil palmempty fruit H2SO4 928
bunch [73]
Waste tea [35] K2CO3 1722 Peach stones [74] ZnCl2 1425 Wheat straw [75] NaOH 970
Coconut pith [76] KOH 505 Orange [77] H3PO4 1056 Choerospondias axillaris NaOH 1002
[78]
Hemp [79] HNO3 1250 Pomelo [80] KOH 1533 Eucalyptus Wood, Beech KOH 2120, 2460
wood [81]
Eucalyptus wood [82] KOH 2000 Stem of date palm KOH 947 Eucalyptus Wood, Beech NaOH 2415, 2835
NaOH 3167 [83] H3PO4 1100 wood [81]
Posidonia oceánica [60] (H3PO4) 946 Flax, Hemp, Flax ZnCl2 2450 Peach stone, pine nut FePO4, CaHPO4 2160,
(KOH) 762 [84] ZnCl2 2250 shell, pistacho shell [64] FePO4 1418,
(ZnCl2) 503 H3PO4 1200 1919
(H2O2) 60
Peach stones [85] H3PO4 1225 Sky fruit husk [86] H3PO4 1211 Enteromorpha prolifera NaAlO2 1374.3
[87]
Agave bagasse [88] ZnCl2 1281 Barley [41] ZnCl2 1445 Palm flower [89] H2SO4 10
Cannabis sativa [90] KOH 2192 Chestnut [91] H3PO4 783 Rye straw [92] KOH 2200
Olive stones [93] H3PO4 990 Grape sedes [94] KOH 1860 Vetch [95] ZnCl2 1287
Chinese fir [96] H3PO4 1589 Coffee [97] ZnCl2 890 Corncob [98] KOH 3054
Coir fiber [99] ZnCl2 540 Apple pulp [42] H3PO4 1004 Paulownia flower [100] KOH 1471
Phoenix dactylifera L H3PO4 1225 Date stones [102] H3PO4 1100 Corncob [103] ZnCl2 767
[101]
Chinese fir [104] H3PO4 1910 Coir pith [105] ZnCl2 910 Agar [106] KOH 2118
Prosopis ruscifolia H3PO4 1638 Pinus sylvestris H3PO4 1093 Corkboard [109] KOH 1065
[107] [108]
Pine [61] K2CO3 1509 Coconut shells H2O2/ZnCl2 2050 Euphorbia rigida [110] K2CO3 1079
Chinese fir [66] H3PO4 2518 Coffee [111] H3PO4 696 Enteromorpha prolifera KOH 3332
[87]
Tabacco [15] HNO3 1104 Peanut shells, H3PO4 751 Plum kernel, jacaranda H3PO4 417
jatropha wood [46] KOH 1305 [112] 326
Starch-rich banana [34] H3PO4 2068 Potato waste [113] ZnCl2 1052 Carrageenan [114] KOH 2502
Waste tea [115] H3PO4 1398 Soybean oil cake K2CO3 1353 Gelatin, starch [117] KOH 1957
[116] 714
Willow catkins [118] KOH 1586 Leaves of Carnauba CaCl2 431 Arundo donax Linn [119] KOH 1065.3
palm [62]
Olives stones [120] ZnCl2 1860 Albizia lebbeck KOH 1824 Corncobs [122] H3PO4 960
[121]
Date pits [123] FeCl3 780 Palm kernel shell KOH 727 Pine nut shell [125] KOH 2207
[124]
Apricot and Peach H3PO4 1740 Peanut Shell [127] K2CO3/Fe3O4 1236 Coconut shells [128] ZnCl2 2450
stones [126]
Olive stones [129] KOH 587 Flamboyant pods NaOH 2463 Wood apple shell [131] H2SO4 1898
[130]
Olive stones [132] H3PO4 1014 Cotton stalks [122] KOH 1311 Pineapple [133] ZnCl2 915
Elaeagnus angustifolia ZnCl2 697 Rice [135] KOH 3263 Coffee endocarp [136] KOH 893
seed [134]
Licorice residue and ZnCl2, H3PO4 1492 1017 Agave Sisalana H3PO4, ZnCl2 1086, 1765 Orange [27] ZnCl2 1353
pistachio-nut shell [138] K2CO3 1215
mixture [137]

elimination of chloride is significant. In addition, the pore size C + H2O → H2 + CO (2)

increases with concentration of ZnCl2 [65]. During phosphoric acid
activation, concentration of acid modifies the micropores volume. High CO + H2O → H2 + CO2 (3)
amount of acid inhibits the development of microporosity promoting
formation of meso and macropores [66]. K2O + CO2 → K2CO3 (4)
In contrast, activation with alkalis does not promote development
of meso and micropores. Generally, alkali agents produce narrow and K2O + H2 → 2K + H2O (5)
wide microporosity. On the other hand, it has been observed that the
ratio alkali/precursor is a significant factor disintegration of the raw
K2O + C → 2K + CO (6)
material. Activation can proceed without disintegration at low alkali
ratio; whereas, high ratios of KOH to carbon result in the disintegration
of the material [56]. Hence, the amount of KOH plays a decisive role on 4.3. Physical activation
the formation of pores. The following reactions may take place during
the activated processes under high temperature [67]: In a physical activation process, the lignocellulosic precursor is
carbonized under an inert atmosphere and the resulting carbon is
2KOH → K2O + H2O (1)
subjected to a partial and controlled gasification at high temperature.

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P. González-García Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 5
Surface area values (m2/g) for physically activated carbons obtained from different precursors.

Precursor Activation agent Surface area Precursor Activation agent Surface area

Hemp, flax, jute, coir, abaca [32] Steam 877 Almond shell, walnut shell, almond tree pruning and Steam 601
776 olive stone [44] 792
840 1080
822 813
860
Agave Sis alana [140] CO2 1140 Palm kernel shells [141] CO2 912
Bamboo [53] Termal 2169 Olive Stone [142] Steam 950
Kenaf, rapeseed [143] CO2 1352 Almond shell and 1138 [3] CO2 851
1036 956
Kapok [144] CO2 1474 Olive Stone [145] CO2 1355
Rice [146] Steam 1122 Olive stones [147] Steam 807
Nutshells [45] CO2 485 Peanut shells [148] Steam 757
Moringa oleífera [149] Steam 932 Chicken droppings [150] Thermal 1618
Palm kernel [151] CO2 167 Oil-palm shells [152] Thermal 988
Vine shoots [153] CO2 1173 Cornstarch [154] Thermal 686
Finish wood [155] CO2 590 Sugar cane bagasse CO2 260
eucalyptus sawdust [156] 298
Cocoa shell [39] CO2 558 Cellulose [157] Thermal 2602
pistachio-nut shells [158] CO2 1014 Grape pomace, grape stalks [159] Steam 266
300
Sunflower stem, walnut shells and olive CO2 438 Guava seeds, Tropical almond shells and Dinde stones 80% CO2, 20% H2O 1201
stone [10] 379 [43] 1029
438 1074
Almond shell [160] CO2 1138 Crofton weed [161] CO2 1036
Rice [16] Steam 1111 Date pits [162] Steam 1467
Oil-palm shells [152] Thermal 1182 Oil cake/walnut [163] CO2 1207

The activation atmosphere is a high oxidizing agent such as CO2, (see A detailed description of activated carbons must include: (i) character-
Table 5) water steam, O2 or a mixture of them at elevated tempera- istics of the raw precursor and the produced carbons, by means of
tures. In the particular case of gasification with steam, the global ultimate, proximal or thermal analyses, (ii) a measure of its textural
reaction can be expressed as [65]: properties (surface area and pore size distribution) or adsorption
capacity (iodine number, methylene blue index or phenol adsorption),
C + H2O → CO + H2 (7)
(iii) surface chemistry, either by means of spectroscopy analysis or
Here, there are two equivalent mechanisms: (i) oxygen exchange Boehm titration and, (iv) hints of their average micro/nanostrcuctrure.
model: Scheme 1 shows a summary of the characterization techniques used for
the physicochemical and microstructural analysis of the raw materials
H2O + C ↔ H2 + C(O) (8) and the activated carbons. A brief description important aspects that
are needed for the understanding of the techniques collected in the
C(O) → CO + C (9) Scheme 1 is included below.
(ii) hydrogen inhibition model

