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complete
metalsmith

Professional
Edition
 The smith also sitteth by the anvil,
and fighteth with the heat of the furnace,
and noise of the hammer and the anvil is ever in his ears,
and his eyes look still upon the pattern
of the thing that he maketh.
He setteth his mind to finish his work,
and waiteth to polish it perfectly.

Ecclesiasticus
 complete
metalsmith

Tim McCreight

Brynmorgen Press
Acknowledgments
So many people contributed to this book that it is impossible to mention
them all. The students I’ve worked with in college classes and at workshops
have helped clarify many of the descriptions. I owe a huge debt to the
generous authors whose books have been so valuable in my professional life.
With each new edition of this book I have been privileged to call upon a wider
circle of colleagues, too many, in fact, to name.
I would be remiss, however, if I did not specifically thank these talented
goldsmiths for their help: Chuck Evans, Gary Griffin and Bob Ebendorf
reviewed the original manuscript in . Their wisdom rolls through the
subsequent editions. Peter Handler, John Pirtle, Paula Dinneen, Will Earley
and John Cogswell have given valuable advice, as have Alan Revere, Charles
Lewton-Brain, Kate Wolf, Blain Lewis, Bill Seeley, David LaPlantz, Steve
Midgett, Tina Rath, Kevin Whitmore, and Darnall Burks. For editorial insight,
hats off to Abby Johnston, Jenny Hall, Katie Kazan, Margery Niblock, and
Kate O’Halloran. And thanks to Mark Jamra, for his careful typographic eye,
and this lovely font. For the charm and ease of use in the electonic edition,
we can all thank Jodie Stackhouse. Wyatt Wade of Davis Publications has
supervised all three revisions of the book, consistently offering a blend of
support and sound judgment.
And most of all, I especially want to thank my family: Jay, Jobie, and Jeff.

Tim McCreight
Portland, Maine

Copyright  All rights reserved. No part of this

Brynmorgen Press, Inc. publication may be reproduced or
Portland, Maine, U.S.A. transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any storage
Printed in Hong Kong
Library of Congress Catalog and retrieval system now known or to be
Number: invented, except by a reviewer who wishes
ISBN: --- to quote brief passages in connection
with a review written for inclusion in a
         magazine, newspaper, or broadcast.
The author and publisher specifically
disclaim any responsibility or liability
for damages or injury as a result of any
construction, design, use, or any other
activity undertaken in conjunction with
the information presented in this book.
Contents

 Materials 

 Tools 

 Shaping 

 Surfaces 

 Joining 

 Color 

 Finishing 

 Casting 

 Stones & Stonesetting 

 Chains & Clasps 

 Findings & Mechanisms 

Appendix 

Index 

v
 Introduction

This book represents years of intensive research and experimentation.

Information from hundreds of sources has been collected, distilled, and
illustrated. It is intended to be both a text and a tool, a blend of instruction
and reference. Like other tools, its value increases as you bring to it your own
perceptions and skills. It is designed to make the information easily accessible,
and built to stand up to years of benchside use.
This book was originally published in , then revised and enlarged in
. With the coming of a new century, plans were made to revise it again. The
challenge we faced was to deal with two elements that were important to the
book’s success—thoroughness and ease of use. The question became, “How can
we make it basic and advanced at the same time?” The solution was to create
three editions, each with its own virtues. This Student Edition gives solid,
must-have information that is appropriate for entry level students, hobbyists,
and casual metalsmiths. The Professional Edition covers the same material,
but goes into greater depth. The ProPlus Edition is a package that includes the
Professional print edition plus a CD with the full text rendered as an electronic
file. It also includes calculation software, video clips, and two additional books
by the same author, Practical Jewelry Rendering and Design Language.
Metalsmithing involves some chemicals and procedures that are poten-
tially dangerous. Great care has been taken to omit hazards where possible
and to give clear warnings wherever they apply. These will be only as effective
as you make them. So, be wise.

ix
Chapter 

Materials
 Metallurgy

Metallurgy is a complex, highly
technical field that is worthy of
our attention. It is helpful for a
metalsmith to understand the
structure and behavior of metals
because this can help explain events
in the studio.
Crystals
Metals exist at room temperature as crystals, regularly shaped units arranged
in an ordered recurring pattern called a space lattice. There are  crystal
systems and  lattice configurations. Here are the three lattice arrangements
most relevant to metalsmiths.
It is not a coincidence that easily worked metals share the same crystal
structures. Crystal shape is one factor that determines malleability.

Face-Centered Cubic Body-Centered Cubic Hexagonal

lead chromium Close-Packed
copper lithium beryllium
aluminum molybdenum cadmium
gold potassium cobalt
silver sodium magnesium
nickel vanadium titanium
iron (at high temps) iron (at room temp) zinc

Recrystallization
When a metal is heated to its melting point it loses its crystalline organiza-
tion and becomes fluid. When the heat source is removed and the metal
cools, it re-establishes its crystal pattern, starting with the first areas to cool.
Many clusters of crystals start to form simultaneously, all having the same
order but not necessarily the same orientation.

Crystals start to form as As they grow, crystals bump Solid metal; the red line
the metal cools. into one another, forming traces grain boundaries.
irregular grains.

 Materials > Precious Metals > Metallurgy


I am trying to check my habits of seeing,
to counter them for the sake of greater
freshness. I am trying to be unfamiliar
with what I am doing.
John Cage
Metallurgy
Crystals
Crystals move most easily within a semi-
ordered structure. Crystals at a grain boundary
are caught in a “logjam” with the result that
the metal is tough and difficult to work.
When metal is worked, large crystals are
broken into smaller ones, which creates more annealed work-hardened
grain boundaries. We refer to such metal as
work-hardened. A similar condition is created when metal is rapidly cooled.
Because crystals do not have time to grow into an organized structure, the
metal recrystallizes into many small grains.
In time, even at room temperature, crystals will realign themselves into
an organized lattice. By heating the metal we accelerate the movement of
atoms and the subsequent recrystallization. This process is called annealing.
Deformation
When force is applied to a metal,
it yields in a process called elastic elastic
deformation. If only limited stress is deformation
applied, the metal will bounce back.
There will come a point, though, when
the force is enough to permanently
bend the metal, a process called plastic
deformation. Each alloy has unique limits
plastic
of elastic and plastic deformation.
deformation
Annealing
Annealing is the process of reducing stress within metal by heating it to a
prescribed temperature. This can be done with a torch or kiln. Temperatures
are usually gauged by watching the heat colors change, something best
seen in a dimly lit area. Alternatively, paste flux can be painted onto metal
to serve as a temperature indicator: it is clear at ° F (° C). Quench
a piece in water to cool, then slide it into pickle to dissolve surface oxides.
In its annealed state, the crystal arrangement contains irregularities called
vacancies. These facilitate crystal movement and so contribute to malleability.
Heat to a dull red; quench as soon Heat to medium red; quench as
as the redness disappears. soon as the redness disappears.
• K gold • bronze
• K gold Heat to bright red; air cool.
• red golds • white gold (nickel-based)
• sterling • brass
• fine silver
• copper
Materials > Precious Metals > Metallurgy 

Gold Au
Melting point ° F
° C
Hardness –.
Specific gravity:
Cast .
Worked .–.
Atomic weight .
Fluxes
When pouring gold ingots, sprinkle an
even mixture of powdered charcoal and
ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac)
on the metal while melting. This will
yield a bright, tough ingot that will
withstand rolling. Dangerous fumes are
produced, so ventilation is required.
If iron or steel is present (for
instance as a result of file wear), purify
the scraps by melting with a flux of 
part potassium nitrate (saltpeter) and
 parts potassium carbonate. After
cooling, remelt with the sal ammoniac
flux and pour the metal into a mold.
Voluntary Product Standard –
This US law has set legal tolerances
for gold since . It allows variation
of  parts per thousand (.K) on
unsoldered goods and  parts per
thousand (.K) on soldered objects.
This is called plumb (i.e., accurate)
gold. Manufacturers were given
until  to dispose of their old
merchandise made at lower standards.
 Materials > Precious Metals > Gold
Gold
Gold Purity of Karats
> Gold was probably the second Fine (pure) gold is too soft for
metal to be worked by early most uses so it is alloyed with
humans, being discovered after other metals to achieve a desired
copper. Quality gold work can be hardness. During this process the
found from as early as  .. color, malleability, and melting
> If all the gold ever found (about point can also be altered. Silver and
, tons) were cast into a copper are the two most common
single ingot, it would make only a additives but many other metals can
-yard cube. be used.
> One ounce of gold can be The relative amount of gold in an
flattened to a sheet that will alloy is called the karat. This word
cover  square feet, or drawn to signifies proportion and should not
a wire almost a mile long. be confused with carat, which is a
> Gold can be made into a foil that unit of weight (except in the UK,
is less than five millionths of an where both words are spelled with
inch thick. At this point it is semi- a “c”). Think of karat as a fraction
transparent. with  as the denominator, e.g.,
> Pickles for gold include Sparex K—eighteen–twenty-fourths or
# or a mixture of  part nitric 3⁄4. This tells us that the alloy is 
acid (reagent grade) with  parts gold. By law, a metal described as
water. K must be at least  gold. The
> Gold dissolves in aqua regia remainder of the alloy is not re-
and solutions of chlorine with stricted by law, which only specifies
potassium cyanide or sodium the proportion of precious metal.
cyanide.
Gold-filled
This term refers to a material on which a layer of gold
has been bonded by fusing. The resulting ingot is rolled
or drawn to make sheet and wire. A standard practice
is to clad the base with  (weight) K gold. Since
K is half pure this means that the final result, if it
were melted down and assayed, would equal  pure
gold. This is marked as 1⁄2 GF. This technique has two
advantages over plating: a thicker layer of gold can be
achieved, and the gold is denser because it has been
worked. The term rolled gold refers to a similar material
that has only half as thick a gold layer: 1⁄4.
Scientific Notation
An alternative system describes Au   3⁄4 karat  gold
the precious content in parts per Au   3⁄4 karat  gold
thousand (ppt), typically written Au   1⁄4 karat  gold
as a decimal. An alloy containing Au   karat  gold
3⁄4 gold becomes / or . Au   3⁄4 karat  gold
or Au . Here are some common Au   karat . gold
decimal equivalents. Au   karat . gold
 Gold

Alloys
• A mixture of roughly equal parts of gold and silver is called electrum.
Maximum hardness of this alloy is at a / mix.
• The hardest alloy of gold, silver, and copper is reached at //. This will
Electrum be  karat yellow.
• An increase of the copper content in a gold alloy up to  will lower its
melting point. To continue lowering, as when making solder, add silver.
• Many kinds and colors of gold solder are commercially available, but in a
pinch, a lower karat gold may be used.
Decimal • White gold usually has  to  nickel and can contain zinc, copper, or
Equivalents manganese. It has no silver.

