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AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Air cycle refrigeration systems belong to the general class of gas cycle
refrigeration systems, in which a gas is used as the working fluid. The gas
does not undergo any phase change during the cycle, consequently, all
the internal heat transfer processes are sensible heat transfer processes.
Gas cycle refrigeration systems find applications in air craft cabin cooling
and also in the liquefaction of various gases.
AIR STANDARD CYCLE ANALYSIS
Air cycle refrigeration system analysis is considerably simplified if one
makes the following assumptions:
i. The working fluid is a fixed mass of air that behaves as an ideal gas
ii. The cycle is assumed to be a closed loop cycle with all inlet and
exhaust processes of open loop cycles being replaced by heat transfer
processes to or from the environment
iii. All the processes within the cycle are reversible, i.e., the cycle is
internally reversible
iv. The specific heat of air remains constant throughout the cycle An
analysis with the above assumptions is called as cold Air Standard Cycle
(ASC) analysis. This analysis yields reasonably accurate results for most
of the cycles and processes encountered in air cycle refrigeration
systems. However, the analysis fails when one considers a cycle
consisting of a throttling process, as the temperature drop during
throttling is zero for an ideal gas, whereas the actual cycles depend
exclusively on the real gas behavior to produce refrigeration during
throttling.
UNIT OF REFRIGERATION, COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
Unlike the Carnot heat engine, the Carnot refrigeration cycle undergoes
a process with opposite direction. We see from the model, heat QL is
absorbed from the low-temperature reservoir (TL=constant) and heat
QH is rejected to a high-temperature reservoir (TH=constant). In this
case a work input in the amount of Wrev is required to achieve this
process. And we know from the 1st law of thermodynamics, the
required work can be determined in Wrev=- QH – QL. Here QH<0 and
QL>0.
Reversed Carnot cycle is an ideal refrigeration cycle for constant
temperature external heat source and heat sinks. Figure 9.1(a) shows
the schematic of a reversed Carnot refrigeration system using a gas as
the working fluid along with the cycle diagram on T-s and P-v
coordinates. As shown, the cycle consists of the following four
processes: Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a
compressor Process 2-3: Reversible, isothermal heat rejection in a
compressor Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine
WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS OF REVERSE CARNOT CYCLE?
Isothermal process is possible if it is very slow and
isentropic process is possible if it very fast.
This alternate combination of very fast, very slow, very fast and very
slow is not possible to achieve in actual practice and these are thus the
limitations of this cycle.
WHAT IS COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF A REVERSE CARNOT
CYCLE?
COPreverse Carnot a measure of refrigeration efficiency of a refrigeration
system working on reverse Carnot cycle.
COP = cooling effect/work input= output/input
COP >1
It depends on two key absolute temperatures only.
Evaporator (Low) absolute temperature Te (or TL) and
condenser (high) absolute temperature Tc ( or TH)
COPReverseCarnot = COP Theoretical = Te / (Tc – Te)= TL/(TH –TL)
This COP Reverse Carnot is independent of the followings.
(i) The type of compressor/condenser/expansion device/evaporator
used
(ii) Properties of the working fluid.
BELL-COLEMAN CYCLE
Bell-Coleman Cycle also known as Reverse Brayton Cycle or Joule cycle
comprises four process as compression, condensation, expansion and
evaporation process. Open cycle air refrigeration system that is based
on Bell-Coleman Cycle. In this compressor taken fresh air from
atmosphere and leave it in cooling chamber. Aircrafts, ship carrying
frozen meat and submarine refrigeration systems as well as the
liquefaction of various gases are one of the important applications of
Bell-Coleman cycle based Refrigeration system. In this system we have
used water cooled condenser for rapid cooling of compressed
refrigerant used in this system that is air. As specific heat of water at
constant pressure is 4.18 kJ/kg K and of air is 1.005 kJ/kg K, it means to
say that water have more heat carrying capacity than air so that we can
get better refrigeration effect by using water cooled condenser
compared to air cooled condenser.
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Analysis of Bell-Coleman Cycle: The air refrigeration system works on
Bell-Coleman cycle. Assumptions: 1) The compression and expansion
processes are reversible adiabatic processes. 2) There is a perfect inter-
cooling in the heat exchanger. 3) There are no pressure losses in the
system.
 Air is further cooled in the cooling turbine due to its expansion. The
turbine work drives the cooling fan which draws ram air through the
heat exchanger.
 The cooled air from turbine is then sent to the aircraft cabin.
VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM

COP- NET REFRIGERATION EFFECT/ NET WORK SUP PLIED

in this system Freon-12 or freon-22 is used as refrigerant. This
refrigerant is capable of readily evaporation and condensation without
Advantages: a) Air is a cheaper refrigerant and available easily
leaving the plant during the evaporation state it absorbs heat from
compared to other refrigerants. b) There is no danger of fire or toxic heated body. This absorbed heat is used as latent heat for converting it
effects due to leakage. c) The total weight of the system per ton of from liquid to vapour state. In the condensation or cooling process it
refrigerating capacity is less. rejects the heat to the external body. Thus it produces a cooling effect in
the working fluid.
Disadvantages: (a) The quantity of air required per ton refrigerating
capacity is far greater than other systems. (b) The COP is low and hence A simple vapour compression system follows the following chain,
maintenance cost is high. (c) The danger of frosting at the expander Compression – condensation – expansion – vaporization
valves is more as the air taken into the system always contains moisture.
ANALYSIS OF THEORETICAL VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE
SIMPLE AIR CYCLE SYSTEM FOR AIR-CRAFT
It consists of four essential parts 1.Compressor, 2.Condenser,
Aircraft air refrigeration systems are required due to heat transfer from
many external and internal heat sources (like solar radiation and avionics) 3.Expansion Valve, and 4.Evaporator. Compressor is said to the heart of
which increase the cabin air temperature. With the technological the vapour compression system compresses the vapour refrigerant from
developments in high-speed passenger and jet aircrafts, the air the evaporator pressure(Pe) to the condenser pressure (Pc), so that
refrigeration systems are proving to be most efficient, compact and simple.
Various types of aircraft air refrigeration systems used these days are: vapour can be condensed at the corresponding saturation temperature
(tc), the condenser rejects the heat of refrigerant to the surrounding
1. Simple air cooling system either by water or air which is act as cooling medium. Hence the phase
2. Simple air evaporative cooling system transfer takes place from vapour refrigerant to liquid refrigerant enters
3. Boot strap air cooling system
4. Boot strap air evaporative cooling system in to the expansion valve. The expansion valve, also known as the
5. Reduced ambient air cooling system throttle valve, expands the liquid refrigerants from high pressure liquid
6. Regenerative air cooling system.
refrigerant to low pressure liquid refrigerant. Finally, liquid refrigerant
enters in the evaporator. The evaporation is achieved in coils of low
Simple air cooling system:
pressure and temperature, where cooling effect is produced by
absorbing heat from the cooling space, the refrigerant phase transfer
occurs from liquid refrigerant to vapour refrigerant, only pure vapour
the goes back to the compressor completing the cycle .

Process 1-2= Isentropic ramming of air

Process 2-3i=Isentropic compression in main compressor
Process 2-3=Actual compression in main compressor
Process 3-4=Constant pressure heat rejection in heat exchanger
Process 4-5i=Isentropic expansion in cooling turbine
Process 4-5= Actual expansion in cooling turbine
Process 5-6=Constant pressure heat addition in cabin

 Ambient air gets rammed before the main compressor. The air
required for refrigeration system is then bled off from this compressor.
 It is then sent to the heat exchanger where this high pressure and
high temperature air is cooled using ram air.