H2O + C → H2 + C(O) (10) 5.1. Thermal analysis

C(O) → CO + C
H2 + C ↔ C(H2)
where C is a carbon-free active site, C(O) is the oxygen surface complex
and C(H2) is the adsorbed hydrogen. Both mechanisms involve an
initial phase of adsorption/disassociation of water in the active sites of
the carbon surfaces, followed by the generation of CO and H2. The C(O)
complexes are energetically more difficult to remove from the surface
[139].
5. Determination of the physicochemical, structural,
chemical and textural properties
After several decades of intense research concerning to the synth-
esis, characterization and applications of activated carbons, a complete
and detailed description of the microstructure and the adsorption
properties of these materials cannot be deduced yet; even from those
studies performed by using advance experimental techniques such as
X-ray diffraction or high-resolution transmission electron microscopy
(HRTEM). As consequence, suitable atomistic models have been
developed trying to describe their atomic structure to understand their
different properties and to help in tailoring them for specific purposes.
(11) Thermal analysis has become in a required study when the selected
precursor for the production of activated carbon is described for first
time in the literature; since TGA/DTA curves are the finger print of the
(12)
precursor. In a typical TGA thermogram, the plots show a first weight
loss corresponding to the moisture elimination from heating the
material from 25 to 150 °C. The second stage (150–400 °C), most of
times has the highest weight loss, corresponding to primary carboniza-
tion or active pyrolysis, result of elimination of volatile matters and
tars. This stage can be divided into two parts corresponding to the
decomposition of hemicelluloses (180–270 °C) and celluloses (270–
400 °C) [179–182]. The third stage, starting at the 400–550 °C range,
indicates the decomposition of a structure with high stability [180].
Above 550 °C, the weight loss was small indicating that the basic
structure of the char has been formed. Above 550 °C, the mass loss is
small and becomes almost constant. Some traces of cellulose and
residual hemicelluloses remain. Lignin is present as major fraction;
being that its decomposition is more difficult. Indeed, it is known that
the decomposition of lignin occurs slowly from 200 up to 900 °C
[180,181].
In DTA the temperature of the test material is measured relative to
that of an adjacent inert material. The DTA thermogram is quite similar
to the TGA one. Generally, two separate peaks can be identified for heat
treatment of biomass in an inert atmosphere [183]. The first one is