1K .0417 Testing
2K .0833 With a small file, make a scratch in an inconspicuous spot. Wearing rubber
3K .1250 gloves, use a wood, glass, or plastic stick to apply a drop of nitric acid to this
4K .1667 spot. Observe the reaction. When done, rinse everything well in running
5K .2083 water.
6K .2500 > no reaction gold
7K .2917 > bright green bubbling all over base metal
8K .3333 > green only in scratch gold layer over base metal
> milky in scratch gold over silver
9K .3750
10 K .4167
11 K .4583 What karat is it?
Determining karat requires a testing kit:
12 K .5000
• nitric acid and aqua regia
13 K .5417
• metal samples of known karat
14 K .5833 • touchstone (slate or ceramic)
15 K .6250 Rub the object to be tested on the stone (called
16 K .6667 “touching”) to leave a streak. Make a parallel line on the
17 K .7083 stone with one of the test needles. Flood both marks with
18 K .7500 acid and observe the reactions. When the two streaks change color at the
19 K .7917 same rate, a match has been made. Nitric acid is used for low-karat golds and
20 K .8333 aqua regia is used for high karats.
21 K .8750
22 K .9167 Formulas
23 K .9583 Alloying Down (to lower karat) Alloying Up (to raise karat)
24 K 1.0000 . Multiply the amount to be . Multiply the amount to be
lowered by its karat. changed by its karat.
. Multiply the same amount by the . Multiply the same amount by the
desired karat. desired karat.
. Subtract the amount you found in . Subtract the amount in Step 
Step  from the amount in Step . from the amount in Step .
. Divide the difference (Step ) by . Subtract the desired karat from
the desired karat. .
. Divide the answer to Step  by
the answer to Step .

Materials > Precious Metals > Gold 

 Silver

Silver Ag Silver
Melting point ° F Silver, known in the ancient world as argentum, was at one time thought to
.° C be more precious than gold because it appeared less commonly in nature.
Hardness . Pure silver, like pure gold, is soft and is therefore often alloyed. Though many
Specific gravity . metals may be used, copper is preferred because it greatly toughens the alloy
Atomic weight . without detracting from the bright shine of silver.

Sterling . Sterling

Melting point ° F Sterling is the alloy most commonly
° C used in jewelrymaking and
Specific gravity . silversmithing. It was adopted as
a standard alloy in England in the
th century when King Henry II
imported refiners from an area of
Germany known as the Easterling.
The product they made was of a
consistent quality and was used
as currency by , when it was
known as Easterling silver.
Coin silver, an alloy once used
in currency, contains more copper
( to ) than sterling. It melts
at a lower temperature than sterling
and is more likely to tarnish. A 
alloy was used in US coins until
 but now no silver is used in
any US coin. An alloy popular in the
Far East uses – silver and the
balance zinc, producing a metal with
a low melting point and a bright,
white shine.
In recent years a number of
alternate sterling alloys have been
patented. Most replace a small
amount of the copper with a metal
that is less likely to oxidize such as
tin, germanium, zinc, or platinum.
These alloys are commonly used in
casting but have not become widely
available as sheet and wire.

Britannia Silver Strength

Britannia silver (. parts per
) was the legal alloy in England
from  to . It was contrived
to discourage the melting of coins
and is still a legal alloy there. Don’t
confuse this with Britannia Metal,
which is a form of pewter.
Annealed fine silver has a hardness
of Vickers  (tensile strength of 
tons per square inch). Cold working
increases the hardness to Vickers
– (tensile strength of –
tons per square inch).

Silver resists aqua regia because

hydrochloric acid forms a dense
chloride film that resists corrosion.

 Materials > Precious Metals > Silver

 Silver

Heat Hardening
In conventional work-hardening, metal is made rigid by upsetting the
orderly arrangement of grains. A lesser degree of toughness can be achieved
by reducing the number of dislocations and vacancies, that is, by creating
extreme regularity. This is achieved by warming the metal sufficiently to
begin recrystallization and holding it at this temperature long enough to
allow gradual ordered crystal growth.
To harden sterling, heat a finished piece to ° F (° C) and hold it at
that temperature for at least one hour. Air cool. Pure metals like copper and
fine silver cannot be heat hardened because it is the arrangement of alloy
ingredients that contributes to the hardness. Though there is validity
to the theory of heat-hardening, in practice, tumbling with steel shot is more
commonly used to harden jewelry items. It is faster and significantly more
effective.

The inner life of a human being Argyria Electrolytic Cleaning

is a vast and varied realm and
does not concern itself alone
with stimulating arrangements
of color, form, and design.
Edward Hopper
Argyria, a condition caused by
ingestion of silver, is evidenced by
a blue or blue-gray skin color. Until
the s silver was used in several
medicines, and it is still sold as a
miracle cure for such ailments as
leprosy, plague, and anthrax. In 
the Food and Drug Administration
prohibited sellers of colloidal silver
preparations from making claims
about health benefits.
This kitchen version of
electrostripping is safe and easy.
It’s especially useful for removing
tarnish from flatware and
hollowware. In a pot lined with
aluminum foil, mix a dilute solution
of equal parts of baking soda, salt,
and liquid soap. A quarter cup of
each to a gallon of water is a typical
mixture. Set the sterling in the
pot; bring the mix to a simmer and
allow it to stand for – minutes
as the oxides are transferred to
the aluminum, which you’ll see
is darkened. Throw that away and
wash the silver before using it.

Materials > Precious Metals > Silver 

 Platinum

Platinum Pt Platinum
Melting point ° F Platinum is a dense white metal that has a high resistance to corrosion.
° C It was discovered by Spaniards in South America in . They called it
Hardness  – . platina because of its similarity to silver, plata. Today we refer collectively
Specific gravity . to six related metals as the platinum group: platinum, palladium, rhodium,
Atomic weight . ruthenium, iridium, and osmium.

Rhodium Working with Platinum

Palladium Rhodium was separated from
Melting point ° F platinum in  and takes its name
° C from the Greek word rodon (rose)
Specific gravity . because of the colors of the metal-
Atomic weight . lic salts. Rhodium is often plated
over sterling articles to provide a
bright, tarnish-resistant outer layer.
Its reflectivity index ( of the
visible spectrum) is slightly lower
than sterling’s but this lack of shine
is generally imperceptible. Worked
rhodium has a Vickers hardness of
 but electroplated rhodium has a
Vickers of –, indicating that it
is extremely wear-resistant.
Platinum group metals dissolve
slowly in aqua regia.
Platinum group metals can be cast
but because of their high melting
points, a special investment must be
used. When you buy this, request a
data sheet and follow the mixing di-
rections carefully. No flux is needed
when melting.
Cleanliness is very important
when heating metals of the plati-
num group. An oxidizing flame is
recommended. Contamination by
silver, aluminum, iron, or lead will
cause intercrystalline cracking at
the grain boundaries. If contamina-
tion occurs there is no way to cor-
rect the problem metallurgically.
The damaged area must be cut out
and replaced with a patch.

Platinum group metals require an oxygen torch for soldering or casting

because of their high melting points. These metals are well suited to settings
for precious stones because of their toughness and great resistance to tarnish.

Uses
More than half of all platinum
metals mined are used by the
jewelry industry. Other uses
include:
> medical implants
> architectural decoration, as leaf
> plating on the tips of fountain
pens for durability (especially
osmium)
Is it platinum?
To determine whether a piece is
platinum, heat a sample to bright
red and air cool. Metals of the plati-
num group will remain bright and
shiny. Because of this resistance to
oxidation, no flux is needed when
soldering.

 Materials > Precious Metals > Platinum

 Copper

Copper Cu History   Copper was discovered.

Melting point ° F Copper was probably the first metal   Egyptians used copper
° C to be put to use by our ancestors weapons.
Hardness  and remains important to us today.   Beginning of the Bronze
It conducts heat and electricity very Age.
Specific gravity .
well, can be formed and joined, and   Evidence of controlled
Atomic weight .
combines with many elements to bronze alloying.
form a broad range of alloys.   Egyptians made copper
pipes.

Copper is sold in standard sheets " x " (' x ') and in coils  and 
inches wide. When ordering, specify Hard, Half-hard, or Annealed.

When copper is hot-rolled it develops a slightly rough surface. For this

reason most craftspeople prefer cold-rolled material. Copper alloy # is
a common choice.

When exposed to moist air, copper forms poisonous acetates, sulfates,

and chlorides known collectively as verdigris. The name comes from vert-
de-grice, Old French for “Green of Greece,” a reference to metal sculp-
tures of antiquity. Because of these compounds, you should always wash
your hands after handling copper. Copper cookware and serving pieces
should either be plated with a noncorrosive metal such as tin or washed
before each use.

Most copper is electrolytically refined, i.e., electrically deposited on

an anode. This product is pure but contains oxygen atoms scattered
throughout the metal. When heated, this forms CuO₂, which breaks
down the bond between crystals and can weaken the metal as much as
. To alleviate this problem, most copper is alloyed with a deoxidizer
such as phosphorus.

Copper cannot be heat hardened, but responds to work-hardening.

Copper is available in more than Japanese Alloys

 alloys. Comprehensive data is
available from:
Copper Development Association
 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 
--
www.copper.org
Shaku-do . to  gold, with the balance copper. Melting point:
–° F (–° C). This alloy is valued for the
deep purple color achieved through oxidation.
Shibu-ichi  copper,  silver. Melting point ° F (° C). This
is a silvery pink alloy that darkens and reticulates easily.

Materials > Base Metals > Copper 

 Brass & Bronze

Yellow Brass  Brass Facts

Melting point ° F > Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and it can achieve a wide range of
° C properties and colors.
Specific gravity . > The practical limit of zinc in a copper alloy is . Beyond this the alloy
becomes too brittle for most uses.
> Low zinc brasses that contain up to  zinc are grouped under the term
“gilding metals.”
Jewelers Bronze  > Brass is mildly antibacterial.
Melting point ° F > The bronze of antiquity was a mix of – tin with the balance being
° C copper. Today the term bronze refers to any tin-bearing brass or golden-
Specific gravity . colored brass.
> To distinguish brass from bronze, dissolve a small sample in a  /
solution of nitric acid and water. Tin is indicated by the white precipitate
metastannic acid.