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As shown in Fig. 3.2, the P-h diagram (Moeller diagram) for refrigeration
cycle with four basic processes are frequently used in the analysis of
Vapour Compression Refrigeration cycle, process 1to 2 is Compression,
process 2 to 3 heat rejection in the Condenser, process 3 to 4 Expansion
(Throttling) and process 4 to 1 is Evaporation i.e. heat absorbed in the
evaporator. The performance characteristics are can be computed for
Compressor work (Wc), Refrigeration Effect (QE) and Coefficient of
Performance (COP). The Performance of a Refrigerator is expressed by
the ratio of amount of heat taken by the cold body to the amount of
work supplied by the compressor; this ratio is called Coefficient of
performance. The system performance is calculated as follows [18 &20].
The work done during the isentropic compression per kg of refrigerant is
given by Wc = mr (h2- h1) ------------------------------ (3.1) The refrigerant
effect or heat absorbed or extracted by the liquid-vapour refrigerant
during evaporation per kg of refrigerant is given by QE = mr (h1 - h4) -----
-------------------------(3.2) The Coefficient of performance (C.O.P.) is the
ratio of heat extracted in the refrigerator to work done on the
refrigerator. COP = Refrigeration Effect/ Work Done -------------- (3.3)
TS DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF SUPER HEATING AND SUB-COOLING The performance
vapour compression refrigeration system is mainly depends on following
two important processes: 1. Superheating of vapour refrigerant and 2.
Sub-cooling of liquid refrigerant Superheating and sub –cooling process
will influence the cooling capacity and compressor work. Fig. 3.3 & Fig
3.4 shows the effect of super heating and sub cooling in the vapour
compression cycle the vapour leaving the evaporator is usually at
temperature lower than the temperature of the surrounding, hence it is
desirable superheat the vapour before its entry into the compressor.
Superheating increases the refrigerating effect and amount of work
supplied to the compressor. Since the increase in refrigerating effect is
less as compared to the increase in work supplied, the net effect of
superheating is to reduce COP. The higher the sub-cooling the higher is
the efficiency [3&16] the degree of this sub cooling depends on size of
condenser, ambient conditions and refrigerant used. The greatest
amount of heat is transferred during the change of state. If the
refrigerant after condensation process 2-31 is cooled below saturation
temperature T3 1 by throttling before expansion, then the process is
called sub cooling or under cooling it is done along the saturated liquid
line Sub cooling increases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant
circulated[81]. Since refrigerant effect is more; the amount of
refrigerant circulated can be reduced. As the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant is less, the volume of vapour handled by the compressor is
less per “TR”. Although the work of compression does not change with
sub cooling the COP is improved as net refrigerating effect is higher. As
the mass flow rate per ton of refrigerant is less, the power input per ton
of refrigeration is less. Sub Cooling is achieved by two methods: (1) By
using a liquid suction heat exchanger and (2) By using a sub cooler piped
in series or parallel with condenser. It must be observed that the
superheating and sub-cooling is done for practical reasons.
EFFECT OF SUCTION AND DISCHARGE PRESSURE
As shown in Fig.3.5 and Fig. 3.6, the suction and discharge pressures are
effect the refrigeration cycle, if the suction pressure decreases, there
will be decrease in refrigeration effect from (h1 - h4) to (h1 1 - h4 ) and
increase the work of compression from (h2 - h1) to (h2 1 - h1 1 ). Since
the COP of system is the ratio between net refrigeration to work of
compression, there the decrease in suction pressure, the COP decreases
ultimately the refrigeration capacity decreases and the cost of
refrigeration increases. If the condenser pressures increases the
compressor work increases from (h2-h1) to (h2 1 -h1) and the
refrigeration effect decreases from (h1-h4) to (h1-h4 1 ) hence the
coefficient of performance decreases. The condenser will operate at
higher pressure, hence the condenser must be strong to withstand
higher pressures which increases the initial cost of the system.
ACTUAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE An actual
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal one in
several ways, owing mostly to the irreversibilities that occur in various
components. Two common sources of irreversibilities are fluid friction
(causes pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings.
The T-s diagram of an actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is
shown in Fig. 6.6. In the ideal cycle, the refrigerant leaves the
evaporator and enters the compressor as saturated vapor. In practice,
however, it may not be possible to control the state of the refrigerant so
precisely. Instead, it is easier to design the system so that the refrigerant
is slightly superheated at the compressor inlet. This slight overdesign
ensures that the refrigerant is completely vaporized. when it enters the
compressor. Also, the line connecting the evaporator to the compressor
is usually very long; thus the pressure drop caused by fluid friction and
heat transfer from the surroundings to the refrigerant can be very
significant. The result of superheating, heat gain in the connecting line,
and pressure drops in the evaporator and the connecting line is an
increase in the specific volume, thus an increase in the power input
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requirements to the compressor since steady-flow work is proportional Mass flow rate of refrigerant (m2) in E2= 210 x T2 /h1- h4 kg/min
to the specific volume. The compression process in the ideal cycle is Thus, C.O.P. = 210 x (T1 + T2) / (m1 + m2) (h2 - h1)
internally reversible and adiabatic, and thus isentropic. The actual
Multi- evaporators operating at different temperatures
compression process, however, involves frictional effects, which
increase the entropy, and heat transfer, which may increase or decrease
This is a practical requirement to have different temperatures for
the entropy, depending on the direction. Therefore, the entropy of the
storage of product in dairy and food factories. Ice bank evaporators
refrigerant may increase (process 1-2) or decrease (process 1-2) during
operate at about -8 oC to -10 oC, while evaporator of ice-cream
an actual compression process, depending on which effects dominate.
hardening room may operate at -35 oC. Therefore, it is very common
The compression process 1-2_ may be even more desirable than the
under field conditions to use multi-evaporators maintained at different
isentropic compression process since the specific volume of the
temperatures.
refrigerant and thus the work input requirement are smaller in this case.
Therefore, the refrigerant should be cooled during the compression MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSORS & INTERCOOLING
process whenever it is practical and economical to do so.
Multistage compressor
MULTI-STAGE VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

A multi-stage system is a refrigeration system with two or more low-side

pressures. Multi-stage systems can be classified into:

a) Multi-compression systems
b) Multi-evaporator systems
c) Cascade systems, etc.
• Two concepts which are normally integral to multi-pressure
systems are,
i) flash gas removal.
ii) intercooling.
sometimes, the vapour refrigerant is required to be delivered at a very
high pressure as in the case of low temperature refrigerating systems. In
such cases either we should compress the vapour refrigerant by
employing a single stage compressor with a very high pressure ratio
between the condenser and evaporator or compress it in two or more
compressors placed is series. The compression carried out in two or
more compressors is called compound or multistage compression.
Whereas conventional single-stage system will usually give satisfactory
results with evaporator temperatures down to -400F, provided that
condensing temperatures are reasonably low, for evaporator
temperature below -400F, some form multistage compression must be
employed in order to avoid excessive discharge temperature and
maintain reasonable operating efficiencies. In larger installations,
multistage compression should be considered for any evaporator
temperature below 00 F. In such cases multi-stage systems are used in
practice. Generally, for fluorocarbon and ammonia based refrigeration
systems a single stage system us used up to an evaporator temperature
of – 30oC. A two stage system is used up to – 60oC and three-stage
system is used for temperatures below – 60oC Apart from high
temperature lift applications, multi-stage systems are also used in
applications requiring refrigeration at different temperatures For
example, in a dairy plant refrigeration may be required at – 30oC for
making ice cream and at 2oC for chilling milk.
As the pressure of the air increases, its temperature rises. It is essential
to reduce the air temperature to avoid damage of compressor and other
mechanical elements. The multistage compressor with intercooler in-
between is shown in Figure 6.1.5. It is used to reduce the temperature
of compressed air during the compression stages. The inter-cooling
reduces the volume of air which used to increase due to heat. The
compressed air from the first stage enters the intercooler where it is
cooled. This air is given as input to the second stage where it is
compressed again. The multistage compressor can develop a pressure of
around 50bar.
INTER-COOLING
It is necessary to cool the refrigerant between two stages of
compression to get full advantage of multi-compression system. This
process is called inter-cooling which is done by using refrigerant or
combination of water and refrigerant. A two stage compressor with
inter cooling using refrigerant is shown in Fig. 19.2. The corresponding
cycle is indicated on P-H diagram in Fig. 19.3. The saving in work done by
adopting two-stage compression with inter-cooling is shown in Fig. 19.4.
DUAL COMPRESSION SYSTEM
Combined two stage compressors

MULTI-EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS WITH SINGLE COMPRESSOR

17.2.1 MULTI- EVAPORATORS OPERATING AT THE SAME
TEMPERATURE
A vapour compression system having two evaporators operating at the
same temperature with single compressor is shown in the Fig.17.1 and
the corresponding cycle is presented on P-H diagram in Fig. 17.2. The
refrigerant from receiver is supplied to evaporators through individual
expansion valves and the vapour produced in evaporators is pumped by In this type, two-stage compression is carried out by using the same
the compressor. The saturated suction vapour having h1 enthalpy is piston (Fig. 6.1.6). Initially when the piston moves down, air is sucked in
compressed to condensing pressure and the enthalpy the discharged
through the inlet valve. During the compression process, the air moves
vapour is h2.
C.O.P. of the system = 210 X (T1+T2),kJ/min / work of out of the exhaust valve into the intercooler. As the piston moves
compression,kJ/min further the stepped head provided on the piston moves into the cavity
Where, T1 = Capacity of E1 in ton thus causing the compression of air. Then, this is let out by the exhaust
T2 = Capacity of E2 in ton port.
Mass flow rate of refrigerant (m1) in E1= 210 x T1 /h1- h4 kg/min