6
P. González-García
Scheme 1. Characterization techniques for lignocellulosic materials and activated carbons [164–166,168–178].
assigned to the thermal decomposition of hemicellulose and the second
one is for cellulose and lignin decomposition. Normally, the second
peak covers longer temperature range. Most of times these two peaks,
for many biomass precursors, are overlapped.
5.2. Ultimate and proximal analysis
According to the standard D3176-15 [167] of the American Society
for Testing of Materials (ASTM), the ultimate analysis include the
quantification of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur in a material
(as found in the gaseous products of its complete combustion), the
determination of ash, as a whole, and the calculation of oxygen by
difference. On the other hand, the proximal analysis includes a series of
test performed to the precursor to quantify, according to their
respective ASTM standards, the parameters mentioned in the Scheme
1. A detailed peer-reviewed data describing the chemical composition
of 86 varieties of biomass and lignocellulosic resources analyses can be
found in the work published by Vassilev et al. [20].
Ultimate and proximal analyses are also commonly reported as
characteristics of activated carbons. Ultimate analysis is performed to
detect changes in the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen content of
the samples within the conversion stages from raw material into
activated carbon. The proximal analysis of activated carbons most of
times is assessed by using the procedures collected in Scheme 1.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Additionally, in the ASTM are available more techniques to evaluate
activated carbos; some of them include particle size, adsorption
capacity and breakthrough in several atmospheres. Some years ago, it
was common to report the pH of the activated carbon by following the
ASTM D3838-80 procedure [184]; however, pH is referred to aqueous
solutions rather than solids. For this reason, use of Point of Zero
Charge (PZC), to describe the condition when the electrical charge
density on the surface of a solid is zero, is more adequate for activated
carbon. In the literature is possible to find several techniques to
calculate the PZC, as mentioned above.
5.3. Lignocellulosic analysis
As mentioned in Section 2, the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
contents in the precursors depend of many factors (plant species,
origin, weather conditions, quality and conditioning, among others)
and have a strong influence on the final structure and properties of the
activated carbons. Their quantification it is not so simple. The following
authors differ in the methodology used for this purpose and they
describe some approaches: Van Soest [185]; Lin and Dence [186,187],
Jústiz-Smith et al. [22] suggested the method developed for Pessoa
et al., for the determination of hemicellulose [188], Tiryaki et al. [33],
Carrier et al. [189]. On the other hand, the ASTM method D 1106-96
[190] for the lignin content determination and the Technical
P. González-García
Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) method T 203 cm-
99 for determination of alpha-, beta- and gamma-cellulose in pulp
[191] are widely used.
Nowadays, in the webpage of the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) from the U.S. Department of Energy, it is possible
to download some standard procedures for biomass compositional
analysis developed in the NREL. On the other hand, since 1991, use of
near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy for the quantification of lignin
and cellulose is also frequently proposed [192]. Finally, two review
articles with several procedures for the compositional analysis of
lignocellulosic materials were published by Slutter et al. [193] and
Carrier et al. [189].
5.4. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD)
In a first approximation, the shape of the XRD diagram provides us
an idea about the order/disorder degree of the structure of the
activated carbon. A round, not totally formed and/or very broad
reflection located at 2θ ≈ 26°, related to the 002 graphite structure,
is an indicative of the stacking of a few graphene–like layers into the
activated carbon. This feature is wrongly described in several works.
Even when the XRD diagrams present the characteristics mentioned
before, authors claim that the structure of the activated carbon is
“amorphous”. However, nowadays it has been described that carbon
atoms present short-range order along “a” or “c” directions and can be
easily proved by using the Scherrer equations. Also, the graphitization
degree of the activated carbons can be determined by a simple
comparison of the intensities of the (002) and (100) reflections, when
appears in the difractogram, between the sample and a graphite used as
reference [194].
5.5. Raman spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy is frequently used to investigate in a detailed
way the bulk average structure of carbon materials. In this sense, a
common Raman spectrum contains the following features: the so–
called graphite (G) band at ≈ 1580–1600 cm-1, the disorder–induced
(D) band at ≈ 1300–1350 cm-1 [195,196], and sometimes the 2D band
(≈ 2700 cm-1) is clearly observed. In graphitic carbon materials, this
band is asymmetric and comprises at least two bands located, one
below 2700 cm-1 and another above 2700 cm-1 [197]. The position of
these bands, their intensities and ratio provide information of order
and crystallite or domain size. Most of times, the D, G and 2D bands
are fitted to a symmetric Lorentzian, an asymmetric Breit–Wigner–
Fano (BWF) and a Gauss functions respectively. The intensity ratio
between the D and G bands (ID/IG) is related to the in–plane length
(La) of the graphene–like layers as it is described by the Tuinstra–
Fig. 2. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy images from chemically activated carbons produced from Castanea Sativa (a) and Juglans Regia (b). The graphenic
structures that form the average microstructure of these activated carbons are marked with arrows.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Koenig (T–K) formula and by Ferrari and Robertson (F–R) model.
In the literature review, there are some works that describe the use
of this technique for the characterization of the produced activated
carbons; for instance derived from: corn starch [154], cellulose [157],
oil palm brunches [73], coir fibers, pith and coconut shell endocarp
[99], lapsi seeds [78], P. oceanica (L.) fibers [60], bamboo fibers [53]
and sisal [71].
5.6. Electron microscopy and associated techniques
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs are commonly
used to show changes in the morphology of the materials, as result of
the thermal or chemical treatments, during the conversion process of
raw materials into activated carbons. Transmission Electron
Microscopy (TEM) images provide a detailed description of the novel
and classic crystalline and disordered materials. High-resolution
transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) produces images of the
local nanostructure. In this context, the images reported for activated
carbons derived from peach stones [74] and cellulose [157] are very
good examples. An analysis of this complex structure is depicted in
Fig. 2, which shows how the defective graphene–like layers, of different
dimensions and shapes, are co-bonded in close proximity to each other
to create spaces between the graphene layers (microporosity).
Other important experiment that it is possible to perform in during
the TEM examinations is diffraction. Select area electron diffraction
(SAED) patters of highly disordered materials are characterized for
their diffuse features. However, it is possible to have SAED patters
having diffraction rings corresponding to the hkl graphite–like reflec-
tions. A common feature of the SAED patters of activated carbons is the
absence of the 00l graphite–like reflections, indicating that their
nanostructure is highly disordered without tridimensional graphite–
like stacking; i.e., disordered graphene–like layers [56].
Coupled to the TEM it is possible to find two associated techniques:
X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and electron energy–loss
spectroscopy (EELS). With the use of internal standards EDS provides
information that can be quantitative with a margin of error of 1–5 %. On
the other hand, EELS measures the loss of kinetic energy of electrons
inelastically interacting with the sample. This energy loss is character-
istic of the structure of each one of the elements present in a region
under study, so it can be detected and subsequently analyzed [198].
There are a few mathematical methods to quantify the local chemical
composition obtained from EELS. The most common are the windows-
based methods that permit to obtain two important features from the
integrated areas of the transition peaks for each element [199]. From
here, it is possible to know accurately the carbon and oxygen contents
and their hybridization type. However, the simplest form to obtain the
chemical composition is from the Digital Micrograph software.
P. González-García
5.7. Textural features
Nowadays, exist several techniques for the analysis of the porous
texture, from which we can underline the physical adsorption of gases,
mercury porosimetry, small angle scattering (SAS), either neutrons—
SANS or x-rays—SAXS, electron microscopy (TEM and SEM), tunnel
microscopy, immersion calorimetry, etc. The analysis of the low–
temperature nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms, is probably
the widest spread standard method used for the characterisation of
porous solids providing essential information about the surface area,
the pore volume and the PSD present in activated carbons. One of the
most analysed features of the adsorption/desorption isotherm is its
form, which has been classified in six types (from micropore to
mesoporous and heterogeneous surfaces), to providing an idea of the
porous texture of the material under study [65,200].
5.7.1. Surface area assessment
For the calculation of the surface area, the BET theory, developed
by Brunauner, Emmett and Teller, is the most popular method for
determining the surface area of porous solids. Nevertheless, the use of
standard isotherms (normalized forms of the isotherm data for a
unique adsorbate–adsorbent system) is still widely used [201,202]
In this sense, the specific surface area (SBET), calculated according
to BET method, most of time is adjusted in the range of relative
pressure from 0.05 to 0.25 to avoid over or underestimate the specific
surface area. The total pore volume is later on determinate at the
relative pressure p/p0 = 0.99. On the other hand, the conventional
comparison from the t and αs plots based on the N2 adsorption for a
non–porous carbon reference provided also significant information.
One of the most used to evaluate an experimental isotherm from a
standard isotherm used as reference is the αs method [203], which is
derived from a modification of the t-plot method [204]. The application
of the standard αs method and its extension to high resolution
isotherms [205] allows to calculate different textural parameters; such
as the external surface (Se), or non-microporous surface, the micropore
volume (Vmi) [206] and the total surface area (Stot) [201].
5.7.2. PSD calculations
In terms of the pore size, the classification given by the IUPAC
[207] is: macropores (> 50 nm), mesopores (2–5 nm) micropores (<
2 nm); additionally, micropores can be divided into wide (0.7– nm)
and narrow (< 0.7 nm). Therefore, a detailed description of the PSD
may be used to identifying and predicting their performance for
possible industrial applications, as well as developing of novel materi-
als.
Classical mathematical procedures based on the Kevin equation
have been proposed for the calculation of mesoporosity from the
nitrogen isotherms. Barrett–Joyner–Halenda (BJH) and Dellimore–
Heal methods are the most frequently used. The micropore size
distribution has been calculated by the Howath–Kawazoe and Saito–
Foley methods; considering the existence of slit–like shape geometry
for the pores [208]. Otherwise, phenomenological models based on
Dubinin's theory of volume filling of micropores have found utility
describing adsorption equilibrium. The Dubinin–Radushkevich,
Dubinin–Astakov, and Dubinin–Stoeckli approaches are widely ac-
cepted methods for calculating the distribution of micropores [209].
In the last years, the use of models based on the density functional
theory (DFT) for determining the PSD, and also the surface area, seems
to provide a more precise description of the adsorption into the pores
[202]. The local DFT and the non-local DFT (NLDFT) approaches are
based in the behaviour of the non-homogeneous fluids at a solid
interface assuming a standard slit pore model [210]. Recently, a novel
model has been developed using the two dimensional (2D)-NLDFT
calculations to study the combined effects of surface curvature and
some energetical heterogeneity on adsorption on open carbon surfaces
and carbon pores [211].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
5.8. Adsorption capacity
When is not possible to perform the nitrogen adsorption/deso-
rption measurements of the carbons, the adsorption capacity provides
a roughly idea of the surface area available in the activated carbon,
taking into consideration that the size of the adsorbed molecule is
proportional to the number of available physical adsorption sites. The
most common adsorbates used as reference are:
• Iodine number. It is probably the indicator most frequently de-
scribed [41,137,212], is defined as the number of milligrams of
iodine adsorbed from an aqueous solution by 1 g of activated carbon
when the iodine concentration of the residual filtrate is 0.02 N [213].
Iodine number does not necessarily provide a measure of the
carbon's ability to absorb other species and may be used as an
approximation of surface area for some types of activated carbons.
However, it must be realized that any relationship between surface
area and iodine number cannot be generalized, [214]. Because of the
laborious, and large, procedure of the ASTM D4607-14 method for
the quantification of the iodine number, its description has been
briefly described a few years ago [55].
• Methylene blue index (MBI). The MBI value gives an indication of
the adsorption capacity of an activated carbon for molecules having
similar dimensions to methylene blue and is defined as the number
of millilitres standard of MB solution decolourized by 0.1 g of
activated carbon (dry basis). The original procedure for the deter-
mination of the MB index has been proposed for clays [215]. The
ASTM Standard Test for MBI of Clay [216] is the procedure most
commonly used, to determine the clay activity in the laboratories of
processing of ore and tailings derived from the oil sands. Despite
this, it can be applied in activated carbons to calculate the active
surface area of the material, based on the dimensions of the MB
molecule [217].
• Immersion calorimetry. This model-free technique is based on the
selective adsorption of phenol from dilute aqueous solutions (e.g.,
0.4 M) onto carbons. Under these conditions, phenol forms only a
monolayer on both the walls of the micropores and on the external
surface area Se [218–220]. Moreover, the corresponding areas are in
good agreement with other determinations (note that the micropore
volume is filled by phenol only if it is adsorbed from the vapour
phase or by immersion into phenol fluidized by 15–20% w/w of
water), as described in detail elsewhere [218]. Phenol adsorption
from the dilute solution can also be monitored by immersion
calorimetry, which is less tedious than the determination of solid–
liquid isotherms. It has been shown that, in the case of porous
carbons, the enthalpies of immersion yield to total surface area
Sphenol yielding good agreement with the other determinations.
5.9. Surface chemistry
Identification of the surface functionalities has been usually per-
formed by infrared spectroscopy and TGA, whereas their quantification
has been obtained by several decades from the Boehm titration
method. The development of advanced techniques such as X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) or EELS has permitted to obtain
accurate information about the local chemical composition, bonding
type, and hybridization state. Hence, use of both, traditional methods
and modern instrumentation have facilitated the chemical analyses of
this surface chemistry, providing a better description and quantifica-
tion of the atoms bonded to the carbon surface.
5.9.1. Boehm titration
By several decades the Boehm titration method, developed in 1966
by Boehm, has been the most used chemical analyses to determine the
type and the amount of oxygenated groups on carbon surfaces [221],
mainly in activated carbons [31,97,137,222]. Recently, its application
P. González-García
has been extended to functionalized carbon nanotubes [223]. This
method is based on the selective neutralization by equilibration with a
series of bases of different strengths. Free carboxyl groups are the
strongest acidic type. They are sufficiently strong to liberate acetic acid
from calcium acetate or carbon dioxide from sodium bicarbonate.
Therefore, they can be easily neutralized by titration. Carboxylic groups
condensed into lactones or lactols present reduced acidity. They can be
neutralized (with ring opening) by sodium carbonate, but not by
bicarbonate. Phenolic groups are weakly acidic and they are completely
neutralized by sodium hydroxide, but not to a significant extent by
dilute sodium carbonate. Still higher uptakes than with NaOH were
found with sodium ethoxide in ethanol. This difference corresponds to
quinonic and xanthene groups [224].
Recently, a normalization of the Boehm titration method has been
reported. Some of the factors taken into account were: the time that
samples are shaken or stirred, the method of CO2 expulsion from the
solutions and the method of titration endpoint determination
[225,226]. Authors found that dissolved CO2 in the basic solutions
has a significant effect on the amount of functionalities determined by
the Boehm titration, and therefore it must be completely removed. CO2
removal methods include the use of heat, degassing with N2 or Ar, prior
and during the titration, to ensure sufficient removal of CO2 [225] and
agitation.
5.9.2. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy
The IR spectroscopy is the spectroscopy technique that deals with
the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, which is light with
a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. The IR
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum can be divided in three
regions: the near region (14,000–4000 cm−1) where most of contribu-
tions come from the overtones or harmonic vibrations associated to
hydrogen tensions. The middle region (4000–400 cm−1) is used to
study the fundamental vibrations and the vibrational–rotational struc-
ture, and the far region (400–10 cm−1) which provides information
from the rotational transitions, vibrational modes of the crystal lattice
vibrations, and the skeleton of the molecule [227]. Compared with
standard spectrums, information of functional groups of samples can
be determined by frequency of absorption band. Here, position and
intensity of the formed transmittance bands are related to the presence
of elements; such as O, N, P, S, or Si bonded to the carbon atoms as
functionalities [79,115,134,228–231]. Nowadays, these data can be
easily found in several websites and manuscripts.
5.9.3. XPS
XPS for chemical analysis, is an advance technique for the
characterization of solids and powder samples due to its ability to
measure binding-energy variations resulting from their chemical en-
vironment. Kinetic energy of each electron is related with the orbital
energy of emission electron, and orbital energy is characteristic of
atoms or molecules, so the XPS can be used to obtain the chemical
composition of samples consisting of light elements such as carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. The depth of samples studied must be
less than 5 nm, so XPS is a surface analysis method [232]. Surface
chemistry characterization, by using XPS, is described in manuscripts
that report the production of activated carbons derived from: olive
stone [77], palm kernel shell [124], wheat and flax straw [233],
corncob [98], paulownia flower [100], gelatin and starch [117], among
others.
6. The five most common applications of activated carbons
Activated carbon is considered as the universal adsorbent. Its high
surface area, porous texture and surface chemistry are its more
distinctive features. In Fig. 3, are depicted the most common applica-
tions of activated carbons, from 1995 to 2016, according to Scopus
database. Notice that the most studied field concerns to the adsorption
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
of heavy metals ions: mercury Hg(II), chromium Cr(III) and Cr(IV),
cadmium Cd(II), arsenic As(V) and lead Pb(II); followed by the
adsorption of organic compounds (benzene, phenol, toluene, formal-
dehyde and methyl tert-butyl ether), dyes (mainly malachite green and
methylene blue), CO2 capture, catalyst, adsorption of ammonia and
methane storage.
6.1. Heavy metals removal
Adsorption of heavy metals by using activated carbon has been
widely studied, probably as proposal to diminish the negative impact of
the heavy metals on the health of human beings, animals and crops.
This group of toxic metals is commonly present in waste effluents from
the mining, tanneries, textile mill products, electronics, electroplating
and petrochemical industries [234]. Adsorption of high amounts of
heavy metals has been successfully achieved by several research groups
along the globe by using activated carbon produced from diverse
lignocellulosic resources, as observed in Table 6.
It is important to mention that, an acidic pH seems to be one of the
most significant factors to affect the adsorption process, independently
to the microstructure or porous texture. Most of times, metallic ions are
electrostatically trapped into the porous networks at acidic pH. Just a
few cases report efficient adsorption capacities at pH higher than 7 (see
Table 6). Both cases could be attributed to the strong contribution of
the oxygenated acidic surfaces.
At low pH values positively charged, pH below 6, ion species will
ion exchange and/or complex with the surface groups [262]. In
contrast at pH > 8, according to the speciation diagrams reported for
some metallic ions, adsorption is enhanced by important contributions
of chelating and complex formation prior to the ion precipitation as
hydroxides. At this high pH values, it has been reported that carboxyl
groups were proven to be directly responsible for heavy metal sorption
onto lignocellulosic-derived adsorbents [263–265]. Phenolic groups
are believed to be accountable for the formation of complexes with
heavy metals [266]. On the other hand, presence of carboxylic groups
on the surface of AC promotes an enhanced acidic dissociation and
chelating attributes that forms complexes of the adsorbed metal and
functional groups.
In the literature review it was found that the factors taken into
consideration to affect the adsorption process are the effect of the
activated carbon dose, pH and temperature of the solution, adsorption
kinetics, initial metal ion concentration (adsorption isotherms), ad-
sorption thermodynamic and the diffusion modeling. It was found that
each activated carbon has its own behavior in front of each metallic ion.
Even when the same activated carbon is used to adsorb two metallic
Fig. 3. Percent of the most common applications of activated carbons from 1985 to
2016.
P. González-García Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 6
Adsorption capacities of Pb, Cr, Hg, and Cd ions by activated carbons produced from lignocellulosic resources and their publication year.