Alpha brasses less than  zinc good for cold working;
have a rich yellow color
Brass
Beta brasses more than  zinc good for hot working;
have a pale color

Common Alloys
Gun Metal Historically an alloy of  copper,  tin, and  zinc, it was
used to cast cannons and large industrial products.

Pinchbeck An alloy of about  copper and  zinc that was invented
by the English watchmaker Christopher Pinchbeck in England
around . It resembles gold, and was used to make costume
jewelry and inexpensive accessories. By extension, the word has
come to mean “cheap imitation.”

Nordic Gold Alloy of  copper,  aluminum,  zinc, and  tin that is
used for euro coins.

Bell Metal An alloy of roughly  copper and  tin, used for, you
guessed it, bells. It makes a rich tone when allowed to vibrate
The afternoon knows what the but is notoriously brittle when the blows are confined. For
proof, visit Independence Hall in Philadelphia.
morning never suspected.

Swedish Proverb

 Materials > Base Metals > Brass & Bronze

 Nickel

Nickel Ni Nickel
Melting point ° F The word nickel means “deceiver” in German, and was given to the ore
° C (niccolite) because it was easily mistaken for copper ore. Nickel is a hard
Specific gravity . white metal used primarily as an alloying ingredient. It increases hardness
Atomic weight . and resistance to corrosion without impairing ductility.

Nickel Silver
Copper 
Nickel 
Zinc 
The term “nickel silver” refers to several alloys with roughly the proportions
shown above. The alloy was originally developed in the Far East and came
to be known as Paktong (a.k.a. Pakton, Pakfong, Paitun, Baitong, Baitung,
and other derivations). Other names include Alpacca, Argentium, Electrum,
Stainless NS, and Nevada Silver. Nickel silver gained in popularity after
 when electroplating created a need for an inexpensive silver-colored
substrate. This origin can still be seen in the abbreviation EPNS which stands
for electroplated nickel silver.
This metal is used in jewelry because of its low cost and generally
favorable working properties. It can be forged, stamped, soldered and
polished. Though it can be cast, its high melting point and tendency to
oxidize make casting difficult.

Common Alloys
Nickel silver Cu  This is the alloy most commonly used
(German silver) Ni  for jewelrymaking. In strength, cost,
Zn  malleability, and ductility, it is similar to
brass.

Monel Metal Ni  This tough, oxide-resistant metal has

Cu  many uses in industry but is rarely used in
Balance: Fe, the crafts. It melts at ° F (° C).
Mn, C, Si, S

Nichrome Ni  Because of its ability to resist oxidation

Cr  and its high melting point (° F, °
C), this metal is used in wire for the
heating element of electric kilns.

Nickel Alloy # Cu  This alloy will “swell” when heated above
Ni  ° F (° C). When its reticulated
Zn  oxide skin is removed in a nitric acid
pickle, the metal will be found to be
dramatically perforated. It can be soldered
and polished.

Materials > Base Metals > Nickel 

 Aluminum

Aluminum Al Properties History

Melting point ° F Aluminum is the most abundant
° C metallic element on the planet,
Specific gravity . making up  of the earth’s
crust. Because of its light weight,
Atomic weight .
resistance to corrosion and ability
to alloy well, it is used structurally
(buildings, aircraft, cars), as
architectural trim (siding), and in
functional objects like cookware.
It is the second most malleable
and sixth most ductile metal. It is
usually found in bauxite as an oxide
called alumina: Al₂O₃.
Though the existence of aluminum
was theorized in the s it was
not isolated until . When
the Washington Monument was
completed in , a  oz. pyramid
of aluminum was made to crown
it. At the time, this was the largest
mass of aluminum ever made—
before placement, it was displayed
in Tiffany’s window in New York
City. Commercial production was
devised in  and many alloys
have been developed since then.

Alloys
As is the case with many metals, industry organizations have developed a
universal system to identify components of an aluminum alloy. The first digit
of a -digit number designates the principal ingredient, with the remaining
numbers specifying their proportions.
xxx pure or almost pure aluminum
xxx copper alloys
xxx manganese
xxx silicon
xxx magnesium
xxx magnesium & silicon
xxx zinc
xxx other elements
The , , and  series are commonly preferred for anodizing, but
many other alloys will work.

Joining
Aluminum can be soldered and joined only with special solders, many of
which are sold with their own flux. Welding can be done with S or #
wire used with # flux. Check with your supplier for detailed information.
Welding is made easier with a TIG (tungsten inert gas) welder, but can be
achieved with gas/oxygen systems.

Popular Alloys Anodizing

S — pure aluminum
S — Al + . Mn
S — Al + . Mn and  Mg
S — Al +  Cu, . Mn, . Mg
 — SAl + . Cu, . Mn, . Mg
This is a process of electrically
causing the formation of a resistant
oxide film on the surface of
aluminum. The film may be colored
with dyes which can give finished
aluminum products a wide range
of color possibilities. For more
information, see Chapter .

 Materials > Base Metals > Aluminum

 Reactive Metals

Titanium Ti Reactive Metals

Melting point ° F This term refers to a group of six tough gray metals that are lightweight, have
° C a high melting point, and are resistant to corrosion. In order of importance,
Specific gravity . they are titanium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, tungsten, and hafnium. The
Atomic weight . first two are of interest to jewelers principally because of the colors produced
by their oxidation films. The others are included in this group by scientists
Niobium Nb but are not important to jewelers.
Melting point ° F
° C Working Properties
Specific gravity . Titanium and niobium cannot be soldered or annealed in the jeweler’s
Atomic weight . studio but both metals lend themselves to all other traditional processes.
They can be drilled, filed, drawn stamped, or raised, with conventional tools.
Pure titanium is ductile and shows low thermal and electrical conductivity.
It is twice as dense as aluminum and half as dense as iron. Its resistance to
corrosion, combined with light weight and toughness, make it well-suited
to use in prosthetics. It is added to steel to reduce grain size, to stainless to
reduce carbon content, to aluminum to refine grain development, and to
copper to harden it.

Titanium
Titanium is the ninth most
abundant element in the earth’s
crust and can be found in most
rocks, clay, and sand. It was first
identified in  but has been
commercially viable only since 
when the Kroll refining process
was invented. Titanium dioxide is
a white powder used in paints and
enamels.
Niobium
In its pure form, niobium is soft
and ductile and polishes to look
like platinum. There is a good bit
of niobium on the planet; it is
more plentiful than lead and less
common than copper. Niobium is
extremely ductile. In drawing wire,
for instance, the cross section can
be reduced by as much as 
before annealing. This property
can of course be a drawback for
applications where strength is
required.
When this metal was first
discovered in  it was called
columbium, but it was rediscovered
and renamed in . After years of
confusion the scientific community
formally adopted the name
niobium, but the older name is still
sometimes encountered.

See the Chapter  for information on

anodizing reactive metals.

Materials > Metals > Reactive Metals 

 White Metals

Britannia Metal White Metals

Melting point ° F The term “white metals” refers to several malleable, gray-colored metals
° C and alloys with low melting points. These are also called easily fusible alloys,
Specific gravity . pot metal, and type metal, the latter coming from the use of these alloys in
making printers’ type.
Because of their low melting points, white metals can be melted with
almost any torch or on a kitchen stove. Melting is best done in a small-
necked crucible or ladle to help reduce oxidation. Protect the metal from
oxygen during melting with a coating of olive oil, linseed oil, or lard. These
float on the surface of the melt and will slide out from underneath when the
tin metal is poured.

Health & Safety

The fumes produced by these metals are potentially unhealthy. Heat under
a ventilating hood or arrange a fan over your shoulder to move fumes away
from you. Lead can be absorbed through the skin. Wash well after handling
any lead-bearing alloy. It is especially unwise to eat, drink, or smoke in an
area where white metal is being worked.

Pewter
Pewter, as used in antiquity and
associated with colonial America,
was an alloy of lead and tin. In the
late s a substitute alloy was
developed in England and named
Britannia Metal. Today the words
pewter and Britannia are used
interchangeably and usually refer to
an alloy of:
 tin
. antimony
. copper
Pewter can be sawn, soldered, fused,
formed, and cast. Keep separate
tools for pewter and don’t let filings
accidentally mix with silver or gold.
Finishing can be done with fine
steel wool and a mix of lampblack
(soot) and kerosene blended to a
paste. Fine steel wool ( /) also
leaves a pleasant finish.
Contamination
When heated above their melting
points, white metals will burn pits
into gold, platinum, silver, copper,
and brass. Use separate files and
soldering tools to keep these metals
away from each other.
Removal
To remove white metal that is fused
onto sterling or gold:
File, scrape, and sand to remove
as much as possible, then allow
the work to soak in either of these
solutions for several hours.
 oz. glacial acetic acid
 oz. hydrogen peroxide
 oz. fluroboric acid
. oz.  hydrogen peroxide
 oz. water

 Materials > Base Metals > White Metals

 Iron & Steel

Iron Fe Properties
Melting point ° F Iron is the world’s most widely used metal. It can be alloyed with a wide
° C range of elements to produce many diverse properties. Iron ore usually
Specific gravity . contains sulfur, phosphorus, silicon and carbon. When all but – carbon
Atomic weight . has been smelted out, the resulting metal is poured into ingots and called
cast iron or pig iron. Further refining is necessary to make a steel of good
Mild steel working qualities.
Melting point ° F
° C .–. carbon mild (low) carbon steel cannot be hardened
.–. carbon medium carbon steel used for tools
Specific gravity .
.–. carbon high carbon steel specialty tools
> . carbon malleable iron for cast and machined parts
Steel Designation Nomenclature
This is one of several systems devised by the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Industry (AISI).
> An initial letter indicates type of furnace used in smelting.
> The first two digits indicate major alloying material, in code.
> The last two digits indicate the percent of the material in this alloy.
Example: B This is a plain carbon steel made in an acid Bessemer
furnace that contains . carbon. It would be used for
springs, tools, and blades.