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SIMPLE AMMONIA - ABSORPTION SYSTEMIn this system ammonia
works as the refrigerant and water works as the absorbent. The major
advantage of this system is that water has strong affinity for ammonia
and the solution highly stable The working of ammonia-water
absorption refrigeration system is based on the simple vapor absorption
refrigeration system. In this system ammonia is used as the refrigerant
and water is used as the absorbent. The ammonia-water absorption
system is used in the domestic as well the commercial applications
where the requirement of the temperature is above 32 degree F.
The major advantage of the ammonia-water solution is that water has
strong affinity for ammonia and they are soluble with each other in wide
operating conditions that occur in different refrigeration applications.
Further, the ammonia-water solution is highly stable and works well
with many materials except copper and its alloys that get corroded in
the presence of ammonia. We have already seen that ammonia is
considered to be the most suitable refrigerant, however, due to its
toxicity its applications are limited and it is not used in the air
conditioning applications.
. Parts of the Ammonia-Water Absorption Refrigeration System and its
Working The various parts of the ammonia-water vapor absorption
refrigeration system and their working are explained below (please refer
the figure above):
1) Evaporator: It is in the evaporator where the refrigerant pure
ammonia (NH3) in liquid state produces the cooling effect. It absorbs the
heat from the substance to be cooled and gets evaporated. From here,
the ammonia passes to the absorber in the gaseous state.
2) Absorber: In the absorber the weak solution of ammonia-water is
already present. The water, used as the absorbent in the solution, is
unsaturated and it has the capacity to absorb more ammonia gas. As the
ammonia from evaporator enters the absorber, it is readily absorbed by
water and the strong solution of ammonia-water is formed. During the
process of absorption heat is liberated which can reduce the ammonia
absorption capacity of water; hence the absorber is cooled by the
cooling water. Due to absorption of ammonia, strong solution of
ammonia-water is formed in the absorber.
3) Pump: The strong solution of ammonia and water is pumped by the
pump at high pressure to the generator.
4) Generator: The strong solution of ammonia refrigerant and water
absorbent are heated by the external source of heat such as steam or
hot water. It can also be heated by other sources like natural gas,
electric heater, waste exhaust heat etc. Due to heating the refrigerant
ammonia gets vaporized and it leaves the generator. However, since
water has strong affinity for ammonia and its vaporization point is quite
low some water particles also get carried away with ammonia
refrigerant, so it is important to pass this refrigerant through analyzer.
5) Analyzer: One of the major disadvantages of the ammonia-water
vapor absorption refrigeration system is that the water in the solution
has quite low vaporizing temperature, hence when ammonia refrigerant
gets vaporized in the generator some water also gets vaporized. Thus
the ammonia refrigerant leaving the generator carries appreciable
amount of water vapor. If this water vapor is allowed to be carried to
the evaporator, the capacity of the refrigeration system would reduce.
The water vapor from ammonia refrigerant is removed by analyzer and
the rectifier.
The analyzer is a sort of the distillation column that is located at the top
of the generator. The analyzer consists of number of plates positioned
horizontally. When the ammonia refrigerant along with the water vapor
particles enters the analyzer, the solution is cooled. Since water has
higher saturation temperature, water vapor gets condensed into the
water particles that drip down into the generator. The ammonia
refrigerant in the gaseous state continues to rise up and it moves to the
rectifier.
6) Rectifier or the reflex condenser: The rectifier is a sort of the heat
exchanger cooled by the water, which is also used for cooling the
condenser. Due to cooling the remaining water vapor mixed with the
ammonia refrigerant also gets condensed along with some particles of
ammonia. This weak solution of water and ammonia drains down to the
analyzer and then to the generator.
7) Condenser and expansion valve: The pure ammonia refrigerant in the
vapor state and at high pressure then enters the condenser where it is
cooled by water. The refrigerant ammonia gets converted into the liquid
state and it then passes through the expansion valve where its
temperature and pressure falls down suddenly. Ammonia refrigerant
finally enters the evaporator, where it produces the cooling effect. This
cycle keeps on repeating continuously.
IMPROVED ABSORPTION SYSTEMAn ammonia absorption refrigeration
system with improved coefficient of performance comprising heat
source; means for generating ammonia vapours at atleast two desired
pressure levels from the refrigerant ammonia by generating cooling
effect in which one temperature being upto -60 °C; means for absorbing
the said ammonia vapours with aqueous ammonia solution(s); means
for generation of ammonia vapours at higher pressure level containing
moisture from the said aqueous ammonia solution; means for controlled
enrichment of ammonia with step wise reduction of the moisture
content of the vapour; and means for rectification of the enriched
ammonia vapours and condensing the vapours for generation of liquid
ammonia refrigerant at controlled moisture concentration, generating
ultra pure ammonia containing moisture up to 5ppm characterized in
that the said system is adapted to provide refrigeration up to -60°C with
ultra pure ammonia.
ANALYSIS OF VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEM In ammonia–
water absorption refrigeration systems a purification process to reduce
the water content in the vapour leaving the generator is required.
During this process the water content in the vapour must be reduced to
a minimum, otherwise it tends to accumulate in the evaporator and
strongly deteriorates the efficiency of the system. The vapour
purification can be carried out by partial condensation, by establishing a
liquid–vapour counter flow or by combining both methods. In systems
with partial condensation, the distillation column can be composed of
one or more rectifiers using different cooling mediums, and the
rectifying and stripping sections. In complete condensation systems only
the rectifying and stripping sections can be used. Therefore different
distillation column arrangements should be considered. This paper
presents a study of several distillation column configurations for single
stage ammonia–water absorption refrigeration systems with partial and
complete condensation. In order to evaluate and compare the different
configurations, a parameter that indicates the ratio of the ammonia
vapour concentration increase in each part of the column to the total
ammonia purification has been defined. The analysis has been based on
the system COP. Finally the efficiency in each part of the column has
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been calculated to estimate its design requirements. It can be observed
the distillation column in thick black line. There exists a reservoir of
liquid ammonia/water solution inside the distillation column (Fig. 1b)
called “the generator”. When heat is supplied to the generator, part of
the solution becomes vapor rich in ammonia, given that it is the most
volatile component. Wet ammonia vapor rises up the column in a
countercurrent direction to the descending liquid solution. Those two
flow streams are mixed on the plates located inside the column,
occurring a simultaneous heat and mass transfer. As the vapor rises up
through the column it will increase its purity (higher concentration of
ammonia) while the descending liquid have a lowering in ammonia
concentration. When the vapor reaches the top plate still containing
some water vapor content, it passes through an partial condenser called
rectifier, where heat is removed and part of the water vapor is
condensed along with ammonia. The liquid and vapor are directed to
the accumulator where they are separated: the liquid is driven to the
top of the column (reflux) and the saturated vapor exits the piece of
equipment in direction to the condenser.
DISTILLATION COLUMN EFFICIENCY Ideal plates consider the mixing
time between liquid and vapor entering the plate is long enough for
them to leave the same at thermodynamic equilibrium, but in practice
these ideal conditions of equilibrium does not occur. Thus, the mixture
of liquid and vapor phases in the plate should consider transport
phenomena, thus the number of plates is fixed by the efficiency of the
column,
LITHIUM-BROMIDE-WATER VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEM
Vapour absorption refrigeration systems using water-lithium bromide
pair are extensively used in large capacity air conditioning systems. In
these systems water is used as refrigerant and a solution of lithium
bromide in water is used as absorbent. Since water is used as
refrigerant, using these systems it is not possible to provide refrigeration
at sub-zero temperatures. Hence it is used only in applications requiring
refrigeration at temperatures above 0o C. Hence these systems are used
for air conditioning applications. The analysis of this system is relatively
easy as the vapour generated in the generator is almost pure refrigerant
(water), unlike ammonia-water systems where both ammonia and water
vapour are generated in the generator.
Practical problems typical to water-lithium bromide systems are: 1.
Crystallization 2. Air leakage, and 3. Pressure drops
Commercial systems Commercial water-lithium bromide systems can
be: 1. Single stage or single-effect systems, and 2. Multi stage or multi-
effect systems
Heat sources for water-lithium bromide systems Water-lithium
bromide systems can be driven using a wide variety of heat sources.
Large capacity systems are usually driven by steam or hot water. Small
capacity systems are usually driven directly by oil or gas. A typical single
effect system requires a heat source at a temperature of about 120o C
to produce chilled water at 7o C when the condenser operates at about
46o C and the absorber operates at about 40o C. The COPs obtained aor
in the range of 0.6 to 0.8 for single effect systems while it can be as high
as 1.2 to 1.4 for multi-effect systems.
ELECTROLUX / THREE FLUID SYSTEM
The domestic absorption type refrigerator was developed from an
invention by Carl Munters and Baltzer Von Platen. This system is often
called “Munters Platen System”. This type of refrigerator is also called
“Three-fluids absorption system”. The three fluids used in this system
are ammonia, hydrogen and water. - The “ammonia” is used as a
refrigerant because it possesses most of the desirable properties.
Though it is toxic, and not otherwise preferred in domestic appliances, it
is very safe in this system due to absence of any moving parts in the
system and , therefore, there is the least chance of any leakage. - The
“hydrogen” being the lightest gas, is used to increase the rate of
evaporation (the lighter the gas, faster is the evaporation) of the liquid
ammonia passing through the evaporator. The hydrogen is also non-
corrosive and insoluble in water. This is used in the low-pressure side of
the system. - The “water” is used as a solvent because it has the ability
to absorb ammonia readily. Principle and Working of Electrolux
Refrigerators. Fig. 5.6. Shows a schematic diagram of an „Electrolux
refrigerator‟. It is a domestic refrigerator and is the best known
absorption type of refrigerator. Here pump is dispensed with. The small
energy supply is by means of a heater which may be electric or gas.