Precursor Activation agent Surface area pH Order of the kinetic Adsorption model Adsorption capacity Year
(m2/g) model (mg/g)

Pb
Cotton stalk [235] H3PO4 1570 4.4 Langmuir 70.32 2010
Branches of walnut wood [236] HNO3 32 7 Pseudo-second Langmuir 58.82 2015
Van apple pulp [237] ZnCl2 1067 4.0 Pseudo-second Langmuir 17.77 2012
Ceiba pentandra hulls [238] Steam 521 6.0 Pseudo-second Freundlich 25.5 2008
Tamarind Wood [49] ZnCl2 1322 10 Pseudo-second Langmuir 43.85 2009
Hazelnut husks [239] ZnCl2 1092 5.7 Langmuir 13.05 2008
E. camaldulensis Dehn [240] H3PO4 1239 5 Pseudo-second Langmuir 0.89 mmol/g 2008
Coffee residue [97] ZnCl2 890 5.8 Pseudo-second Freundlich 63 mg/g 2009
Glycyrrhiza glabra [241] ZnCl2 1483 5–7 Pseudo-second Langmuir 200 2014
S. alterniflora [242] H3PO4 687 4.8–5.6 Pseudo-second Freundlich 99 2009
Sugar cane bagasse [156] H3PO4 320 4 Langmuir 8.58 2008
Lemna minor [243] H3PO4 532 6 Pseudo-first Langmuir 170.9 2014

Cr
Longan seed [244] NaOH 1512 3 Pseudo-second Langmuir 169.5 2015
Olive bagasse [245] Termal 718 2 Pseudo-second Langmuir 109.89 2008
Peanut shell [246] KOH 96 2 Pseudo-second Langmuir 16.26 2012
Sugar cane bagasse [156] H3PO4 320 5 Langmuir 28.3 2008
Date palm seeds [247] H2SO4 1 Pseudo-second Koble–Corrigan 120.48 2008
E. crassipes root [50] Termal 109.23 4.5 Pseudo-second DR 36.34 2012
Rice husks [248] Ozone 380 2 Pseudo-second Freundlich 8.5 2015
P. capillacea [249] H2SO4 1 Pseudo-second Langmuir 66 2015