Code Type of steel Hardening Steel

xxx plain carbon (non alloy) steel Not all steel alloys can be hardened;
xxx manganese steel only steels with . to . carbon
xxx nickel alloy steels will work. Hardening is a two-step
xxx . nickel process. First, heat the object to a
xxx . nickel bright red (called the critical tempera-
xxx nickel/chrome steels ture) and quench it in the appropriate
xxx molybdenum steels media, most commonly oil. This leaves
xx carbon/molybdenum the steel in a hard but brittle condition.
xxx chrome/molybdenum In the second step, called tempering,
xx chrome/molybdenum/nickel heat the steel to temperatures between
/xx molybdenum/nickel –° F (–° C), depending on
xxx chromium alloy steels the desired balance bewteen hardness
In iron we possess a substance from xx low chromium content and flexibility.
xx medium chromium content An alternate method, called case
which can be made the thick, heavy ribs xx high chromium content hardening, diffuses carbon into the
of the vessel of war, the slender blade xxx chromium/vanadium alloys outer layers of mild steel to create a
/xx nickel/chromium/ thin shell that can be hardened.
of the surgeon’s knife, or the exquisitely molybdenum
artistic leaf work of the chancel screen.
Other metals used for steel alloys are:
• chromium for corrosion resistance; – used in stainless
Paul Hasluck, • manganese increases hardenability and tensile strength
Metalworking,  • molybdenum increases corrosion resistance; high temperature strength
• tungsten forms hard abrasion-resistant particles called tungsten carbide;
used for cutting edges
Materials > Metals > Iron & Steel 

Some organic materials may release
unhealthy dust when they are sanded;
ventilation and a respirator are
recommended.
Wood
• Light-colored woods:
maple, ash, holly
• Dense, close-grained
woods like apple, cherry,
pear, walnut, pecan
• Rain forest trees:
cocobolo, paduck, rosewood
• Woods that are not recommended
include soft woods like pine and
fir, and woods that split easily like
mahogany and oak.
Leather
In addition to its use as pendant
cord, leather has a long history of
use as hinges, as a backing for small
ornaments, and for knife handles.
Occasionally it is used as an inlay
material. Cutting with a sharp blade is
usually best, but leather can be sawn
and filed. To train leather to a shape,
wet a piece thoroughly in hot water
and secure it around a form until
completely dry. Vegetable-tanned
leather is required for this process. Oil-
tanned or chrome-tanned leathers will
not mold when wet. Exotic leathers
include skins from snakes, alligators,
lizards, frogs, sharks and stingrays.
 Materials > Nonmetals > Organic Materials
Organic Materials
Organic Materials:
From its earliest beginnings jewelry has taken advantage of the diverse
beauty of wood, bone, antler, and other organic materials. Each has special
characteristics, but a few general ideas apply to all. Most organics:
• Burn easily.
• Have growth lines or grain that change the appearance and sometimes
affect strength. In wood, for instance, it is important to consider grain
direction when orienting the piece.
• Contain oils that will affect adhesives and may rub off on clothing.
• Are often porous and can be discolored by polishing compounds.
Antler Tusk
> Antlers come from deer, elk, Tusk is an external tooth. Like our own
moose, and some goats; they are teeth, tusks grow and (we hope) stay
dropped and grow again each year with their bearers for life. Some tusk
(as opposed to horns, which grow material is called ivory, a term that
additional layers each year). should always include a descriptive
> Cut and file with jewelers’ tools. term, as in “walrus ivory.” Sale of
> Protect against dust when machine tusks is carefully controlled to protect
grinding and sanding, which create species.
an unpleasant odor.
> No finish coat such as wax or varnish
is needed. Polish with fine abrasive
papers or by buffing.
Bone
The strength, density and beauty of bone will depend on the species and age
of the animal and the bone’s role in the body. A cow’s leg bone, for instance,
needs to be stronger than its shoulder blade.
To degrease bones
Fresh bones are preferred because as the marrow dries, it weakens the bone. Keep
bones cold or frozen to delay the natural decay of the marrow. Start by scraping
away as much tissue as possible, then boil the bones in a large container of water
to remove the remaining gristle, then use any of these solutions:
• Soak for about three hours in a / solution of bleach and water. Note that
prolonged exposure can weaken some bones.
• Soak overnight or longer in a / solution of ammonia and water. Though
slower, this does not risk damaging the bones.
• Soak overnight or longer in hydrogen peroxide at full strength, as it comes from
the drugstore.
Warning: Never mix ammonia and bleach; the result is highly toxic.
To color bones
• Polishing compounds like rouge will impregnate bones as they polish them.
The choice of rouge (it is available in green, blue, black, and red) will give a
subtle color to the bone.
• Dilute paints with the appropriate solvent (water for acrylics, turpentine for
oils) and paint on generously. Wipe off to achieve the intended effect.
• Porous bones can be subtly darkened by boiling in strong tea.
 Glass

Ways to Work with Glass

Casting
Molten glass is dropped, blown or
extruded into molds.
Lampworking
Glass tubing and rod is manipulated
and welded in the flame of a gas/
oxygen torch.
Fusing
Sheets of glass are melted together
in a furnace, either flat or slumped
over a form.

Expansion & Contraction

Not all glass products are compatable. Various chemistry, viscosity and
expansion rates can create stresses in objects made of several pieces. The
property of glass that makes a piece swell when heated and contract when
cooled is described as a numerical value called the coefficient of expansion
(COE). This is determined by each manufacturer according to a standardized
test. The most popular glasses used by artists have a COE of  or .
Viscosity is equally important but because there is no standard designation,
it is mentioned less frequently. Mark all glass with relevant data and keep
supplies clearly separated.

Annealing
Annealing removes the stresses
and strains remaining in glass after
shaping. If it is not annealed, glass
may shatter from tension caused by
uneven cooling. Annealing is done
by reheating the glass and gradually
cooling it according to a planned
time-and-temperature schedule.
Tempering
In the tempering process, a finished
glass article is reheated until almost
soft. Under carefully controlled con-
ditions, it is chilled suddenly by blasts
of cold air or by plunging it in oil or
certain liquid solutions. This temper-
ing treatment makes the glass much
stronger than ordinary glass.

It took more than a year to anneal Dichroic

the huge -inch (-centimeter) To make dichroic, or “two-color” glass, a layer of colored material is fused
telescope lens for the Palomar onto a layer of glass in a vacuum. The result transmits one color and reflects a
Observatory in California. different color, both of which can be vibrant. By manipulating the layers with
construction and etching, manufacturers can create specific patterns.

Common Temps Fusing Stage Glass Stages

° F – ° F Brittle zone Do not open the kiln in this range.
° F – ° F Tack fuse Edges become round; glass sticks
together.
° F – ° F Full fuse Layers fuse together; flow to uniform
thickness.

Materials > Nonmetals > Glass 

 Plastics

Safety Thermosetting Plastics

Thermosetting plastics produce Thermosetting plastics are generally available as
fumes that can have severe side liquids that react with a catalyst or hardener to
effects, even in small doses. Ex- cross-link large molecules (polymers) with small
cellent ventilation facilities are a ones (monomers) in a process called polymeriza-
must. Skin irritation is also likely tion. After curing, the resulting material cannot
to result from contact, so you be returned to its original state. Thermosetting
should wear gloves. Anyone in- plastics are usually epoxies or polyesters.
tending to work with these ma-
terials should do some serious History of Plastics
reading of specific literature on Year Name Inventor Use
the topic before getting started.  Parkesine Alexander Parkes alternative for rubber
 Celluloid John W. Hyatt billiard balls, photo film
 Rayon Louis Hilaire Bernigaut substitute for silk
 Cellophane Jacques Brandenburger waterproof layer of fabric
 Bakelite Leo Baekeland electrical parts, housewares, jewelry
 Saran Ralph Wiley waterproof packaging
s polyvinyl Waldo Semon housewares, upholstery, plumbing
chloride
 polyethylene Fawcett and Gibson insulation, packaging, housewares
 Nylon Wallace H. Carothers stockings, then many products from
& DuPont Laboratories variations called acrylic, neoprene, etc.

Embedding Casting
Any water-free Because they are liquid, thermosetting plastics are commonly used to fill a
object can be mold or encase an object. This sequence provides a general introduction to the
embedded in process.
plastic. The process
is as above, with the . Careful measurement is important, so you will need a sensitive scale. Wax-
object set into place coated paper cups make handy containers for measuring, mixing, and as
midway into the molds for small slabs. Pour out the desired amount of resin.
pouring. As long as the first layer is . Weigh and gradually stir in additives. Add pigments to achieve the desired
gooey when the second is poured, hue; usually a little goes a long way.
there will be no division line. . Weigh and add the catalyst. Mix thoroughly (several minutes) but avoid
Thicker castings require a smaller whipping up bubbles.
proportion of catalyst. . Pour the mixture into the mold. A release agent such as polyvinyl alcohol on
casting  catalyst the mold will make removal easier. The mold can be made of plastic, rubber,
thickness
wax, plasticene, or sealed plaster. For castings over " thick, mix fresh resin
1⁄4" 
and add layers. These will bond seamlessly.
1⁄2" 
3⁄4" .  . Curing will usually take about  hours, less for castings under 1⁄2" thick.
" .  Even when cured, the plastic will have a gummy layer on top. Test by poking
through this goo with a pin. When the plastic is solid, scrape off the gummy
layer. Cured plastic can be sawn, filed, sanded, and buffed.

 Materials > Nonmetals > Plastic


Safety
Beware of
> Dust created by cutting and
sanding.
> Toxic fumes released by the
heat created by machining.
> Toxic vapors given off by sol-
vents and glues.
When cutting thermoplastics
on a power machine, ventilate
and wear goggles and a respira-
tor. These same precautions are
needed when cementing.
Cutting
Thermoplastics can be cut, drilled,
and turned like wood. When
possible, the paper coating should
be left on for these operations.
Sheets of 1⁄4" or thinner can be
broken along a straight edge. Make
a deep gouge using a scribe and
straight edge, then break over a
table edge or dowel; use pliers for
small pieces.
Finishing
Edges can be smoothed with a file,
then scraped with a flat piece of
steel like the back of a hacksaw
blade. Fine abrasive papers can also
be used. A muslin buff with White
Diamond or a plastic compound will
remove scratches—use a light touch
to avoid building up heat.
Plastics
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are long, chainlike molecules (polymers) that lie side by side.
When heated they can be bent and formed. When reheated the polymers will
return to their original position, a phenomenon called memory.
Thermoplastics are solid at room temperature. They are commonly available
as sheets, rods, tubes, and blocks. These subdivisions and familiar brand
names are types of thermoplastics.
> acrylic – Plexiglas, Lucite, Perspex, Acryloid
> polycarbonate – Lexan
> polystyrene – Styrofoam
Joining
Thermoplastics can be held together with epoxy or cyanoacrylates (e.g.,
Super Glue), but a stronger and neater joint is made with a glue devised just
for this purpose. It is a solvent that penetrates a seam by capillary action
and chemically welds the joint. The area should be scraped and filed but not
polished. Remove the protective paper and temporarily secure the pieces
with masking tape. Apply the solvent to the joint with a brush or syringe,
but take care not to spill any outside the joint because is will mar the plastic.
Practice on a few scraps to get the hang of it.
Heat-Forming Acrylic
Thermoplastics can be formed at temperatures around –° F (–
° C). Specific temperatures will depend on the material, the degree of
deformation, and the thickness of the section. Forming may be done by hand,
in forms pressed together, or with vacuum pressure.
The following sequence is given to provide a general introduction to
the possibilities of this technique. Before trying this, read further and look
for advice from someone familiar with plastics. A local supplier will have
manufacturers’ data sheets and can often help with
specific projects.
. After removing the protective paper, set the sheet
or rod into a kitchen oven and heat to the point
where the plastic will bend when pushed with a
blunt tool (° F, ° C).
. Wearing clean cotton gloves, pull
the plastic out and bend it or
push it over a rigid form. Hold it
in position until it cools—usually just a
minute or two. If the plastic cools before
forming is completed, return the piece to the oven to rewarm it.
. Use a strip heater to achieve straight
bends. These may be bought at a hobby
shop or plastics supply company.
Materials > Nonmetals > Plastic 
 Rubber & Paper