Composition: The composition of water-lithium bromide solutions can

be expressed either in mass fraction (ξ) or mole fraction (x). For water-
lithium bromide solutions, the mass fraction ξ is defined as the ratio of
mass of anhydrous lithium bromide to the total mass of solution, i.e.,
Vapour pressure of water-lithium bromide solutions Applying Raoult’s
law, the vapour pressure of water-lithium bromide solution with the
vapour pressure exerted by lithium bromide being negligibly small is
given by: P =(1-x)Pw ,where Pw is the saturation pressure of pure water
at the same temperature as that of the solution and x is the mole
fraction of lithium bromide in solution. It is observed that Raoult’s law is
only approximately correct for very dilute solutions of water lithium
bromide (i.e., as x → 0). Strong aqueous solutions of water-lithium
PRINCIPLE. The principle involved makes use of the properties of gas-
bromide are found to deviate strongly from Raoult’s law in a negative
vapor mixtures. If a liquid is exposed to an inert atmosphere, it will
manner.

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evaporate until the atmosphere is saturated with the vapor of the liquid.
This evaporation requires heat which is taken from the surroundings in
which the evaporation takes place. A cooling effect is thus produced.
The partial pressures of the refrigerant vapor (in this case ammonia)
must be low in the evaporator, and higher in the condenser. The total
pressure throughout the circuit must be constant so that the only
movement of the working fluid is by convection currents. The partial
pressure of ammonia is kept low in requisite parts of the circuit by
concentrating hydrogen in those parts.
WORKING. The ammonia liquid leaving the condenser enters the
evaporator and evaporates into the hydrogen at the low temperature
corresponding to its low partial pressure. The mixture of ammonia and
hydrogen passes to the absorber into which is also admitted water from
the separator. The water absorbs the ammonia and the hydrogen
returns to the evaporator. In the absorber the ammonia therefore
passes from the ammonia circuit into water circuit as ammonia in water
solution. This strong solution passes to the generator where it is heated
and the vapor given off rises to the separator. The water with the vapor
is separated out and a weak solution of ammonia is passed back to the
absorber, thus completing the water circuit. The ammonia vapor rises
from the separator to the condenser where it is condensed and then
returned to the evaporator
Role of Hydrogen. By the presence of hydrogen it is possible to maintain
uniform total pressure throughout the system and at the same time
permit the refrigerant to evaporate at low temperature in the
evaporator corresponding to its partial pressure.
Advantages: 1. No pump or compressor is required. 2. No mechanical
troubles, maintenance cost is low. 3. No lubrication problem; no wear
and tear. 4. Completely leak proof. 5. Noiseless. 6. No chance of
pressure unbalancing and no need of valves. 7. System may be designed
to use any available source of thermal energy-process steam, exhaust
from engines or turbines, solar energy etc. 8. Easy control, simply by
controlling heat input.
Disadvantages: 1. More complicated in construction and working. 2.
C.O.P. very low. 3. The major disadvantages of this type of refrigerator
are that if it is spoiled once, it cannot be repaired and has to be replaced
fully.
COMPARISON OF ABSORPTION SYSTEM WITH VAPOUR COMPRESSION
SYSTEM
THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION
Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux
between the junctions of two different types of materials. This effect is
commonly used in camping and portable coolers and for cooling
electronic components and small instruments. Applying a DC voltage
difference across the thermoelectric module, an electric current will
pass through the module and heat will be absorbed from one side and
released at the opposite side. One module face, therefore, will be
cooled while the opposite face simultaneously is heated. On the other
hand, maintaining a temperature difference between the two
junctions of the module, a voltage difference will be generated across
the module and an electrical power is delivered.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THERMOELECTRIC MODULES Thermoelectricity is
based upon following basic principles: 1. SEEBECK EFFECT 2. PELTIER
EFFECT 3. THOMSON EFFECT 4. JOULE EFFECT 5. FOURIER EFFECT
SEEBECK EFFECT: In 1821, Thomas Seebeck found that an electric
current would flow continuously in a closed circuit made up of two
dissimilar metals, if the junctions of the metals were maintained at two
different temperatures. Thermoelectric power supply generators are
based on the Seebeck effect which is based on voltage generation
along a conductor subjected to a gradient of temperature.
: SeeBeck Coefficient: The Seebeck coefficient is defined as the ratio of
the voltage difference to the temperature gradient. If the temperature
difference ΔT between the two ends of a material is small, then the
Seebeck coefficient of a material is defined as: αab = ΔV /ΔT αab = αa -
αb αa & αb is the Seebeck Coefficien
Peltier Effect: In 1834, a French watchmaker and part time physicist,
Jean Peltier found that an electrical current would produce a
temperature gradient at the junction of two dissimilar metals. The
Peltier effect is the main contributor to all thermoelectric cooling
applications. It is responsible for heat removal and heat absorbance. It
states that when an electric current flows across two dissimilar
conductors, the junction of the conductors will either absorb or emit
heat depending on the flow of the electric current. The heat absorbed
or released at the junction is proportional to the input electric current.
The constant of proportionality is called the Peltier coefficient
Thompson Effect: The Thompson effect governs the cooling and the
heating of a material carrying a current and subjected to a
temperature gradient. It states when an electric current is passed
through a conductor having a temperature gradient over its length,
heat will be either absorbed by or expelled from the conductor.
Whether heat is absorbed or expelled depends upon the direction of
both the electric current and temperature gradient
2.3 Thomson effect:
It is reversible thermoelectric phenomenon. “When a
current passes through a single conductor having temperature gradient
has exhibited.”
2.4 Joulean effect: “When the electric current passed
through a conductor, there is dissipation of electrical energy in the
form of heat.”
According to Joule it is related as
qj = I2R
Where I= current
R= electrical resistance
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2.5 Conduction effect: parts and fluids. Durable and maintenance-free. Very long
operation life.
“If the ends of any element are maintained at diffe
rent LIMITATIONS OF THERMOELECTRIC COOLING Able to dissipate limited
temperatures, there is heat transfer from hot end to cold end
amount of heat flux. Lower COP as compared to VC systems.
” & it is related by
Qcond = U (Th-Tl) Relegated to low heat flux applications. More total heat to remove
Where than without a TEC.
U = overall conductance
Th=high temperature FIGURE OF MERIT:
Tl=low temperature
3. WORKING OF THERMO-ELECTRIC The formula for maximum efficiency (ηmax) of heat conversion into
electricity by a thermoelectric device in terms of the dimensionless
REFRIGERATION: figure of merit (ZT) has been widely used to assess the desirability of
thermoelectric materials for devices. The figure of merit represents the
As shown in figure 3 two different materials are connected by battery in
quality of performance of a thermoelectric material, sometimes it is
which P-type region is connected to the positive terminal and N-type to
the negative terminal. multiplied by temperature. It is defined as: is theWhere ρ is the
If a current is passed trough them, the cooling is produced at one electrical resistivity, k is the thermal conductivity, and Seebeck
junction and heat is produced at other junction. If Th is maintained Coefficient. Note: low electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity are
atambient temperature, Tc will be lower at ambient temperature. It also required for high figure of merit. These values are temperature
to be noted that which of the junction or ends will become cold or hot dependent therefore, the figure of merit is temperature dependent. P
depends on direction of flow of current. and N type material have different figures of merit and are averaged to
determine a materials overall quality. The most commonly used
From the analysis of all the effects it has been found thatcoefficient
performance of system is – semiconductor for electronics cooling applications is Bi2Te3 because of
COP= qc/energy supplied its relatively high figure of merit. However, the performance of this
= [µab I Tl-I2R/2-U (Th-Tl)]/ [µab (Th-Tl) I+I2R] material is still relatively low and alternate materials are being
Where µab= Seeback constant investigated with possibly better performance
I = Current passed
R= Electrical resistance Bi2Te3 Properties: Below is a plot of the figure of merit (Z), Seebeck
U= Overall conductance coefficient, electrical resistivity, and thermal conductivity, as a function
Th= High temperature
of temperature for Bi2Te3 . Carrier concentration will alter the values
Tl= Low temperature
Assumptions made for COP equation are: below.
1. Heat transfer takes place through the semiconductor at the ends
only.
2. No energy exchange between the conductors through space
separating them.
3. Properties such as conductivity resistance are invariant with
temperature.

MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF THERMOELECTRIC COOLERS Include

equipment used by military, medical, industrial, consumer,
scientific/laboratory, and telecommunications organizations. Uses
range from simple food and beverage coolers for an afternoon picnic
to extremely sophisticated temperature control systems in missiles and
space vehicles. Why are TE Coolers Used for Cooling? No moving parts Bi2Te3 Properties: Bi2Te3 figure of merit as a function of tellurium
make them very reliable; approximately 105 hrs. of operation at 100 concentration.
degrees Celsius, longer for lower temps. Ideal when precise
temperature control is required. Ability to lower temperature below
ambient. Heat transport controlled by current input. Able to
operate in any orientation. Compact size make them useful for
applications where size or weight is a constraint. Ability to alternate
between heating and cooling. Excellent cooling alternative to vapor
compression coolers for systems that are sensitive to mechanical
vibration.