Hg
C. pentandra hulls [250] Steam 521 6 Pseudo-second Langmuir 25.88 2015
P. aureus hulls [250] Steam 325 7 Pseudo-second Langmuir 23.66 2009
C. arietinum [250] Steam 280 7 Pseudo-second Langmuir 22.88 2009
Residue of liquorices/pistachio-nut ZnCl2 1492 8 Pseudo-second Freundlich 24.78 2010
shells [251]
Walnut shell [252] ZnCl2 780 2 Pseudo-second Langmuir 151.5 2010
Sago waste [253] H2SO4 625 5 Lagergren and Svenkar Langmuir 55.6 2004
B. vulgaris striata [254] Steam 608 3 Pseudo-first Langmuir 248.05 2014
Rice straw [255] H2SO4 500 mg iodine/g 5 Pseudo-second Freundlich 142.88 2016
AC
Coconut pith [76] KOH 505 0.74 mmol/g 2015

Cd
C. pentandra hulls [256] Steam 521| 6 Pseudo-first Langmuir 19.5 2006
Olive stone [257] KOH 1281 6 Pseudo-second Langmuir 11.72 2013
Nut shells [258] H3PO4 1557 10 Langmuir 104.17 2008
B. vulgaris striata [254] Steam 608 9 Pseudo-first Langmuir 239.45 2014
Olive stone [259] ZnCl2 790 9 Pseudo-second Langmuir 1.85 2008
Aguaje [260] H3PO4 1623 5 Pseudo-second Langmuir 26.33 2014
Olive fruit stone [260] H3PO4 1565 5 Pseudo-second Langmuir 24.83 2014
Oak wood [261] HNO3 69 9 Pseudo-second Langmuir 3.31 2015

Table 7
Capacitance values achieved by electrodes formed by activated carbons produced from lignocellulosic resources and their publication year.

Precursor Activation agent Surface área (m2/g) Capacitance (F/g) Functional groups Year

Coffee beans [270] ZnCl2 1019 386 Carbonyl, quinone, phenol, ether 2008
Cornstarch [154] Thermal 686 169 2015
Carrageenan [114] KOH 2502 230 2014
Cellulose [157] Thermal 2602 132 2015
E. prolifera [87] KOH 3332 210 2014
Corncob [98] KOH 3054 402 Carboxylic 2015
Paulownia flower [100] KOH 1471 297 Phenolic, alkyl 2015
Oil palm empty fruit bunch [271] KOH/ CO2 1596 135 2013
Coconut shell [222] ZnCl2/ CO2 2440 246 Carboxylic, lactonic phenolic 2015
Palm kernel shell [124] KOH 727 210 Hydroxyl, carbonyl 2015
Willow catkins [118] KOH 1586 279 Hydroxyl, phenols, ethers, pyridinic, pyrrolic, pyridonic 2015
Rice [135] KOH 3263 330 2015
Coffee endocarp [136] CO2 1050 176 Quinone, lactone, Si–H, phenol, hydroxyl, carbonyl, ether
Cherry stones [272] KOH 1273 232 2009
Apricot shell [273] NaOH 2335 339 2010
Potato waste [113] ZnCl2 1052 255 2015

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P. González-García Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

ions, some of the characteristics such as the pH, the contact time, the
adsorption modelling and the nature of the adsorption process are
different. For instance, Pb(II) and Cr(VI) on activated carbon produced
from sugar cane husks [156] or Cd(II), Hg(II) and Zn(II) on bamboo
derived activated carbon [254].
6.2. Electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLC)
EDLCs are relatively new energy storage systems which have
attracted a lot of scientific and technological attention during last
decade. EDLC provide a higher energy density than dielectric capaci-
tors and a higher power density than batteries. They are particularly
adapted for applications requiring energy pulses for short time periods,
e.g., seconds or tens of seconds [267]. Microporous carbons are the
main materials used for EDLC electrodes making [268], since their
electrochemical inertness, relatively high electrical conductivity, and
large specific surface areA enhances the capacitance values [269].
Nowadays, such carbon materials are mostly derived from sustainable
and abundant natural resources, from low to moderate costs, which
make them, attractive for industrial applications. Some characteristics
of activated carbons, produced from lignocellulosic resources and used
as electrodes in EDLC, are summarized in Table 7. Note that the oldest
manuscript describing the use of biomass for EDLC was published just
nine years ago.
It has been widely discussed that the surface area and porous
structure of the carbon materials are the most significant features that
affect the performance of the EDLC. Some authors have found an
almost linear relationship between the surface area and the capaci-
tance. However, a few years ago, it was published that the pore size,
specifically around 0.7 nm, increases significantly the capacitance in
the electrode if the appropriate electrolyte is selected [274]. On the
other hand, many studies have shown the important effect of the

Table 8
Dyes adsorption capacities on activated carbons derived from lignocellulosic precursors and their publication year.

Precursor Activation agent Surface area Dye pH Order of the Adsorption Adsorption capacity Year
(m2/g) kinetic model model (mg/g)

Groundnut shell [277] ZnCl2 1200 Malachite green BET 114 2007
Coconut coir [278] ZnCl2 205 Malachite green Pseudo-first Langmuir 27.44 2013
Albizia lebbeck [279] KOH 1825 Methylene blue Pseudo-second Sips 381.22 2014
Hazelnut husk [280] ZnCl2 1369 Methylene blue 7 Pseudo-second Langmuir 476.2 2014
Oak wood [261] HNO3 69 Malachite green Pseudo-second Langmuir 4.34 2015
N. lappaceum peel [281] KOH 972 Acid yellow 17 Pseudo-second Langmuir 215.05 2014
Macadamia nut endocarp ZnCl2 600 Methylene blue Pseudo-second Redlich–peterson 194.7 2014
[282]
Oil palm wood [283] CO2/steam 1084 Methylene blue 90.9 2007
Olive stone [284] 587 Methylene blue Pseudo-second Freundlich 1744.1 2012
Acacia fumosa seed [285] HCl Methylene blue 6 Pseudo-second Langmuir 4 10.49 2013
Vetiver roots [286] H3PO4 1272 Methylene blue Pseudo-second Langmuir 394 2009
Waste tea [115] HNO3 1417 Methylene blue 683.6 2014
Sesame [287] H2SO4 230 Acid red 114 3 Pseudo-first Langmuir 102.4 2008
Cotton [287] H2SO4 124 Acid red 114 3 Pseudo-second Freundlich 1.25 2008
Pongam seeds [287] H2SO4 325 Acid red 114 3 Pseudo-second Freundlich 3.33 2008
Bamboo [288] K2CO3/ CO2 1724 Malachite green 5 Pseudo-first Langmuir 263.58 2008
Ricinus communis [289] H2SO4 Malachite green 7 Pseudo-second Langmuir 27.78 2010
B. aethiopum flower H2SO4 Malachite green 6-8 Pseudo-second Langmuir 48.23 2010
[290]
Date stones [291] ZnCl2 1046 Methylene blue 7 Pseudo-second Sips 398.19 2012
Edible fungi [292] K2CO3 684 Reactive black 5 2 Langmuir 19.6 2012
P. oceanica (L.) [293] ZnCl2 1483 Methylene blue 3-10 Pseudo-second Langmuir 285.7 2011
Sour cherry [294] ZnCl2 1704 Yellow 18 2 Pseudo-second Langmuir 75.76 2014
Cotton fiber [295] ZnCl2 2060 Methylene blue >6 Pseudo-second Langmuir 597 2012
Tea leaves [296] NaOH 423 Malachite green 4 Pseudo-second Langmuir 256.4 2013
Wild olive cores [297] H3PO4 969 Basic red 46 4 Pseudo-second Langmuir 781.25 2013
Flamboyant pods [298] NaOH 2854 Methylene blue Pseudo-first Toth 889.58 2011
Rambutan peel [299] KOH 988 Malachite green 8 Pseudo-second Langmuir 418.6 2011
Flamboyant pods [300] NaOH Acid yellow 6 2 Pseudo-second Vieth–sladek 673.68 2012
Flamboyant pods [300] NaOH Acid yellow 23 2 Pseudo-second Vieth–sladek 643.04 2012
Flamboyant pods [300] NaOH Acid red 18 2 Pseudo-second Vieth–Sladek 551.79 2012
Jute fiber [301] H3PO4 328 Reactive red 120 6 Pseudo-second Langmuir 200 2006
Flower of coconut [301] H3PO4 680 Reactive red 120 4 Pseudo-second Langmuir 181.9 2006
Jatropha curcas L [302] KOH 905 Methylene blue 11 Pseudo-first Langmuir 393.06 2011
Myrtus communis [303] Termal 104 Congo red 6 Pseudo-second Freundlich 10 2012
Pomegranate [303] Termal 41 Congo red 7 Pseudo-second Langmuir 19.23 2012
Rice hull [304] Thermal Eriochrome black 2 Pseudo-second Freundlich 0.04 2013
T
Orange tree wood [305] Thermal Sunset yellow 1 Pseudo-second Langmuir 4.89 2015
Brances of walnut wood HNO3 32 Methylene blue 2 Pseudo-second Langmuir 18.51 2015
[236]
Durian peel [306] CO2 1015 Basic green 4 3 Pseudo-second Langmuir 312.5 2010
P. oceanica (L.) [293] H3PO4 946 Methylene blue Pseudo-second Langmuir 137 2012
Kapok [144] CO2 1474 Methyl violet Pseudo-second 160.3 2015
Banana peel [72] KOH 2086 Methylene blue Pseudo-second Langmuir 385.12 2014
Orange [307] H2SO4 Direct n blue-106 2 Pseudo-second Langmuir 107.53 2009
Waste tea [115] H3PO4 1398 Methylene blue Langmuir 683.6 2014
Pineapple waste [133] ZnCl2 915 Methylene blue Langmuir 288.34 2015
Date pits [123] FeCl3 780 Methylene blue 7 Pseudo-second Langmuir 259.25 2012
Palm flower [89] H2SO4 10 Amido black 10b Pseudo-second Langmuir 4.04 2011
E. prolifera [87] NaAlO2 1374 Brilliant scarlet Pseudo-second Langmuir 1000 2015