History
Natural rubber is produced from the sap of the Hevea brasiliensis tree and
was probably first developed in South America. Christopher Columbus
described a game the natives played with what we would recognize today as a
rubber ball. The material received its English name when the scientist Joseph
Priestley discovered that pencil marks could be “rubbed out” with it. The
synthetic rubber industry grew dramatically when supplies of sap were cut
off by World War II. Today about  of all rubber is synthetic and probably
falls into one of these categories.

Rubber Tarnish Alert Sources

Rubber is made with sulfur, which
makes it a natural enemy of polished
silver. To demonstrate the power of
residual sulfur compounds, wrap a
rubber band around a sterling object
and set it aside for a few days. A gray
line will soon appear. Silver can be
tarnished in dishwashing machines
just from the sulfur contained in the
rubber hoses.
Early natural latex came from the
Amazon Valley of Brazil, until ,
when an English botanist had them
taken to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and
Malaya. Almost all the plantation
trees in the Far East come from
these seedlings. The control of this
concentrated source by Japan during
WWII accelerated the development
of synthetic rubber.

It takes a long time
to become young.
Pablo Picasso
Paper
In ancient Egypt paper was
made by layering softened
papyrus leaves. The Chinese
invented a fiber-based paper
that is similar to most papers used today. To make paper, a fibrous material
(wood, bark, leaves, cotton, wool, etc.) is broken down to small pieces and
mixed with water to make a thick slurry. This is spread on a fine mesh called
a mold. The water is drained off, the sheet is removed from the mold, and
pressed between sheets of felt to remove the moisture. The sheet is set aside
or hung up to dry.
As a jewelry material, paper brings color, rich textures, delicate edges,
and light weight. Disadvantages include the possibility of tearing, staining, or
fading. Paper elements can be protected by coating them with lacquer, acrylic
medium, or similar clear finishes. Rag papers tend to be more resilient than
wood pulp-papers.

 Materials > Nonmetals > Rubber & Paper

Chapter 

Tools
 Handtools

Anyone reading this book already knows about tools, knows about
the timeless and universal appeal of the Right Tool. You know the
way a well-designed tool not only fits into your hand but educates
it as well, like a dancer whose nuanced movements turn clumsiness
to grace. The hand tools of our field—files, pliers, shears, and
hammers—these and a dozen others have been handed down intact
across centuries. They impart a wisdom that traces its roots not to
brilliant thought but to a genius of touch.
Value in handtools falls into several categories: design, quality,
and spirit. The first two are somewhat objective, while the last is
clearly up to you. Duke Ellington said about music, “If it sounds
good, it is good,” and the same thing applies here. If it feels good
and works well, it’s the right tool for the job.

Design
A really good tool will do exactly what you want, exactly where you want
it, without hurting you or the material. Pliers, for instance, will grip tightly
enough for the task at hand without making scratches or causing your hand
to cramp. A good file will remove metal efficiently while allowing control and
comfort. To say this the other way around, a poorly designed tool fails at ease,
control, or efficiency. This provides an opportunity for redesign. Stay alert
for minor adjustments that will improve your tools. Sometimes something
as simple as sanding a hammer handle can transform a crampy bludgeon to a
favorite tool.

Quality
It seems pretty obvious that a tool made of premium material using precision
techniques makes for a superior tool. If your resources allow it, buy the best.
In most cases you can let the price be your guide—better tools cost more and
expensive tools are usually the best. Most of us need to work within a budget,
so the question is when to economize and when to buy top quality.
Take note of which tools wear out first. If your round-nose pliers go slack
and lose their grip before other styles, this tells you which pliers to invest
in. Similarly, watch how you divide your time at the bench. Some people use
needle files an hour a day while others won’t use them that much in a week.
You see how easy this is? Also, bear in mind that you can sometimes buy tools
of high quality from flea markets, antique tool dealers, or on-line auctions.
Careful reading of tool catalogs will tell you what brand names and features to
look for.

Spirit
The favorite tool in any shop is rarely the shiniest one on the bench. There’s
a good chance it will be a hammer with tape on the handle or a graver with a
wrap of wire replacing a lost ferrule. Tools gain character through use because
of the intimate connection between the work and the hand. This is a subjective
matter, crucial to some metalsmiths and less relevant to others, but for those
who value the spirit of a tool, each year of use contributes added power and
pleasure.

 Tools > Handtools

 Layout Tools

Rulers
A ruler, like any other tool, requires some care in use to do its job well.
• When measuring or drawing a line, use a sharp pencil or scribe that can
slide smoothly along the ruler’s edge. Buff the tip of a scribe so it has a
rounded tip.
• Work in lighting that does not cast shadows.
• Steel rulers are more precise than plastic ones.
• Do not take measurements from the end of a ruler. It could be worn and
therefore inaccurate.
• The smallest division of any ruler is printed near one end.

Gauge Plate Micrometer

This is a thick piece of steel cut
with slots of specific size. It
measures both sheet and wire
in the Brown and Sharpe system
(also called American Standard
and American Wire Gauge, AWG).
The other side often shows
thousandths of an
inch.
To use a gauge
plate, find the slot
that makes a snug
fit, but don’t distort
the metal by jamming it in. Be
careful not to measure where
the edge has been thinned by
planishing, or thickened by shears.
This is a precise and accurate tool
used for measuring thickness,
usually in thousandths of an inch.
The barrel unscrews along the
shank, rotating through the digits
 to  at A. Marks on the shank
indicate units of  thousandths
each. The small numbers on the
shank indicate hundredths (i.e., four
units of .)
In the example, the space at B
is . inches.
A
B

Sliding Calipers Degree Gauge Dividers

A casual tool like this brass model
should not be used for extreme
precision, but it is handy for quick
reference. Other sliding calipers
are equiped with digitial readouts
or precise gauges. These can be as
accurate as a micrometer.
In this spring-activated tool the size
of the opening at the top
is indicated by the scale
at the bottom. Also called
a  gauge or douzième
(“twelfth”) gauge from
the French watchmakers’
measurement. 
douzièmes =  ligne =
. inch.
In addition to making
circles like a compass, the
dividers can be used to
hold a measurement for
quick reference. Another
use is to lay out parallel
lines by dragging one leg of
the tool along the edge of
a piece of metal. It is handy
to have several sizes.

Tools > Handtools > Layout 

 Bench Accessories

Bench Pin
Any hardwood can be used to make
a bench pin. This shape is a common
starting place, but in practice the pin is
filed, drilled, and carved to meet specific
needs. You might find you want different
interchangeable pins to meet a variety of
specific needs.
Avoid drilling holes in the bench pin
because they trap metal and eventually make the surface irregular. Keep a block of
wood handy for drilling. An exception to this is a few well-placed holes that make
it possible to work on objects with pinbacks and similar projections.

Bench Knife Which Side Up? Squares

A knife can be improvised by
grinding and resharpening a kitchen
paring knife. These can often be
bought at flea markets.
Many people flip the pin over
depending on the work being
done—flat for sawing and sloped for
filing. A variation on this is to create
a sloped edge on the flat side.
A small square can be made from
steel or brass rod. One side is
thicker than the other to allow
the square to rest against the item
being marked. File a notch and
solder the pieces together carefully.
Test against a commercial square, if
it is not right, reheat and adjust. Do
not try to fix by filing.

Scraper Sanding Boards Pliers Rack

A scraper can be made by breaking
off an old triangular file and
grinding a point. Faces should be
ground smooth and polished.
Make these boards by gluing papers A pliers rack can be made from a
of various grits to panels of Masonite piece of coat hanger wire or a 1⁄2"
or Plexiglas. Both sides can be strip of steel or brass.
used, so three boards will provide a
thorough range of grits. These are
especially handy for truing up flat
areas. A hole in the corner of the
boards will allow them to be hung
out of the way.

Saw Blade Holders Sweeps Drawer

Cut a small hole in a back corner of the sweeps drawer and cover it with
a piece of window screen. Below this, attach a shallow box that can be
removed. The box and track that holds it can be made of brass, tinplate, wood,
or plastic. Sweep scraps over this to quickly sort the larger pieces from filings.

 Tools > Handtools > Bench Accessories

 Bending Tools

Standard Pliers
Pliers come in several grades and a couple sizes. The word watchmaker
indicates a smaller than average pliers. Generally the higher the
cost the better the steel and manufacture. Box joints (which trap
on piece inside the other) are preferred over the weaker lap joint.

Specialty Pliers
Pliers can be purchased or modified in the studio to deliver specific results.
Here are a few possibilities…
• File one jaw of a round-nose pliers to make a wedge.
A pinch with this will notch a wire for bending.
• To make a large version of a round-nose pliers, solder short
pieces of copper or brass pipe onto pliers. Some filing of the
jaws might be needed to make a good fit. For softer work,
epoxy short pieces of plastic pipe.

• Sometimes the width of pliers is not exactly the right width

for a design. To modify this, solder a piece of steel, nickel
silver, or brass into a notch cut in the pliers.