ADVANTAGES OF THERMOELECTRIC COOLING: Effective in spot

cooling. Environmentally friendly. No chlorofluorocarbons. Ability
to heat and cool. Work in any orientation. Generate no electrical
noise Can powered directly by PV cells. Small size and light
weight. Compact and reliable. Steady-state operation. No moving

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REFRIGERANTS-
Refrigerant is a compound typically found in either a fluid or gaseous
state. It readily absorbs heat from the environment and can provide
refrigeration or air conditioning when combined with other components
such as compressors and evaporators. The thermodynamic efficiency of
a refrigeration system depends mainly on its operating temperatures.
However, important practical issues such as the system design, size,
initial and operating costs, safety, reliability, and serviceability etc.
depend very much on the type of refrigerant selected for a given
application. Due to several environmental issues such as ozone layer
depletion and global warming and their relation to the various
refrigerants used, the selection of suitable refrigerant has become one
of the most important issues in recent times.
How Refrigerants Works- Air conditioners contain refrigerant inside
copper coils. As refrigerant absorbs heat from indoor air, it transitions
from a low-pressure gas to a high-pressure liquid. Air conditioning
components send the refrigerant outside where a fan blows hot air over
the coils and exhausts it to the exterior.
The refrigerant then cools down and turns back into a low-pressure gas.
Another fan located inside the home blows air over the cool coils to
distribute the resulting cold air throughout the building. Then the cycle
repeats.
REFRIGERANT SELECTION CRITERIA: Selection of refrigerant for a
particular application is based on the following requirements: i.
Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties ((a) Suction pressure: b)
Discharge pressure,C. Pressure ratio: d) Latent heat of vaporization:, e)
Isentropic index of compression: f) Liquid specific heat: g) Vapour
specific heat: h) Thermal conductivity: i) Viscosity:) ii. Environmental and
safety properties (Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), Global Warming
Potential (GWP), Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): Toxicity,
Flammability: Chemical stability, Compatibility, Miscibility with
lubricating oils, Dilelectric strength, Ease of leak detection), and iii.
Economics (The refrigerant used should preferably be inexpensive and
easily available.)
CLASSIFICATION OF REFRIGERANTS-
Primary and secondary refrigerants: Fluids suitable for refrigeration
purposes can be classified into primary and secondary refrigerants.
Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are used directly as working
fluids, for example in vapour compression and vapour absorption
refrigeration systems. When used in compression or absorption systems,
these fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a phase change process
in the evaporator. As the name implies, secondary refrigerants are those
liquids, which are used for transporting thermal energy from one
location to other. Secondary refrigerants are also known under the
name brines or antifreezes. if the operating temperatures are above 0o
C, then pure water can also be used as secondary refrigerant, Unlike
primary refrigerants, the secondary refrigerants do not undergo phase
change as they transport energy from one location to other. An
important property of a secondary refrigerant is its freezing point.
Types of Refrigerants
The most common refrigerants used for air conditioning include:
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), including R12. This is known to
contribute to the greenhouse gas effect.
 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), including R22. Slightly less
damaging to the ozone than R12, but the EPA has still
mandated a phase out as a result of the Clean Air Act of 2010.
R22 will phase out completely by 2020.
 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), including R410A and R134. With
no chlorine in the mix, this is safer for the environment and is
now being used in place of R22. Air conditioners that run on
R410A are more efficient, offer better air quality, increase
comfort and improve reliability.
DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANTS
A numbering system has been adopted to designate various refrigerants.
From the number one can get some useful information about the type
of refrigerant, its chemical composition, molecular weight etc. All the
refrigerants are designated by R followed by a unique number.
i) Fully saturated, halogenated compounds: These refrigerants are
derivatives of alkanes (CnH2n+2) such as methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6).
These refrigerants are designated by R XYZ, where: X+1 indicates the
number of Carbon (C) atoms Y-1 indicates number of Hydrogen (H)
atoms, and Z indicates number of Fluorine (F) atoms The balance
indicates the number of Chlorine atoms. Only 2 digits indicates that the
value of X is zero. Ex: R 22 X = 0 ⇒ No. of Carbon atoms = 0+1 = 1 ⇒
derivative of methane (CH4) Y = 2 ⇒ No. of Hydrogen atoms = 2-1 = 1 Z =
2 ⇒ No. of Fluorine atoms = 2 The balance = 4 – no. of (H+F) atoms = 4-
1-2 = 1 ⇒ No. of Chlorine atoms = 1 ∴The chemical formula of R 22 =
CHClF2
ii) Inorganic refrigerants: These are designated by number 7 followed by
the molecular weight of the refrigerant (rounded-off). Ex.: Ammonia:
Molecular weight is 17, ∴ the designation is R 717 Carbon dioxide:
Molecular weight is 44, ∴ the designation is R 744 Water: Molecular
weight is 18, ∴ the designation is R 718
iii) Mixtures: Azeotropic mixtures are designated by 500 series, where
as zeotropic refrigerants (e.g. non-azeotropic mixtures) are designated
by 400 series. Azeotropic mixtures: R 500: Mixture of R 12 (73.8 %) and R
152a (26.2%) R 502: Mixture of R 22 (48.8 %) and R 115 (51.2%) R503:
Mixture of R 23 (40.1 %) and R 13 (59.9%) R507A: Mixture of R 125
(50%) and R 143a (50%)
Zeotropic mixtures: R404A : Mixture of R 125 (44%), R 143a (52%) and
R 134a (4%) R407A : Mixture of R 32 (20%), R 125 (40%) and R 134a
(40%)
IV) HYDROCARBONS: Propane (C3H8) : R 290 n-butane (C4H10) : R 600
iso-butane (C4H10) : R 600a Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: R1150 (C2H4)
R1270 (C3H6)
COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT REFRIGERANTS & USES OF
IMPORTANT REFRIGERANTS
Synthetic refrigerants that were commonly used for refrigeration, cold
storage and air conditioning applications are: R 11 (CFC 11), R 12 (CFC
12), R 22 (HCFC 22), R 502 (CFC 12+HCFC 22) etc. However, these
refrigerants have to be phased out due to their Ozone Depletion
Potential (ODP). The synthetic replacements for the older refrigerants
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are: R-134a (HFC-134a) and blends of HFCs. Generally, synthetic
refrigerants are non-toxic and non-flammable. However, compared to
the natural refrigerants the synthetic refrigerants offer lower
performance and they also have higher Global Warming Potential
(GWP). The most commonly used natural refrigerant is ammonia. This is
also one of the oldest known refrigerants. Ammonia has good
thermodynamic, thermophysical and environmental properties.
However, it is toxic and is not compatible with some of the common
materials of construction such as copper, which somewhat restricts its
application. Other natural refrigerants that are being suggested are
hydrocarbons (HCs) and carbon di-oxide (R-744). Though these
refrigerants have some specific problems owing to their eco-friendliness,
they are being studied widely and are likely to play a prominent role in
future. Prior to the environmental issues of ozone layer depletion and
global warming, the most widely used refrigerants were: R 11, R 12, R
22, R 502 and ammonia. Of these, R 11 was primarily used with
centrifugal compressors in air conditioning applications. R 12 was used
primarily in small capacity refrigeration and cold storage applications,
while the other refrigerants were used in large systems such as large air
conditioning plants or cold storages. Among the refrigerants used,
except ammonia, all the other refrigerants are synthetic refrigerants and
are non-toxic and non-flammable. Though ammonia is toxic, it has been
very widely used due to its excellent thermodynamic and
thermophysical properties.
ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANTS
The depletion of stratospheric ozone layer was attributed to chlorine
and bromine containing chemicals such as Halons, CFCs, HCFCs etc. As a
result except ammonia, all the other refrigerants used in cold storages
had to be phased-out and a search for suitable replacements began in
earnest. At the same time, it was also observed that in addition to ozone
layer depletion, most of the conventional synthetic refrigerants also
cause significant global warming. In view of the environmental
problems caused by the synthetic refrigerants, opinions differed on
replacements for conventional refrigerants. The alternate refrigerants
can be classified into two broad groups:
i) Non-ODS, synthetic refrigerants based on Hydro-Fluoro-Carbons
(HFCs) and their blends
ii) Natural refrigerants including ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons
and their blends
THE NATURAL REFRIGERANTS- one advantage of using them is that they
are familiar in terms of their strengths and weaknesses. Another
important advantage is that they are completely environment friendly,
unlike the HFC based refrigerants, which do have considerable global
warming potential.
The alternate synthetic refrigerants are normally non-toxic and non-
flammable. It is also possible to use blends of various HFCs to obtain
new refrigerant mixtures with required properties to suit specific
applications. However, most of these blends are non-azeotropic in
nature, as a result there could be significant temperature glides during
evaporation and condensation, and it is also important take precautions
to prevent leakage, as this will change the composition of the mixture.
BRINES As the name implies, secondary refrigerants are those liquids,
which are used for transporting thermal energy from one location to
other. Secondary refrigerants are also known under the name brines or
antifreezes. if the operating temperatures are above 0o C, then pure
water can also be used as secondary refrigerant, for example in large air
conditioning systems. Antifreezes or brines are used when refrigeration
is required at sub-zero temperatures. Unlike primary refrigerants, the
secondary refrigerants do not undergo phase change as they transport
energy from one location to other. An important property of a
secondary refrigerant is its freezing point. Generally, the freezing point
of a brine will be lower than the freezing point of its constituents. The
temperature at which freezing of a brine takes place its depends on its
concentration. The concentration at which a lowest temperature can be
reached without solidification is called as eutectic point. The commonly
used secondary refrigerants are the solutions of water and ethylene
glycol, propylene glycol or calcium chloride. These solutions are known
under the general name of brines.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
SUMMER AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
Summer air conditioning systems capable of maintaining exactly the
required conditions in the conditioned space are expensive to own and
operate. Sometimes, partially effective systems may yield the best
results in terms of comfort and cost. Evaporative air conditioning
systems are inexpensive and offer an attractive alternative to the
conventional summer air conditioning systems in places, which are hot
and dry. Evaporative air conditioning systems also find applications in
hot industrial environments where the use of conventional air
conditioning systems becomes prohibitively expensive.
This system is based on the principle that when moist but unsaturated
air comes in contact with a wetted surface whose temperature is higher
than the dew point temperature of air, some water from the wetted
surface evaporates into air. The latent heat of evaporation is taken from
water, air or both of them. In this process, the air loses sensible heat but
gains latent heat due to transfer of water vapour. Thus the air gets
cooled and humidified. The cooled and humidified air can be used for
providing thermal comfort. 31.2. Classification of evaporative cooling
systems: The principle of evaporative cooling can be used in several
ways. Cooling can be provided by: 1. Direct evaporation process 2.
Indirect evaporation process, or 3. A combination or multi-stage systems
1. Direct evaporative cooling systems: In direct evaporative cooling, the
process or conditioned air comes in direct contact with the wetted
surface, and gets cooled and humidified. hot and dry outdoor air is first
filtered and then is brought in contact with the wetted surface or spray
of water droplets in the air washer. The air gets cooled and
dehumidified due to simultaneous transfer of sensible and latent heats
between air and water (process o-s). The cooled and humidified air is
supplied to the conditioned space, where it extracts the sensible and
latent heat from the conditioned space (process s-i). Finally the air is
exhausted at state i. In an ideal case when the air washer is perfectly
insulated and an infinite amount of contact area is available between air
and the wetted surface, then the cooling and humidification process
follows the constant wet bulb temperature line and the temperature at
the exit of the air washer is equal to the wet bulb temperature of the
entering air (to,wbt), i.e., the process becomes an adiabatic saturation
process.
2. INDIRECT EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS: in an indirect
evaporative cooling process, two streams of air - primary and secondary
are used. The primary air stream becomes cooled and humidified by
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coming in direct contact with the wetted surface (o-o’), while the
secondary stream which is used as supply air to the conditioned space,
decreases its temperature by exchanging only sensible heat with the
cooled and humidified air stream (o-s). Thus the moisture content of the
supply air remains constant in an indirect evaporative cooling system,
while its temperature drops. Obviously, everything else remaining
constant, the temperature drop obtained in a direct evaporative cooling
system is larger compared to that obtained in an indirect system, in
addition the direct evaporative cooling system is also simpler and hence,
relatively inexpensive. However, since the moisture content of supply air
remains constant in an indirect evaporation process, this may provide
greater degree of comfort in regions with higher humidity ratio.
3: Multi-stage evaporative cooling systems: Several modifications are
possible which improve efficiency of the evaporative cooling systems
significantly. One simple improvement is to sensibly cool the outdoor air
before sending it to the evaporative cooler by exchanging heat with the
exhaust air from the conditioned space. This is possible since the
temperature of the outdoor air will be much higher than the exhaust air.
It is also possible to mix outdoor and return air in some proportion so
that the temperature at the inlet to the evaporative cooler can be