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P. González-García Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

surface oxygenated groups since contribute to the capacitance of
EDLCs, in inorganic electrolytes, which is called pseudocapacitance
and it is generally credited to Faradaic reaction of these groups with
electrolyte ions.
At this point, it is important to mention that pseudocapacitance
from selected functional groups may contribute to over 22% of the total
capacitance [275]. The oxygen-containing surface groups on activated
carbons can be divided into three types, depending on the nature of the
C–O bonds [276]: (i) chemically bonded groups (e.g., carbonyl), which
are degassed as CO, only upon heating the carbon above 800 °C. These
groups are believed to be electrochemically inactive, and their main
effect is a shift of the PZC; (ii) surface groups (e.g., carboxylic), which
provide surface acidity, and are degassed at above 400 °C, mostly as
CO2, and (iii) surface groups with electrochemical redox activity such
as quinine/hydroquinone moieties, which can also be degassed be-
tween 400 and 800 °C.
It has been described that phenolic and carboxyl groups led to the
increase in the capacitance. In addition, presence of oxygen containing
polar functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, quinine and
others), in activated carbons, increase their hydrophilicity and surface
area accessible to aqueous electrolytes [275]. Despite these favorable
properties, functionalized activated carbons are not utilized in com-
mercial devices.
6.3. Dyes adsorption
Dyes are organic compounds considered particularly dangerous for
the environment. Nearly 40,000 dyes and pigments, consisting of over
7000 chemical structures are known. Most of them are completely
resistant to biodegradation processes [12].
It was estimated that there are around of 10,000 commercial dyes
and over 7 × 105 tons are worldwide produced annually. Dyes are
designed to be resistant to light, water and oxidizing agents; and
therefore, are difficult to degrade once released into aquatic systems
[308]. Dyes may be classified in several ways, according to chemical
constitution, application class and dyeing process. Main dyes are
grouped as acid dyes, basic dyes, direct dyes, mordant dyes, vat dyes,
reactive dyes, disperse dyes, azo dyes, and sulfur dyes [12].
In the adsorption of dyes on activated carbon, the surface chemical
properties of carbon plays a decisive role in their adsorption. In
general, activated carbon is an amphoteric material (possesses both,
acidic and basic surface functional groups) and has a positively or
negatively charged character, depending on the solution pH. Therefore,
attraction of activated carbon with anionic or cationic materials is
mainly related to the surface features. Negatively charged surfaces are
obtained at higher pH values and this favors the uptake of more
cationic groups due to decreased electrostatic repulsion between the
dye and the surface of activated carbon and vice versa. It has been
reported that basic carbons show higher adsorption capacity than the
acidic ones [299,302], regardless of the type of the dye. However,
results collected in Table 8 indicate that acidic pH increases the dye
adsorption.
For this situation, Gokce and Aktas [115] proposed two simulta-
neous adsorption routes for the adsorption of MB molecules. One
involves the electrostatic interaction of MB cations with negatively
charged carbon surface functional groups. The other is the dispersive
interaction of MB molecules with surface layer of AC [309]. Dispersive
interaction is related to the π - π electron coupling on the carbon
surface and easily occurred between the π electrons exist within the
molecular structure of MB and delocalized π electrons on the basal
planes of the activated carbon. Both, electrostatic and dispersion
interactions simultaneously occur, (while compete each other) due to
the nature of carbon. In addition, authors propose that carboxylic
groups significantly affect removal of MB and phenol. Although
weakening of dispersion interaction shows an adsorption limiting
effect, this is not the key for the removal of MB. In contrast,
electrostatic forces lead to orientation of MB molecules in vertical axis
enhancing the adsorption.
6.4. Gas adsorption/storage
Adsorption of gases on activated carbon is considered as one of the
most potential alternatives to storage them. This is possible because
activated carbon can be obtained at low cost from a renewable and
globally available lignocellulosic biomass, it is selective towards CO2, it
can be easily regenerated, and unlike other physical adsorbents such as
zeolites or MOFs, it is hydrophobic and show high stability in moisture
conditions [310]. Table 9 provides a summary of the storage capacities
of CO2, CH4 and H2 into activated carbons derived from a variety of
lignocellulosic resources.

Table 9
Gas storage capacity of some activated carbon produced from lignocellulosic resources and the publication year.

Precursor Activation agent Surface area (m2/g) Gas Storage capacity Year

Sugarcane molasses [313] KOH 2202 CH4 197.23 mg/g 2013

Oil palm Shell [314] ZnCl2 870 CH4 13 cm3/g 2014
Corncob [315] KOH 3227 CH4 273.4 cm3/g 2014
Corn cobs [316] KOH 1320 CH4 120 v/v 2011
Palm shell [317] H3PO4 CH4 25.7 cm3/g 2012
Olive stones [132] H3PO4 1014 CH4 4.69 mmol/g 2015
Gelatin and starch [117] KOH 1957 CO2 7.49 mmol/g 2015
Tobacco [15] HNO3 1104 CO2 3.56 mmol/g 2015
Oil cake/walnut [163] CO2 1207 CO2 34.72 ml/g 2014
Coconut shell [318] CO2 371 CO2 1.8 mmol/g 2014
Almond shell [310] CO2 862 CO2 2.7 mmol/g 2013
Olive stone [310] CO2 1215 CO2 3.1 mmol/g 2013
Coffee residue [319] CO2 593 CO2 2.4 mmol/g 2012
Rice husk [320] ZnCl2 927 CO2 1.3 mmol/g 2011
Peanut shell [321] KOH 956 CO2 4.0 mmol/g 2015
Sunflower seed [321] KOH 1790 CO2 4.6 mmol/g 2015
Bamboo [322] KOH 1846 CO2 4.5 mmol/g 2012
Palm stone [323] H3PO4 924 CO2 2.7 mmol/g 2013
Rice husks [324] KOH 2682 H2 2.85 wt% 2015
Tamarind seeds [325] KOH 1785 H2 4.73 wt% 2015
Agiricus fungi [326] KOH 2137 H2 4.7 wt% 2014
African palm shell [327] LiOH 1350 H2 6.5 wt% 2014
Corncob [328] KOH 3708 H2 5.8 wt% 2014
Lignin [329] H2SO4 1946 H2 1.89 wt% 2008