Bending Tubes Bending Jigs Ring-Forming Pliers

Tubes will collapse when bent
unless they are supported.
Historically, tubing was filled
with lead or sand and capped
by soldering a bit of sheet on
both ends before bending. A
modern alternative is to use nylon
monofilament fishing line to fill the
interior space. The plastic can be
burned away after completing the
bend.
Wire forming tools are steel
springs that circle a tube and
distribute stresses throughout
the piece. These can be purchased
in sets of several sizes or you can
make your own by wrapping steel
or hardened brass wire around a
rod slightly smaller than the tube
you need to bend (to allow for
springback).
For relatively minor bends,
pull the tube through a drawplate,
pulling at an angle. Lubricate with a
light oil and anneal frequently.
Simple jigs with movable pins are
used to make multiple geometric
forms. Use hardwood or plastic
for the base and mark the holes
carefully. To ensure vertical holes,
use a drill press. Pins can be made
of steel (nails) or brass (brazing
rod) and must make a tight fit.
They should extend no more than
1⁄2" above the base. To expand
the options, make pins in several
sizes using dowels, washers, or
plastic brushings. The jig should
be attached to the workbench or
should be able to be held in a vise.
For larger curves or unusual
shapes, cut templates from
Masonite or aluminum. To improve
leverage, slide a piece of pipe or
tubing
over the
end of
the piece.
One of the most versatile and
effective specialty pliers has one
flat and one curved jaw. These have
the advantage of a curved bending
mandrel matched with a flat
tangent face. Note how this differs
from round-nose pliers which focus
energy at a single point, almost
always making a dent on the convex
side of a bend.
To make standard ring-forming
pliers, file, then sand one jaw of a
flat-nose pliers. To make a larger
version, solder a curved piece of
brass, nickel silver, or steel to one
jaw of a large pair of pliers.

Tools > Handtools > Bending Tools 

 Cutting Tools

Tips for Using Files

The teeth on all files point away from the handle and therefore cut on the
push stroke. Lift the file or ease pressure on the return stroke.
Press down on the top of the file with your index finger while filing. It is
important to hold the workpiece stable so the file meets resistance. Cut
notches in the bench pin as needed. Don’t file while walking around.
Dust files with chalk or talc to prevent clogging, especially when filing soft
materials like plastic, white metals, or soft wood.
Keep files clean with a file card (a wire brush) or by scraping with a thin
piece of brass. As it is used, the brass will develop serrations that reach
into the file’s grooves.

Hand files are described by the length of the working area, usually , , or ".
Needle files are usually sold by total length.

Without any doubt, good and accurate

use of files comes from practice

hand half-round warding crossing round triangle
and more practice.

Charles Jarvis
flat knife slitting joint

Nomenclature
Single cut Double cut Soft metal Conventional American-made files use these names: rough, bastard, second
cut, smooth, and super smooth. Foreign-made files are often called “Swiss”
files. They are usually graded by number from  (coarsest) to . American-
made files that emulate high quality files are called Swiss Pattern and you’ll
find these only from specialty suppliers.

Storage Rifflers Handles

Most damage is done to files when
they rub against each other. Arrange
some method at your bench to keep
files apart.
Rifflers, also called die sinkers files,
have a small curved tooth section
at each end. They are particularly
handy for reaching into tight places.
Files should be equipped with
handles to provide increased leverage
and to protect your hand from being
poked by the tang. Handles are
usually held on by friction, though
some have a threading mechanism
inside the ferrule.

 Tools > Cutting Tools > Files

 Cutting Tools

Sawframes
Though available in several styles, the only significant difference—the only
reason to have more than one—is depth, the distance from the blade to the
back. Smaller frames (–") are easier to control, while larger frames might
be needed for large-scale work. Cheap sawframes are false economy because
they result in broken blades and wasted time. (This is also true of cheap saw
blades.) To improve gripping comfort, slide a foam bicycle handgrip over the
saw handle.

Saw Blade Specifications Why do they make so many sizes of blades?

There is an ideal relationship between blade size and the thickness of the metal
blade use on drill teeth being cut. When three teeth engage the metal, the first one cuts on the left, the
size B&S per inch
next tooth cuts on the right, and the third tooth keeps the blade running straight.
8/0 26–28 80 89 If the blade is too small for the metal being cut (more than three teeth per
7/0 24–26 80 84 thickness) it will clog and is more likely to break. If the blade is too large (only two
6/0 24 79 76 teeth on the metal) it will be difficult to control and will cut with a jerky motion.
5/0 22-24 78 71
4/0 22 77 66 Blades
3/0 22 76 61 The teeth of a saw blade are angled outward
2/0 20–22 75 56 alternately in a pattern called the set. This
1/0 18–22 73 53 allows the corner of each tooth (yellow) to engage and shear off a chip.
1 18–20 71 51 The chip is then passed along the tooth and ejected out of the cut (red).
2 16–18 70 43 When a sawblade is dull it is usually because the set has worn away.
3 16–18 67 40
4 16–18 67 35
Snips
5 16 65 35
6 14 58 33 Snips cut by creating stress that breaks the molecular bonds of the material.
7 12 57 30 Side cutters: most familiar, all-purpose Sprue cutters: compound action
8 12 55 28 wire cutter. device that provides
increased leverage;
the snip version of
Spiral Blades aviation shears.
In soft materials like wax and plastic,
the cuttings tend to build up and End cutters: designed to reach into Fingernail clippers are handy
melt because of friction heat, tight corners, usually more delicate wirecutters. Modified tweezers: file
which makes the blade bind therefore not tips to make sharp edges.
up. A spiral blade solves these recommended
problems by cutting a kerf that for thick wires.
is wider than the blade itself.
These commercially available
blades are made by twisting a
blade so that the teeth project Snips & Shears
outward in all directions. In • Plate shears — are sturdy scissors with a short cutting edge made for cutting
a pinch these can be made in metal sheet. Kitchen scissors are equally useful.
the studio: Grip a sawblade at • Bezel scissors — delicate, with short jaws. Manicure scissors are weaker but often
each end with pliers or a pin handy.
vise. Hold the blade in a torch • Compound action (aviation) shears — versatile shears that, like a block and
flame until a one-inch section tackle, provide increased leverage. These often come with serrated jaws that
becomes red, then twist while keep the metal from slipping but leave a mark on the edge. To avoid this, grind
still in the flame. Move to the off the serrations.
adjacent section and repeat until the • Spring shears — have the advantage of easy grip-and-snip and are often preferred
entire blade has been twisted. by bead stringers.

Tools > Cutting Tools > Saws & Shears 


Vent Tables
A much better form of ventilation
uses a vacuum system working at
the level of the bench top. These
pick up fumes before they have a
chance to rise to the height of the
operator’s face.
Exhaust Table
Cap one end of a piece of " PVC
pipe as long as the table and
connect the other to the hose of a
shop vacuum. Drill several dozen
1⁄4" holes along one side, angled
down. The shorter and smaller the
pipe, the more
powerful the
exhaust.
 Tools > Studio Tools > Ventilation
Ventilation
Push versus Pull
It takes roughly  times more force to pull a contaminant than to
push it. Think of it this way: a given thrust of air can push a cotton
ball from " away, but to pull that ball with the same amount of
suction, the intake must be no more than an inch away. A small fan
behind you pushing fumes
out a window is more
effective than a large "
fan trying to draw them
from within the window.
Respirators
Respirators filter air before it enters your system. They
are generally considered less effective than active
ventilation since they can be a little uncomfortable
and therefore are often set aside. Use respirators only
for temporary or mobile situations when a proper
system is not an option. A worthwhile respirator will
have a canister or cartridge filter to chemically remove
impurities and will cost at least  with cartridges.
A paper dust mask is intended only to capture relatively large particles and
should not be considered adequate protection for professional craftspeople.
> Look for the NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health)
seal of approval.
> Choose a filter made for the danger to which you are exposed.
> Your mask must make a tight and comfortable fit. Buy the right size and
have it properly fitted to your face. Do not borrow or lend a mask.
> Change filters as needed—you’ll know it’s time when you are aware of
odors entering the mask or when intake becomes difficult. If you have
trouble breathing or a history of respiratory illness, consult a doctor at the
first sign of breathing difficulty.
Replacement Air
It’s true: the universe abhors a
vacuum. When you pull air out
of your studio, the universe finds
some new air to take its place. If you
supply this, the task of pulling out
the old air is much easier. In other
words, before you try to draw fumes
away, start by supplying fresh air
from across the room.
 Tube Cutting & Scoring Tools

Tube Cutting
Tubing cannot be cut with shears or snips because it will collapse. When
sawing a tube, the blade encounters a wide section at the tangent (first and
last cuts) and two thin walls at the equator (mid-cut). Because of this, it is
difficult to saw a square-ended tube. For light work use an X-Acto blade,
rolling the tube across a flat surface as you press down. For more accurate
cutting, use these alternatives.

Bench pin Tube-cutting jig Miter-cutting jig

Clamp a board onto the side of
your bench pin and drill holes of
several sizes centered on the place
where the board touches the pin.
Make sure the holes are exactly
perpendicular to the top of the pin.
Remove the board and you’ll have a
series of grooves
that will secure
a section of
tube as you file
across the top.
The sawblade (held in its usual
sawframe) should fit right between
two hardened steel plates. Press the
blade against one of these plates as
you saw to make a flat cut. It is also
possible to file the end of a tube or
wire while it is held in the cutting
jig. These are available
in handheld and
benchtop varieties.
Clamp a piece of tubing or other
material into this hardened steel
frame and saw against it, allowing
the blade to scrape against the
tool. Finish with a file to achieve a
precise angle. Unlike
a tube cutting jig, this
has both º and º
angles.

Scoring Tools
… from a file … from square bar
. File a point . Saw a line about
on the end 1⁄2" from the end,
of a file, crossing the section
such that it resembles a roof. The diagonally.
angle should be º if the goal is . Heat to red and press the tip of
to make square corners. the bar against a brick so it bends
. File both planes so they tilt back. back about º.
. Heat about 3⁄4" of the tang to . Heat to red and quench in oil or
bright red and bend with pliers to brine.
a right angle. Reheat to achieve a . Polish the
bright red-orange and quench in sawn edge
oil (preferred) or brine. with a stone
Scoring with a File . Sharpen the tip on a whetstone or fine
Use either a square file or the or with fine sandpaper. sandpaper.
corner of a flat file to cut a V-
groove. To reach the midsection
Compression Scoring Milling
of a long line, bend a triangular or
square needle file to expose the Use a rolling mill to force a wire into Clamp a knife-edge bur or Hart bur
a sheet. After in a flex shaft to improvise a milling
teeth. Heat the file red, bend it
annealing, machine. It’s possible to move the tool
with pliers
the sheet will over the metal, but for more control,
and quench bend along the make a jig that allows the work to slide
immediately thinner section. under the bur, which is held stationary.
in water.
Tools > Forming Tools > Tube Cutting & Scoring Tools 
 Hammers & Mallets

Hammers
The heart of the metalsmith’s shop is in the hammers. In fact the word
“smith” is derived from the verb “to smite” which means “to hit.” While only
a couple hammers are needed to get started, most smiths collect specialized
Planishing
hammers as their shops grow. Metalworking hammers can be bought new,
but many smiths acquire and alter old hammer heads to suit their needs.