reduced, thereby improving the performance. Several other schemes of
increasing complexity have been suggested to get the maximum
possible benefit from the evaporative cooling systems. For example, one
can use multistage evaporative cooling systems and obtain supply air
temperatures lower than the wet bulb temperature of the outdoor air.
Thus multistage systems can be used even in locations where the
humidity levels are high.
ADVANTAGES OF EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS: 1. Lower
equipment and installation costs 2. Substantially lower operating and
power costs. Energy savings can be as high as 75 % 3. Ease of fabrication
and installation 4. Lower maintenance costs 5. Ensures a very good
ventilation due to the large air flow rates involved, hence, are very good
especially in 100 % outdoor air applications 6. Better air distribution in
the conditioned space due to higher flow rates 7. The fans/blowers
create positive pressures in the conditioned space, so that infiltration of
outside air is prevented 8. Very environment friendly as no harmful
chemicals are used
DISADVANTAGES: 1. The moisture level in the conditioned space could
be higher, hence, direct evaporative coolers are not good when low
humidity levels in the conditioned space is required. However, the
indirect evaporative cooler can be used without increasing humidity 2.
Since the required air flow rates are much larger, this may create draft
and/or high noise levels in the conditioned space, 3. Precise control of
temperature and humidity in the conditioned space is not possible 4.
May lead to health problems due to micro-organisms if the water used is
not clean or the wetted surfaces are not maintained properly
WINTER AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
In winter the outside conditions are cold and dry. As a result, there will
be a continuous transfer of sensible heat as well as moisture (latent
heat) from the buildings to the outside. Hence, in order to maintain
required comfort conditions in the occupied space an air conditioning
system is required which can offset the sensible and latent heat losses
from the building. Air supplied to the conditioned space is heated and
humidified in the winter air conditioning system to the required level of
temperature and moisture content depending upon the sensible and
latent heat losses from the building. In winter the heat losses from the
conditioned space are partially offset by solar and internal heat gains.
Thus in a conservative design of winter A/C systems, the effects of solar
radiation and internal heat gain are not considered. Heating and
humidification of air can be achieved by different schemes. the mixed air
(mixture of return and outdoor air) is first pre-heated (m-1) in the pre-
heater, then humidified using a humidifier or an air washer (1-2) and
then finally reheated in the reheater (2-s). The reheated air at state ‘s’ is
supplied to the conditioned space. The flow rate of supply air should be
such that when released into the conditioned space at state ‘s’, it should
be able to maintain the conditioned. space at state I and offset the
sensible and latent heat losses (Qs and Ql). Pre-heating of air is
advantageous as it ensures that water in the humidifier/air washer does
not freeze. In addition, by controlling the heat supplied in the pre-heater
one can control the moisture content in the conditioned space. The
humidification of air can be achieved in several ways, e.g. by bringing
the air in contact with a wetted surface, or with droplets of water as in
an air washer, by adding aerosol sized water droplets directly to air or by
direct addition of dry saturated or superheated steam. Humidification by
direct contact with a wetted surface or by using an air washer are not
recommended for comfort applications or for other applications where
people are present in the conditioned space due to potential health
hazards by the presence of micro-organisms in water. The most
common method of humidifying air for these applications is by direct
addition of dry steam to air. When air is humidified by contact with
wetted surface as in an air washer, then temperature of air decreases as
its humidity increases due to simultaneous transfer of sensible and
latent heat. If the air washer functions as an adiabatic saturator, then
humidification proceeds along the constant wet bulb temperature line.
However, when air is humidified by directly adding dry, saturated steam,
then the humidification proceeds close to the constant dry bulb
temperature line. The final state of air is always obtained by applying
conservation of mass (water) and conservation of energy equations to
the humidification process.
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With Pre Heater
ALL YEAR (COMPLETE) AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS:
a complete air conditioning system that can be used for providing air
conditioning throughout the year, i.e., during summer as well as winter.
The system consists of a filter, a heating coil, a cooling & dehumidifying
coil, a re-heating coil, a humidifier and a blower. In addition to these,
actual systems consist of several other accessories such as dampers for
controlling flow rates of re-circulated and outdoor (OD) air, control
systems for controlling the space conditions, safety devices etc. Large air
conditioning systems use blowers in the return air stream also.
Generally, during summer the heating and humidifying coils remain
inactive, while during winter the cooling and dehumidifying coil remains
inactive. However, in some applications for precise control of conditions
in the conditioned space all the coils may have to be made active. The
blowers will remain active throughout the year, as air has to be
circulated during summer as well as during winter. When the outdoor
conditions are favourable, it is possible to maintain comfort conditions
by using filtered outdoor air alone, in which case only the blowers will
be running and all the coils will be inactive leading to significant savings
in energy consumption. A control system is required which changes-over
the system from winter operation to summer operation or vice versa
depending upon the outdoor conditions.
COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS:
load calculations involve a systematic and stepwise procedure that takes
into account all the relevant building energy flows. The cooling load
experienced by a building varies in magnitude from zero (no cooling
required) to a maximum value. The design cooling load is a load near the
maximum magnitude, but is not normally the maximum. Design cooling
load takes into account all the loads experienced by a building under a
specific set of assumed conditions. The assumptions behind design
cooling load are as follows: 1. Design outside conditions are selected
from a long-term statistical database. The conditions will not necessarily
represent any actual year, but are representative of the location of the
building. Design data for outside conditions for various locations of the
world have been collected and are available in tabular form in various
handbooks. 2. The load on the building due to solar radiation is
estimated for clear sky conditions. 3. The building occupancy is assumed
to be at full design capacity. 4. All building equipment and appliances
are considered to be operating at a reasonably representative capacity.
The total building cooling load consists of heat transferred through the
building envelope (walls, roof, floor, windows, doors etc.) and heat
generated by occupants, equipment, and lights. The load due to heat
transfer through the envelope is called as external load, while all other
loads are called as internal loads. The percentage of external versus
internal load varies with building type, site climate, and building design.
The total cooling load on any building consists of both sensible as well as
latent load components. The sensible load affects dry bulb temperature,
while the latent load affects the moisture content of the conditioned
space.
Buildings may be classified as externally loaded and internally loaded. In
externally loaded buildings the cooling load on the building is mainly due
to heat transfer between the surroundings and the internal conditioned
space. Since the surrounding conditions are highly variable in any given
day, the cooling load of an externally loaded building varies widely. In
internally loaded buildings the cooling load is mainly due to internal heat
generating sources such as occupants or appliances or processes. In
general the heat generation due to internal heat sources may remain
fairly constant, and since the heat transfer from the variable
surroundings is much less compared to the internal heat sources, the
cooling load of an internally loaded building remains fairly constant. the
total cooling load on a building consists of external as well as internal
loads. The external loads consist of heat transfer by conduction through
the building walls, roof, floor, doors etc, heat transfer by radiation
through fenestration such as windows and skylights. All these are
sensible heat transfers. In addition to these the external load also
consists of heat transfer due to infiltration, which consists of both
sensible as well as latent components. The heat transfer due to
ventilation is not a load on the building but a load on the system. The
various internal loads consist of sensible and latent heat transfer due to
occupants, products, processes and appliances, sensible heat transfer
due to lighting and other equipment.
PSYCHROMETRICS
Psychrometry is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water
vapour.
The science dealing with properties of air and vapour mixture is known
as psychrometry. The knowledge of fundamental laws of gaseous
mixture is necessary for understand ing of psychrometry. The content of
the water vapour in air is one of the factors responsible comfort air -
conditioning. The subject of psychrometry is also important in many unit
operations where air is used in the process. A few unit operations,
where the knowledge of psychrometry is very essential for better
understanding of the process, are listed below.
Air heating system for spray drying plant.
Performance evaluation of cooling tower.
Performance evaluation of evaporative condenser.
Evaporative cooling using water.
Energy analysis casein or other types of dryers.
The properties of mixtures of air and water vapour are discussed in this
lesso
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PROPERTIES OF AIR-VAPOUR MIXTURE LAW OF WATER VAPOUR-AIR MIXTURE
Psychrometry Properties
The definitions of different psychrometric properties of air are given According to the Gibbs-Dalton law for a mixture of perfect gases, the
below total pressure exerted by the mixture is equal to the sum of partial
a) Dry air pressures of the constituent gases. According to this law, for a
The dry air is considered as a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen and small
homogeneous perfect gas mixture occupying a volume V and at
percentage s of other gases. The volumetric composition of air is 79%
nitrogen and 21 % oxygen and the molecular weight of dry air is taken as temperature T, each constituent gas behaves as though the other gases
29 approximately . are not present (i.e., there is no interaction between the gases). Each
b) Moist air gas obeys perfect gas equation. Hence, the partial pressures exerted by
It is a mixture of dry air and water · vapour . The quantity of water each gas, p1,p2,p3 … and the total pressure pt are given by:
vapour present in the air depend s upon the temperature of the air and
its quantity may change from zero to maximum (the maximum amount
depends on saturation condition).
c) Water vapour
The moisture present in the form of vapour is known as water vapour.
The relative humidity of air is an important factor in all air-conditioning
systems . .
The environmental (mixture of air and water vapour) is said to be
saturated when it contains maximum amount of water vapour that it
can hold at the prevailing temperature. If the temperature of mixture of
air and water vapour is above the saturation temperature of the water
vapour, the vapour is called superheated vapour .
d) Dry bulb temperature
The temper a ture of air measured by ordinary thermometer is known as
dry bulb temperature (dbt). ENTHALPY OF MOISTURE
e) Wet-bulb temperature
The temperature measured by the thermometer when its bulb is Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry
covered with wet cloth and is exposed to a current of moving air is
air and the enthalpy of the water vapour. Enthalpy values are always
known as wet bulb temperature (wbt) . The difference between the dry
bulb and wet bulb temperature is known as wet bulb depression (wbd) . based on some reference value. For moist air, the enthalpy of dry air is
Wet bulb depression b e comes zero when the air is fully saturated. given a zero value at 0o C, and for water vapour the enthalpy of
f) Dew Point temperature saturated water is taken as zero at 0o C. The enthalpy of moist air is by:
The temperature of the air is reduced by continuous cooling than the
water vapour in the air will start condensing at a particular temperature.
The temperature at which the· condensing starts is known as Dew ,
point temperature. Dew point temperature is equal to the steam table
saturation temperature corresponding to the actual partial pressure of
the water vapour in the air . The difference between dry bulb
temperature and dew point temperature is known as dew point
depression (dpd).
g) Specific humidity (humidity ratio)
It is defined as the mass of water yapour present per kg of dry air . It is
expressed as g/kg dry air or kg/ kg dry air.
h) Absolute humidity
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
The weight of water vapour present in unit volume of air is known as
absolute humidity.
i) Degree of Saturation A Psychrometric chart graphically represents the thermodynamic
The degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapour properties of moist air. Standard psychrometric charts are bounded by
associated with unit mass of dry air to mass of water vapour associated the dry-bulb temperature line (abscissa) and the vapour pressure or
with unit mass of dry air saturated at the same temperature. humidity ratio (ordinate). The Left Hand Side of the psychrometric chart
j) Relative humidity is bounded by the saturation line. Figure 27.2 shows the schematic of a
The relative humidity is defined as the ratio of actual mass of water psychrometric chart. Psychrometric charts are readily available for
vapour in a given . volume to the mass of water vapour if the air is fully
standard barometric pressure of 101.325 kPa at sea level and for normal
saturated at the same temperature .
k) Sensible heat of air temperatures (0-50o C). ASHRAE has also developed psychrometric
The quantity of heat which can be measured by measuring the dry bulb charts for other temperatures and barometric pressures (for low
temperature of the air is known as sensible heat of the air. temperatures: -40 to 10o C, high temperatures 10 to 120o C and very
l) Total heat of air high temperatures 100 to 120o C)
The total heat of the humid air is the sum of the sensible heat of the dry
air and sensible and latent heat of water vapour associated with dry air.
m) Humid specific volume
The volume of the air per kg of dry air in the mixture is known as humid
specific volume of the air. It is expressed as m3/kg dry air.