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P. González-García Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Carbon dioxide capture and sequestration from point source
emissions (power stations, fuels retrieval, processing and distribution,
biomass burning, residential and commercial uses, industrial pro-
cesses), has been recognized as a potential way to stabilize and reduce
the content of CO2 present in the atmosphere. Various processes, such
as liquid solvent absorption, cryogenic techniques, membrane separa-
tion, solid sorbents, and pressure (and/or temperature) swing adsorp-
tion have been proposed for the separation and recovery of CO2 [311].
To date, chemical absorption with amine-based or ammonia-based
absorbents receives most of attention due to their high process
efficiency and thus, is widely performed by industrialists [312]. One
of the goals in reducing CO2, NO2, CH4 and chlorofluorocarbon
emissions, on an industrial scale, is the development of cost-effective
techniques for the separation and capture of CO2. However, the success
of this approach is dependent on the development of easily reusable
and durable adsorbent with a high adsorption capacity of CO2. It has
been recognized that the surface chemistry of activated carbon can
strongly affect the adsorption capacity. Due to acidic role of CO2 (weak
Lewis acid), it is expected that the introduction of Lewis bases onto the
activated carbon surfaces may enhance the CO2 capture performance of
these materials [311,312].
On the other hand, methane has received important attention as a
future clean energy source due to its natural abundance, relative safety
(respect to most other fuels) low cost and low carbon emission. For
portable storage applications in future transportation technologies,
materials identified as candidates must present high storage capacity,
fast storage and release kinetics and long cycle efficiency under modest
thermodynamic conditions.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has set targets for methane
uptake at 180 v(STP)/v (standard temperature and pressure equivalent
volume of CH4 per volume of adsorbent) at 35 bar and ambient
temperature [330]. Candidates for achieving these criteria include many
forms of carbon, hydrates and metal-organic framework compounds
(MOF), optimized for extremely high specific surface area and specific
micropore volumes. Recently discovered MOFs provide exceptionally
high-surface area (∼ 3000 m2/g) and pore walls able to be functionalized
[331], but as a new class of materials, they still suffer from instability of
metal ion or hydrogen bonding [332]. Recently, it was described that
CH4 storage, using activated carbons derived from hardwood, coconut
shell, or polymers, is comparable to that of compressed natural-gas at
250 bar, with remarkable volumetric methane uptakes ∼ 200 v/v at
27 °C and pressures between 34 and 48 bar [330].
Hydrogen is also an ideal fuel for future. In recent years, hydrogen
infrastructure, in terms of production and storage, play an important
role in the commercialization of fuel cells. In this sense, U.S. DOE has
set a 2017 requirement of 5.5 wt% H2 and 40 g H2/L for gravimetric
and volumetric system targets [333]. In order to have portable
hydrogen storage systems to operate fuel cells using H2, storage
containers/materials with high volumetric and gravimetric density
are needed. Hence, the problem is not only to develop effective fuel
cells or cost-effective method of H2 production, but its storage. It is
necessary to supply every vehicle with a safe, cheap, compact on-board
H2 accumulator. Today, conventional technologies for H2 storage/
transport are: compression, cryogenic and cryo-compressed storage,
metal hydrides and high area sorbents such as activated carbon. Many
metals, alloys and intermetallic compounds can also reversible adsorb
large amounts of H2. However, none of them is known practically
effective for the mobile storage applications. A few years ago, it was
proposed a linear relationship between BET surface area and sorption
capacity of hydrogen at 77 K and 0.1 MPa [334]. Unfortunately until
today, there is not a reliable method to predict the adsorption capacity
of H2 into activated carbons.
6.5. Removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
VOCs are recognized as a source of air pollutants; they include most
of solvents such as thinner, degreasers, cleaners, lubricants, fertilizers,
coolants and liquid fuels. Traditionally, biological treatment, reverse
osmosis, ion exchange, catalytic oxidation, and solvent extraction are
the most used techniques for removing phenol and related organic
volatile substances. In spite of it, adsorption process is the simplest, the
quickest, the most efficient and economical alternative for this task.
Removal of VOCs, by lignocellulosic activated carbon, has been studied
by various researchers as an alternative to eliminate them from the
environment [6,335–337]. In some cases, modifications and impreg-
nation using selected chemicals onto activated carbon are required to
increase the adsorption capacity and improve the selectivity of trapped
organic compounds [338,339]. The preparation conditions and adsorp-
tion characteristics of some activated carbon used in removal of the
most common VOCs are tabulated in Table 10.
According to Nabais et al. [143] the chemical functional groups
containing oxygen atoms act as electron-withdrawing groups and tend
to promote a decrease in the phenol removal process. The electron
donor–acceptor complex mechanism suggests that the surface carbonyl

Table 10
Adsorption capacities of some VOC on activated carbons obtained from diverse biomass sources and their publication year.

Precursor Activation agent Surface area Volatile pH Order of the Adsorption model Adsorption capacity Year
(m2/g) kinetic model (mg/g)

Avocado kernels [341] CO2 206 Phenol 6 Pseudo-second Langmuir 90 2011

Coconut shells [342] KOH 478 Benzene Pseudo-first Langmuir 212.77 2015
Coconut shells [342] KOH 478 Toluene Pseudo-first Langmuir 238.1 2015
Tobacco residue [37] K2CO3 1634 Phenol 7 Pseudo-first Langmuir 17.83 2011
Tobacco residue [37] KOH 1474 Phenol 7 Pseudo-first Freundlich 134.64 2011
Soybean Straw [343] ZnCl2 891 Phenol Langmuir 278 2013
Coffee residues [344] ZnCl2 470 Formaldehyde 245 2005
Corn grain [345] KOH 2135 Phenol Pseudo-second Langmuir 256 2009
Durian shells [346] H3PO4 1404 Toluene Freundlich 874 2010
Almond shells [347] H3PO4 1117 Toluene DR 253 2013
Almond shells [347] H3PO4 1117 N-hexane DR 122 2013
Typha orientalis Presl Thermal 453 Phenol 5 Pseudo-second Freundlich 0.1 2015
[348]
Kenaf rapeseed [143] CO2 1112 Phenol 10 Freundlich 84.1 2009
Orange peel [231] H3PO4 + HNO3 o-nitrophenol 4.9 Pseudo-second 17 2012
Orange peel [231] H3PO4 + HNO3 p-nitrotoluene 5.5 Pseudo-second 20 2012
Vine shoot [3] CO2 956 p-nitrophenol 3 Freundlich 249 2011
Vine shoot [3] CO2 956 Phenol 3 Freundlich 200 2011
Oil-palm shells [152] Thermal 1183 Phenol Freundlich 31.41 2008
Coconut husk [349] KOH 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2 Pseudo-second Langmuir 716.10 2008