Care Cast versus Forged

Hammer faces that will touch a Cast hammerheads can be reshaped
workpiece should be free of pits easily by grinding. Forged heads are
and scale. Many smiths keep a piece tougher because the steel has been
Forging of crocus cloth at hand to rub the densely packed during manufacture.
face of each hammer before using These are made in a machine-driven
it. Use a stiff muslin buff with a tool called a drop hammer and are
tough abrasive compound like sometimes called drop-forged.
White Diamond, Simichrome, or
Chasing
Lea compound to polish hammers
and stakes. For long-term storage
protect hammer faces with a layer
of Vaseline, wax, or oil.

Mallets
Riveting Tools in this family will bend metal
without stretching or marring it.
Probably the most popular material
for mallets is treated rawhide. Other
choices include wood, horn, fiber,
plastic, and rubber. A popular material
Ball peen for raising mallets is Ultra High
Molecular Weight (UHMW) plastic,
which is rigid and inexpensive.

Modified claw
This old anvil laughs at
many a broken hammer.
Carl Sandburg
Deadblow Mallets
Most hammers bounce back (recoil) when they strike something, a
phenomenon that makes the blow seem alive. This style of mallet is designed
to kill the recoil, hence the name. A deadblow mallet has a
hollow interior partially filled with sand or small pieces of a
heavy metal like steel or lead. A split second after the blow
is delivered, this mobile weight slams against the recoil and
cancels it out.
Deadblow mallets can be purchased from suppliers
of metalsmithing and industrial equipment. To make one
yourself, attach a handle to a length of pipe for which you
have prepared end caps of wood, plastic, or leather. Add BBs
or buckshot to fill the chamber about two-thirds full and
secure the caps in place.

 Tools > Shop Tools > Hammers & Mallets


Mandrels
It seems impossible to have too
many mandrels. The most common
varieties are the tapered mandrels
named for their uses—bezel, ring,
and bracelet—but any hard object
that will lend you its shape will
work. Here are some economical
substitutes for conventional tools.
• drift pin (hardware store)
• drive pin (auto parts store)
• machine shop rejects
• chair or table leg (junkyard)
• machine parts (junkyard)
• baseball bat (local team)
Handles & Mandrels
Handles
These must be strong without being bulky or heavy. Dense fibrous woods like
hickory and ash are commonly used. A long-handled hammer delivers more
power but is more difficult to control than a short-handled
one. The correct length will provide a comfortable balance
between power and control. For smithing, a rounded end
on the handle is usually more comfortable than a squared-
off shape.
A cross section that is oval or faceted generally
provides a more efficient and comfortable grip than a
round handle. Rubberized coatings are available but many
people prefer the feel and grip of smooth untreated wood.
It will acquire a hand oil finish during use.
Grip
Improper handle design is one factor that can lead to repetitive stress injuries
(RSIs), described in more detail in the Appendix. Hand and arm muscles get
stressed when a handle is too large or too slim. At the first sign of cramped
or sore muscles in your arm, wrist or hand, modify the hammer handle. If it
seems large, use a file or wood rasp to make it thinner. If it is too thin, wrap
the handle with tape. The best tape for this
purpose is a slightly spongy material sold at
bicycle shops.
Some metalsmiths find it helpful to wear
a lightweight glove that cushions their grip.
These gloves are available through medical
supply companies; a bicycling glove is often an
acceptable and less expensive substitute.
Chasing Hammers Handling
These hammers File the top of the handle to a
combine light gradual taper that fits snugly
weight, comfort, into the eye, which has its larger
and snap. European opening upward. Make a saw cut in
style chasing the top of the handle a little shorter
hammers have a than the long axis of the eye. Tap
broad face to easily the handle into place and check the
find the tool. Asian alignment. Slide a wooden wedge
hammers use a into place, dab some white glue on
short piece of steel it, and pound it into position. Trim
rod. A bamboo off excess after the glue dries.
chopstick makes an
effective handle;
wrap with cord to
enlarge the grip.
Tools > Shop Tools > Handles & Mandrels 
 Anvils & Stakes

Anvils
There was a time when every
farm had an anvil and most cities
had a supplier, but nowadays they
are increasingly difficult to find.
Used anvils occasionally turn up
at auctions and scrap dealers. For
an anvil in decent condition you can expect to pay about a dollar a pound.
The face of an anvil can be ground smooth by a machine shop. Attempts
to weld on a new face or fill recesses with welding rod are generally unsuc-
cessful or prohibitively expensive. In grinding the face, take care not to cut
away the hardened steel plate that makes up the top 1⁄2" of the face.
A good anvil can be made from a piece of railroad track. Find these at
a junkyard or foundry. The surface should be ground smooth, either by a
machine shop or with a belt sander. A point can be cut with an oxyacetylene
torch, but that is optional. Other flat pieces of steel may be used as anvils.
Though it helps to have hardened steel, it is not essential. Keep it heavy,
smooth, and well-anchored, and it will work.

Anvil Stands Stakes

Occasionally you will turn up a
piece of scrap steel with a useful
shape. Some smiths forge their own
stakes or make patterns in wood
to be cast at a steel foundry. Maple
wood can be used in many cases and
has the advantage of not marring
the work piece; see page  for a
wooden side stake for crimping and
raising. A new generation of stakes
is being made of hard plastics like
nylon, Delrin, and Ultra High Mo-
sand lecular Weight (UHMW). Thermo-
plastics, which can be shaped when
warm, offer many possibilities.

By the hammer Weight

The greater the mass, the better an anvil can absorb the shock of a blow,
and hand, all the which translates to greater efficiency. For light work a small  pound anvil is
OK, but for real forging and raising you’ll want at least  pounds.
arts do stand.
Older anvils are marked with a three-digit number. The first digit
indicates the number of whole hundredweights, the second indicates the
number of quarter hundredweights and the last number indicates the
number of pounds remaining. A hundredweight (abbreviated cwt.) is actually
Traditional
 pounds. A quarter cwt. is twenty eight pounds. To calculate the weight
of the anvil in pounds: multiply the first number by , multiply the second
by , and add the two results to the third number. A -- anvil weighs 
pounds: ( x ) + ( x ) +  = . Simple, huh?

 Tools > Shop Tools > Anvils & Stakes

 Vises

Vises
Woodworkers, cobblers, machinists, and all sorts of metalworkers have
relied on vises for many years. Vises are available in a wide range of sizes and
quality. An inexpensive vise is acceptable for light duty, but if you push, pull,
or hammer on your vise you will want a professional quality tool. Vises are
described either by weight or by the width of the jaw.

Pin Vise Bench Vise Leg Vise

This is a small handheld tool that The basic This venerable
grips small parts for filing, bending, model is tool is
engraving, fixed; some mounted on
and other vises can the front edge
tasks. They are be rotated. of a bench and
usually about While this is especially
the size of a short feature can stable because
pen and come in be handy, these vises are not quite force applied to
open-jaw and collet as strong. Sizes are given by the it is transferred
versions. A free-rotating handle is a width of the jaw or total weight. to the ground.
nice feature. Some models have reversible jaws
to allow a smooth or textured grip.

Jaw Protectors
Many vises come with double-sided plates across the
jaws that can be mounted to expose either a smooth or a
heavily textured side. Jewelers usually want the smooth
side out, but even this can damage nonferrous metals,
so removable jaws are helpful. These can be made from
copper and cut out so they have fingers that curl around
the edges of the vise to hold them in place.
Alternate jaw guards are made from leather,
rubber, or plastic. Secure these with rubber bands
or a magnetic strip, sold in hardware stores, which
often has an adhesive on one side.

Mounting Options
There is only one way to mount a vise—securely. If it wiggles, any filing,
hammering, or measuring will be compromised. Attach vises to strong and
preferably heavy tables or stumps. If this is impossible, anchor the table
into a wall with a strong brace, making sure you connect with the studs in
the wall. Use screws or
bolts that fit the holes
vise
in the mounting plate
on the vise, and include
washers as necessary. wall

Tools > Shop Tools > Vises 


A good drawplate…
> will have a uniform
progression of sizes,
> will have symmetrical and
gradual tapers,
> will have a polished bore,
> will be of quality steel and
well hardened.
Available from:
Hydrosorbent Products
PO Box 
 School Street
Ashley Falls, MA 
--
--
fax: --
orders@dehumidify.com
www.dehumidify.com
 Tools > Shop Tools > Wire Drawing
Wire Drawing Tools
Drawplates
Drawplates are plates of hardened steel with conical
holes of decreasing size. Their primary use is to make
wire, but they are also used to change the cross
section of wire, make tubing, harden wire, and shape
chains. Drawplates are available in a wide range of
quality, from very precise to crude. In ancient times,
wire was made by twisting strips of metal cut from sheets, but drawplates
were used in the th century by monastic goldsmiths and Viking craftsmen.
Draw Tongs
These heavy pliers are equipped with
coarse gripping jaws and a hook-shaped
handle to facilitate a muscular pull. The
front edges of the jaws are curved to
encourage a leveraging action early in
the pull. Vise-grip pliers can substitute but they are not as good as the real
thing because the tips do not grip as well and the straight handles are more
difficult to grasp. When the gripping plates wear out, fold strips of coarse
sandpaper into the jaws.
Lubrication Drawbench
Wax is often used to lubricate drawing This tool increases leverage by using
but this leaves a dirt-laden waxy a turning wheel to effect the pull;
buildup that needs to be removed. the larger the wheel, the better the
Don’t try to burn it off! Instead, soak leverage.
the drawplate overnight in kerosene,
then scrub with an old toothbrush.
Draw lengths of string through the
holes, doubling or tripling as needed,
to clean away debris. Instead of wax,
lubricate with a light oil.
Rust Prevention
To reduce rust on tools you use every day, place a silica gel pack in drawers
and toolboxes. These are familiar as the small bundles that are packed with
cameras, stereo equipment, and computers. Toss these in your toolbox
instead of throwing them away. Silica gel is a porous, granular form of silica,
synthetically manufactured from sodium silicate. The internal structure of
each small silica gel granule has microscopic pores
that attract and hold moisture. Silica gel is inert, non-
toxic, and safe enough to protect foods, medicines,
and electronics. Even when saturated with moisture,
silica gel looks and feels dry to the touch.
To be most effective, the gel packs should be
placed in contained spaces such as tool boxes and drawers. When the gel
becomes saturated it can be reactivated by warming it for a few hours in an
oven. See the manufacturer’s instructions for your particular product – some
change color to indicate their moisture content.