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HUMIDIFICATION
d) Heating and Humidification (Process O-D): During winter it is essential
to heat and humidify the room air for comfort. As shown in Fig.28.5.,
this is normally done by first sensibly heating the air and then adding
water vapour to the air stream through steam nozzles as shown in the
figure.
c) COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION (PROCESS O-C):
When moist air is cooled below its dew-point by bringing it in contact
with a cold surface as shown in Fig.28.3, some of the water vapor in the
air condenses and leaves the air stream as liquid, as a result both the
temperature and humidity ratio of air decreases as shown. This is the
process air undergoes in a typical air conditioning system. Although the
actual process path will vary depending upon the type of cold surface,
the surface temperature, and flow conditions, for simplicity the process
line is assumed to be a straight line. The heat and mass transfer rates
can be expressed in terms of the initial and final conditions by applying
the conservation of mass and conservation of energy equations as given
below: By applying mass balance for the water
A) SENSIBLE COOLING:
During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant but its
temperature decreases as it flows over a cooling coil. For moisture
content to remain Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 2 3 constant, the surface
of the cooling coil should be dry and its surface temperature should be
greater than the dew point temperature of air. If the cooling coil is 100%
effective, then the exit temperature of air will be equal to the coil
temperature. However, in practice, the exit air temperature will be
higher than the cooling coil temperature. Figure 28.1 shows the sensible
cooling process O-A on a psychrometric chart. The heat transfer rate
during this process is given by:
B) SENSIBLE HEATING (PROCESS O-B): During this process, the moisture
content of air remains constant and its temperature increases as it flows
over a heating coil. The heat transfer rate during this process is given by:
where cpm is the humid specific heat (≈1.0216 kJ/kg dry air) and ma is
the mass flow rate of dry air (kg/s)
MIXTURE OF AIR STREAMS
Mixing of air streams at different states is commonly encountered in
many processes, including in air conditioning. Depending upon the state
of the individual streams, the mixing process can take place with or
without condensation of moisture.
i) Without condensation: Figure 28.8 shows an adiabatic mixing of two
moist air streams during which no condensation of moisture takes place.
As shown in the figure, when two air streams at state points 1 and 2 mix,
the resulting mixture condition 3 can be obtained from mass and energy
balance. From the mass balance of dry air and water vapor:
From the above equations, it can be observed that the final enthalpy
and humidity ratio of mixture are weighted averages of inlet enthalpies
and humidity ratios. A generally valid approximation is that the final
temperature of the mixture is the Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 9 10
weighted average of the inlet temperatures. With this approximation,
the point on the psychrometric chart representing the mixture lies on a
straight line connecting the two inlet states. Hence, the ratio of
distances on the line, i.e., (1-3)/(2-3) is equal to the ratio of flow rates
ma,2/ma,1. The resulting error (due to the assumption that the humid
specific heats being constant) is usually less than 1 percent
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ii) Mixing with condensation: As shown in Fig.28.9, when very cold and
dry air mixes with warm air at high relative humidity, the resulting
mixture condition may lie in the two-phase region, as a result there will
be condensation of water vapor and some amount of water will leave
the system as liquid water. Due to this, the humidity ratio of the
resulting mixture (point 3) will be less than that at point 4.
Corresponding to this will be an increase in temperature of air due to
the release of latent heat of condensation. This process rarely occurs in
an air conditioning system, but this is the phenomenon which results in
the formation of fog or frost (if the mixture temperature is below 0o C).
This happens in winter when the cold air near the earth mixes with the
humid and warm air, which develops towards the evening or after rains.
REQUIREMENTS OF COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING
Comfort (partial) air conditioning units maintain the temperature and
humidity of offices and other rooms used by people within a range that
people perceive as pleasant. Technical equipment rooms, on the other
hand, generally require precision air conditioning, for here the task is
primarily to dissipate high heat loads and maintain a precise
environmental temperature and humidity.
Comfort air conditioning units can heat and cool and provide
unregulated dehumidification. Technical applications, on the other
hand, require compliance with precise room temperatures and generally
air humidity within tight limits in order to avoid the build-up of
electrostatic charge.
THERMAL COMFORT
The human body has ways to adjust (increase or decrease) its heat loss,
for example by bringing more or less blood to vessels right under the
skin or by changing the total amount of blood in the body, with more
blood produced under warmer conditions to expel heat more
effectively. Sweating and the resulting evaporation is another
physiological mechanism to expel heat, but it is not one that we would
call comfortable. Thus, we can feel thermally comfortable within a range
of temperatures, but that this range is limited. Experience reveals that
the comfort range for most people extends from 68oF (20oC) to 78oF
(25oC)
HUMIDITY COMFORT
Relative humidity (RH) is the fraction of water vapor that the air actually
contains to the amount that it would contain at the point of
condensation, expressed as a percentage. Thus, 0% corresponds to dry
air, and 100% to maximally humid air for its temperature. Neither
extreme is comfortable. The minimum comfortable level of relative
humidity is 20%. Below this, people complaint of dry nose, mouth, eyes,
and skin, and there is an increase in respiratory illnesses. Furthermore,
static electricity and shrinkage of wood are also problems cause by
excessively low humidity. Humidity Comfort The maximum comfortable
level varies with the season. ‐ In summer, when the need to expel heat is
more important, cooling by evaporation of body moisture is necessary,
and RH is best kept below 60%. ‐ In winter, when getting rid of excess
heat is hardly the case, a higher level of humidity can be tolerated, and
the maximum RH level is 80%.
FACTORS AFFECTING COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING:
1. TEMPERATURE OF AIR:
In air conditioning, the control of temperature means maintenance of
any desired temperature within an enclosed space, even though the
temperature of the outside air is above or below the desired room
temperature. This is accomplished either, by addition or removal of heat
from the enclosed space as and when required. It may be noted that a
human being feels comfortable when the air is at 21- 24 °C with 56%
relative humidity.
2. HUMIDITY OF AIR:
The control of humidity of air means decreasing or increasing the
moisture content of air during summer or winter respectively in order to
produce comfortable healthy conditions. The control of humidity is not
only necessary for the human comfort but also increases the efficiency
of the workers. In general, for summer air conditioning, the relative
humidity should not be less than 60%, whereas for winter air
conditioning it should not be less than 40%.
3. PURITY OF AIR: It is an important factor for the comfort of human
body. It has been noticed that people do not feel comfortable on
breathing contaminated air, even if it is within the acceptable
temperature and humidity range. It is thus obvious that proper filtration,
cleaning, and purification of air is essential to keep it free from dust and
other impurities
4. MOTION OF AIR: The motion or circulation of air should be
controlled, in order to maintain constant temperature throughout the
conditioned space. Hence, there should be equi-distribution of air
throughout the space to be air conditioned. The comfort air conditioning
system is subdivided into three groups 1. Summer air conditioning
system 2. Winter air conditioning system 3. Year round air conditioning
system
THERMODYNAMICS OF HUMAN BODY
A living human body may be likened to a heat engine in which the
chemical energy contained in the food it consumes is continuously
converted into work and heat. The process of conversion of chemical
energy contained in food into heat and work is called as “metabolism”.
The rate at which the chemical energy is converted into heat and work is
called as “metabolic rate”. Knowledge of metabolic rate of the
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occupants is required as this forms a part of the cooling load of the air Most air-conditioning systems are designed with a recommended indoor
conditioned building. Similar to a heat engine, one can define thermal design relative humidity of about 50 percent or slightly lower. Budget
efficiency of a human being as the ratio of useful work output to the jobs will range as high as 60 percent relative humid- ity. The indoor dry-
energy input. The thermal efficiency of a human being can vary from 0% bulb temperature will range from 75°F or slightly below to about 80°F,
to as high as 15-20% for a short duration. By the manner in which the depending on the degree of occupancy and whether it is a budget job or
work is defined, for most of the light activities the useful work output of not. In any event, the indoor design conditions should fall within the
human beings is zero, indicating a thermal efficiency of 0%. Irrespective comfort zone.
of the work output, a human body continuously generates heat at a rate
varying from about 100 W (e.g. for a sedentary person) to as high as
2000 W (e.g. a person doing strenuous exercise). Continuous heat
generation is essential, as the temperature of the human body has to be
maintained within a narrow range of temperature, irrespective of the
external surroundings. A human body is very sensitive to temperature.
The body temperature must be maintained within a narrow range to
avoid discomfort, and within a somewhat wider range, to avoid danger
from heat or cold stress. Studies show that at neutral condition, the
temperatures should be: Skin temperature, tskin ≈ 33.7o C Core
temperature, tcore ≈ 36.8o C