14
P. González-García
group acts as the electron donor and the phenol aromatic ring as the
acceptor [340]. Finally, the solvent effects occur by hydrogen bond
formation. This process describes the water molecules adsorption on
the surface functional group that contain oxygen atom [143]. These
effects are often influenced by the molecular size of the sorbent and the
contents of mineral matter in the adsorbent.
7. Discussion
7.1. Effect of the activation agent on the textural parameters
The use of a lower temperature (in ZnCl2 and H3PO4 activation),
compared to physical activation, is compensated by the interaction
between the chemicals and the carbon skeleton. Major advantages of
chemical activation are the higher yield, lower temperature of activa-
tion (less energy costs), less activation time and, generally, higher
development of porosity; among the disadvantages are the activating
agents costs and the need to perform an additional washing stage to
remove the chemical agent [9,65,350]. Besides, the activation tem-
perature, the time and heating rate are important preparation variables
for obtaining activated carbon with specific characteristics
[3,39,40,54,351,352].
According to the literature review, chemically activated carbons
have developed surface areas ranging from 5 to 3708 m2/g, pore size
distribution from 0.5 nm to a few micrometers and pore volume from
0.1 to 2.5 cm3/g. In Table 4, surface area values obtained for
chemically activated carbons produced from diverse lignocellulosic
and biomass precursors are collected. Here, it is possible to note that
activation with alkaline agents produces the highest surface area
values: 3708 m2/g for corncob activated with KOH [328] and
3167 m2/g for eucalyptus wood activated with NaOH [82]. Secondly,
treatment with acids and acid salts supplies also high surface areas; for
instance, impregnation of Chinese fir using H3PO4 yields to 2518 m2/g
[104], impregnation of lignin with H2SO4 produces 1946 m2/g [329],
the use of FePO4 on peach stone provides 2160 m2/g [64], use of
CaHPO4 on pistachio shell supplies 1919 m2/g [64], and the use of
K2CO3 on wasted tea yields 1722 m2/g [35]. Finally, activation of
coconut shells with ZnCl2 [128] and with a mixture ZnCl2/H2O2 [353]
yields to 2450 and 2050 m2/g, respectively. Additionally, depending on
the activation agent, the carbon surface exhibits numerous functional
groups, mainly acidic, which favor specific interactions allowing it to
act as an ionic interchanger [232].
Physical activation of lignocellulosic chars with steam or CO2 causes
different effects on the development of microporosity. In early stages of
activation process, CO2 develops narrow micropores, while steam
widens the initial micropores of the char. At high degrees of burn-off,
steam generates activated chars which exhibit larger meso- and
macropore volume than those prepared by CO2. As a result, CO2
creates activated chars with larger micropore volume and narrower
micropore size than those activated by steam [179].
From the data collected in Table 5, it is possible to note that
physically activated carbons have smaller surface area values than
those obtained from H3PO4, KOH, NaOH and ZnCl2 activation.
Curiously, the highest surface areas where obtained by simple thermal
activation of bamboo (2169 m2/g) [53]and cellulose (2602 m2/g)
[157]. On the other hand, oxidizing treatments using water steam
and CO2 atmospheres, yield average surface area values, comparable
with those obtained from the activation using acid salts; such as K2CO3
or CaHPO4. In this sense, water steam of date pits yields surface area of
1467 m2/g [162] and CO2 activation of olive stones yields 1355 m2/g
[145].
Other option to design activated carbons with controlled porosity
and larger surface areas is the combination of both, chemical and
physical activations, simultaneously or by steps. For instance, simulta-
neous physical and chemical activation process have been described a
few years ago to improve the mesoporosity in activated carbons from
15
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
lignocellulosic materials, such as coconut shells and palm stones [354].
According to the authors, ZnCl2 and KOH can be used as chemical
activating agent coupled with CO2. However, the use of ZnCl2 has two
advantages of higher mesoporosity and much higher yield of activated
carbon. But, the emission of heavy metallic zinc may cause serious
environmental problem. KOH/CO2 activation has a significant con-
tribution to the development of microporosity as well as mesoporosity.
In their work, ZnCl2/CO2 activation of coconut shells yields surface
area of 2191 m2/g whereas the KOH/CO2 activation of palm stones
yields 2390 m2/g.
7.2. About the electron microscopy analyses
In several manuscripts is wrongly reported the description of
porous texture by using the SEM micrographs. During a simple SEM
observation the “pores” that are observed actually are the structural
“channels” of the cellulosic structure formed as a result of the
elimination of organic and volatile compounds during the thermal
decomposition and activation process, but they are not pores. However,
by using a Field Emission scanning electron microscope, at very low
acceleration voltage or by using a gentle beam mode, it is possible to
detect mesopores (around 3.5 nm) at magnifications higher than ×
500,000.
EELS can be considered as complementary to the ESD, since it is
more sensitive for light elements (Z < 10) while EDS it has sensitivity
for elements with Z > 10. For this reason, EDS analysis does not
represent correctly the chemical composition of activated carbons,
since the elements to be quantified are: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen, all of them with Z < 10. As mentioned in Section 5.2, use of
ultimate analysis to provide an accurate information of the composition
of an activated carbon when EELS is not available.
7.3. On the use of nitrogen, as adsorptive, for the adsorption/
desorption isotherms
Among all adsorptives, nitrogen adsorption at 77 K is the most used
and, usually, has a special status of recommended adsorptive. The
analysis temperature (77 K) is easily achieved and, at this temperature,
nitrogen adsorption covers relative pressures from 10−8 to 1, which
results in adsorption in the whole range of porosity. One problem is
that the saturation pressure at 77 K (P0 = 1 bar) is quite low and,
therefore, it is necessary to have suitable systems for achieving and
measuring very low pressures (turbomolecular pumps, high-sensitivity
pressure transducers, etc.). However, the main disadvantages of N2
adsorption at 77 K are that when used for the characterization of
microporous solids, diffusion problems of the molecules inside the
narrow micropores (size < 0.7 nm) occur; the kinetics of adsorption is
very slow; and the equilibrium time for the adsorption may be
extremely long [200]. This may be a source of error for the evaluation
of microporosity and, in most of the cases, N2 cannot be used for the
characterization of materials with narrow micropores; i.e., carbon
molecular sieves [CMSs], charcoals, etc. [355–357]. To overcome this
problem, use of other adsorptives has been proposed as alternative.
Helium adsorption at 4.2 K has been also proposed [358,359] as a
promising method for the accurate determination of microporosity;
since the helium atom is the smallest one; it has a spherical shape and
interacts weakly with any solid surface. In spite of the interesting
results obtained with helium, the experimental conditions used (ad-
sorption at 4.2 K) make this technique unavailable, or very expensive,
for routine characterization of microporous solids. Carbon dioxide
adsorption, either at 273 or 298 K [356,357,360–362], is another
useful alternative for the assessment of narrow microporosity. In such
case, though the critical dimension of the CO2 molecule is similar to
that of N2, the higher temperature of adsorption used for CO2 results in
a larger kinetic energy of the molecules, which are able to enter the
narrow porosity. In this way, CO2 has been demonstrated to be an
P. González-García
appropriate complementary adsorptive for the analysis of microporos-
ity [355,356,363]. The main disadvantage of CO2 at both temperatures
is that its P0 is quite high (34.7 and 64.1 bar at 273 and 298 K,
respectively), and it is necessary to carry out the adsorption up to high
pressures in order to cover the whole range of porosity.
8. Summary and conclusions
From the statistics based on the literature review, it is possible to
suggest that research in activated carbon will continue growing along
the years. Search of novel sources to produce ecofriendly low-cost
activated carbons with specific characteristics such as high surface
area, defined PSD and controllable oxygen functionalities (for higher
gas storage capacities and better performance of the actual electro-
chemical capacitors), will be the key factor for this continuous growth.
In addition, production of activated carbon from lignocellulosic
biomass will be an alternative to diminish the environmental problems
related to the agro-industrial waste disposal and the emission of
hazardous materials to the environment.
Careful selection of the synthesis conditions; such as: carbon
precursor, activation type (thermal, physical, chemical or mixed), use
(or not) of an inert atmosphere, the burn off percent, the activation
temperature and time, will continue being the most important factor to
tailoring the final microstructure, textural properties, adsorption
capacity, and surface chemistry of the produced carbons. Therefore,
to know all these features, it is necessary to perform a complete
characterization (physicochemical, structural and textural) of both, the
carbon precursor and the obtained carbons.
In this sense, the surface chemistry seems to be the most significant
factor for the adequate performance of the activated carbons, for their
actual applications (adsorption of heavy metals, dyes, gas, VOCs and
EDLC); even more than the surface area and the PSD. Surface
oxygenated acidic groups can enhance the adsorption process, by
surface charge interactions (attraction) and formation of organic
complexes, but also can worsen this process by blocking the available
adsorption sites or by repulsion of the adsorbates from the surface (by
similarities of charge). Additionally, to understand the effects of the
adsorption kinetics, thermodynamics, and the nature of the adsorption
phenomenon will provide the opportunity to enhance and optimize the
performance of the activated carbons during their operation condi-
tions.
Finally, even when the use of activated carbon, derived from natural
precursors, can be found along the human history, some applications
are practically new; this is the case of the carbon electrodes prepared
from coffee beans or the hydrogen storage on lignin based carbons,
both published on 2008. Therefore, discovering of new applications of
these carbon materials it should not be strange in the near future.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge CONACYT, México, for all
the support given.
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