The temperature of human body depends upon the energy balance

between itself and the surrounding thermal environment. Taking the
human body as the control volume, one can write the thermal energy
(heat) balance equation for the human body as:

where Qgen = Rate at which heat is FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE

generated inside the body Qsk = Total heat transfer rate from the skin
36.8o 35 C o C 39o 31 C o C 43o C Slight discomfort Major loss in
efficiency Lethal Lethal Neutral condition Fig.29.2: Affect of the variation
of core temperature on a human being Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 5
Qres = Heat transfer rate due to respiration, and Qst = Rate at which
heat is stored inside the body
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE
The temperature at which motionless saturated airwould induce, in a
sedentary worker wearing ordinary indoor clothing, the same sensation of
comfort as that induced by the actual conditions of temperature,
humidity, and airmovement.The temperature at which motionless
saturated air would induce, in a sedentary worker wearing ordinary
indoor clothing, the same sensation of comfort as that induced by the
actual conditions of temperature, humidity, and air movement. Effective
temperature is used as a guide in air-conditioning practice, and, on
the comfort chart (American Society of Heating and Air Conditioning
Engineers), it appears as a family of curves that serves as one coordinate
in defining comfort zones.
Factors affecting thermal comfort: Thermal comfort is affected by
several factors. These are: 1. Physiological factors such as age, activity,
sex and health. These factors influence the metabolic rate. It is observed
that of these factors, the most important is activity. Other factors are
found to have negligible effect on thermal comfort. 2. Insulating factor
due to clothing. The type of clothing has strong influence on the rate of
heat transfer from the human body. The unit for measuring the
resistance offered by clothes is called as “clo”. 1 clo is equal to a
resistance of about 0.155 m2 .K/W. Typical clo values for different types
of clothing have been estimated and are available in the form of tables.
For example, a typical business suit has a clo value of 1.0, while a pair of
shorts has a clo value of about 0.05. 3. Environmental factors. Important
factors are the dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, air motion and
surrounding surface temperature. Of these the dry bulb temperature
affects heat transfer by convection and evaporation, the relative
humidity affects heat loss by evaporation, air velocity influences both
convective and evaporative heat transfer and the surrounding surface
temperature affects the radiative heat transfer.

THE COMFORT CHART

The comfort chart (see Figure 8-8) is an empirically determined effective

temperature index that has been published by the ASHRAE since 1950.

The purpose of the comfort chart is to indicate the percentage of people

feeling comfortable at various effective temperatures in the winter and
summer. This serves only as an approximate standard of comfort,
because individual reactions to warmth and cold are much too variable,
but it is the most precise and scientific form of measurement available.
From the chart, one can obtain an approximate idea of the various
effective temperatures at which a majority of people will feel
comfortable (that is, the summer and winter comfort zones).

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