Lenses
Since the development of lenses
in the th century, magnification
has been helping jewelers. The
small handheld loupe is an icon of
jewelers and gem dealers. Loupes
are available in many versions, the
principal factors being:
• quality of lens material (glass is
better than plastic)
• quality of grinding
• range of magnification (some
offer x, x, and x)
• adjustment for distortion of
color and shape
Magnification
Microscopes
A microscope is the top of the line for clarity, magnification, and ease of use.
A proper setup will include a versatile mounting, a wrap-around light source,
and a stable bench that does not vibrate. The working zone is usually only
an inch or two across, making microscopes most useful to engravers and
stonesetters. Used microscopes are sometimes available from medical and
scientific suppliers, but you’ll want to try it out before buying. Microscopy
is a complex science and most instruments are made for specific purposes.
A microscope designed to function primarily with light passing through a
translucent sample will not be helpful to a metalsmith.
Recently the addition of video cameras and monitors has changed the
way magnification is used in the studio. It is possible to buy a microscope in
which the image is transmitted onto a video monitor. These are widely used
in medicine. A less expensive variation is to use a conventional video camera
run through a TV. Because the camera can zoom in closely, it mimics the
effect of a microscope, though its range is limited. Where a microscope can
make the head of a pin fill a TV screen, a video camera will typically stop at
the point where a postage stamp will fill the screen. This setup is useful when
teaching because it allows a group of students to see close-ups of what is
being done, but it is impractical for working because the angle of the camera
is not the same as what the jeweler sees in real space.
Contributing Factors
• Power — The strength of a device is called its power and is the result of two
or more lenses working in conjunction. Power is indicated by an “x” (as in
x, which means the image is seen at  times its actual size).
• Resolution — the quality of the image, usually the result of well cut lenses.
• Proper lighting — A broad, nonreflective light source is important.
• Stability — It is important that the camera or microscope be securely
mounted to a surface that will not vibrate with foot traffic or building use.
Headgear Magnification versus Depth of Field
Several companies make headbands These two factors are usually at
that provide medium-range odds: the greater the magnification,
magnification (–x) at a comfortable the shallower the depth of field. A
working distance such as –". These contoured object will be out of focus
allow the use of both hands, swing up except for a small section at the
when not needed, and move around optimum distance from the lens. For
the studio with you. They should this reason it is very difficult to work
be comfortable, lightweight, and under a loupe.
appropriate in magnification to the
needs at hand. An optional attached Using a Loupe
loupe is handy for people who need To use a loupe, hold it up to the eye
frequent close-up observations (e.g., (remove glasses) and bring the work
stonesetters). into the proper range. If possible,
avoid
squinting—it
tires face
muscles.
Tools > Shop Tools > Magnification 
 Flexible Shaft

Flexible Shaft Machine

This relatively new member of the studio has become extremely popular
because of its versatility. It is used to drill, grind, sand, carve, and buff. With
the addition of a reciprocating hand piece (which converts rotation to back-
and-forth motion), it can be used for light hammering. What we call “flex
shaft” is actually four elements.
Flex shafts are usually sold in packages with all the necessary parts,
but individual components can be replaced or upgraded. Not all parts are
interchangeable, so consult suppliers for details.
• Motor — A compact precision motor capable of speeds of
, – , rpm (revolutions per minute). Available in ⁄,
1⁄8, ⁄, 1⁄4, and 1⁄2 horsepower.
• Electronic Foot Control — A rheostat pedal that controls
speed with foot pressure.
• Shaft — A steel spring encased in a rubber-clad sheath that
carries the rotary motion of the motor to a handpiece.
• Handpiece — A steel and aluminum cylinder that connects the
power to a variety of tools and provides a comfortable way to
hold and manipulate the tool.

Mounting
Flex shafts should be mounted at a height that allows comfortable use while
allowing the shaft to hang in gentle curves.

3⁄4" threaded steel Two washers welded into

pipe (about  feet) a piece of angle iron. Split
with a floor flange the bottom " and bend
that can be screwed out to make legs.
into the benchtop.

Drill and saw two parallel lines in

a sheet of steel, brass, or nickel
silver and pound the strap portion
through vise jaws.

What is torque? Chuck Keys Hanging Chuck Key

We can think of torque as the ability To keep this important A retractable
of a motor to deal with a heavy tool close at hand, keychain
load. If a motor has low torque you mount it into a file mounted on
will be able to make it slow down handle or solder the front of
or even stop by applying pressure it to a screwdriver the bench is
(drag). A machine with high torque handle. Make a loop an elegant
uses better machining and precision of copper or brass solution.
gearing to adapt to load. A machine to attach it to a cord
with high torque will perform better that is fastened to
and last longer than one with low the bench.
torque.

 Tools > Shop Tools > Flexible Shaft

 Grinders & Sanders

Safety
Check frequently for cracks in a
wheel. Discard if even a hairline
fracture is found.
Goggles and gloves, oh yes.
The tool rest must be close
to the wheel. A gap here is an
invitation to snag the work.

Bench Grinder Belt Sanders

This compact, bench-mounted These versatile machines are
motor is mostly used by blacksmiths available in several sizes, most
and studios working on a larger- having belts that are ", ", or
than-jewelry scale. Do not rig up a " wide. In most cases belts are
grinder from a general-use motor. purchased as
The steel sleeves and tool rest are continuous
vital to safe use. loops that are
Most wheels held on the
are made of fired driving and
ceramic material guide wheel by
that has been spring tension.
impregnated with
abrasive grit.
Imagine putting
a dinner plate on a machine that
spins it around really fast and you
get an idea of how dangerous this
can be.

Tips
What looks good can change,
> Be certain the belt is oriented properly; look for an arrow on the inside.
but what works, works. These fade quickly so it’s a good idea to go over them with permanent
marker before you first install a belt.
> To test tracking, turn the machine on and immediately off again. If the
Ray Eames
belt slides sideways, adjust the tracking screw slightly and repeat.
> If a combustible material (e.g., wood) was used, be sure to clean the
machine thoroughly before grinding steel. Sparks can start a fire deep
inside where it can smolder unseen.
> Because the belts move so quickly, grits usually give a finer finish than
the same paper used by hand.
> Be careful that friction heat doesn’t destroy temper, damage stones,
cause adhesives to break down, or scorch organic materials.

Tools > Shop Tools > Grinders & Sanders 

 Compressors & Ultrasonics

Air Compressors
Centuries ago soldering was accomplished with a blowpipe but, human
lungs being what they are, moving air was not used for other tasks around
the studio. Metalsmiths embraced air compressors when they came into
widespread use.
Compressors use a piston to draw air from the environment and capture
it in a storage tank. The air is released on demand and can be used to power
rotary tools, hammers, sandblasters, torches, and dozens of other tools.
Pneumatic (i.e., air-driven) tools are generally easier to maintain than electric
equivalents because they have fewer moving parts.

Blowpipe Bellows Compressor

Mechanics
Air compressors vary according to:
• size of motor (measured in horsepower)
• volume of air that can be held (measured in the capacity of the tank,
usually in gallons)
• maximum force that can be delivered (measured in pounds per square
inch, psi)
• rate at which the air can be moved
gauge
(measured in cubic feet per minute, cfm) (in psi) compressor
• the duty rating:  means the
machine is built to stand up to constant
use; a rating of / means the machine
should rest for periods equal to use. storage tank

A small sandblaster might require drain valve

# psi at  cfm. A machine delivering
this will typically have a  gallon tank
hose & nozzle
and a 3⁄4 horsepower compressor.

Tip: Ultrasonic
Plastic-coated wire will avoid Ultrasonic machines transmit high-frequency sound waves through liquid. When
scratching finished work. Make the waves strike a solid object they bounce off; if the surface is irregular they
hooks from wire discarded by bounce like a ping-pong ball in a phone booth. This
telephone action loosens particles of dirt and debris (such
installers. as polishing compounds). Ultrasonic cleaning has
become standard practice before undertaking repairs
and after all polishing is complete. For maximum
effect, suspend the work in a bath of solvent, usually
soap. Some machines include a heating element
because heat helps dissolve residue.

 Tools > Shop Tools > Compressors & Ultrasonics

 Sandblaster & Hone

Sandblasters
This straightforward tool shoots particles
of grit at a surface—sandpaper without
the paper. Forced air provides the muscle.
In outdoor situations (like scouring a
building) the grit is thrown once then
swept up and discarded. In studio
applications, the apparatus is contained
in a box that drops the sand to the
bottom where it can be suctioned up
and recycled. Grit is available in several
materials and shapes, including glass
beads. When using those, the process is
properly called beadblasting.

Process
. Select the correct grit. Too coarse can leave the metal
dangerously thin; too fine wastes your time.
. Open the lid and place the work
inside the box. Turn on the interior
light and the compressor.
. Lock the lid closed.
. Reach into the box through the
attached gloves, grasping the gun
in one hand and the work in the
other.
. Rotate the work in your palm to
guarantee consistent exposure. For
small pieces, attach a cord to facilitate grip.

When you get a thing Sandblasting as Miracle Cure Power Hone

It isn’t. For jewelers, sandblasting is
the way you want it, primarily a surface finishing tech-
nique (unlike mechanics, who use it
leave it alone.
to remove rust, for instance). Don’t
use sandblasting to substitute for
careful sanding: the form should be
completely refined before blasting.
Winston Churchill
This specialized tool was developed
to sharpen gravers, but if you have
one in the studio you’ll probably find
other uses. A diamond-impregnated
steel disk is driven at a relatively slow
speed. Drip a little water on the disk
to lubricate the cutting action. Do not
use any compound. Wipe the disk dry
with a cloth when you’re finished.

Tools > Shop Tools > Sandblaster & Hone 

 Basic Bench

Basic Jewelers Bench

This bench has been designed so it can be made from easily available
materials without sophisticated woodworking equipment. People with
woodworking skills might use these ideas as a point of departure.

Plywood or MDF Masonite

Materials
1 4' x 8' x 3⁄4" plywood or MDF A E
1 4' x 8' x 1⁄4" tempered Masonite
2 2' x 4' x 8' (s straight as possible) B F
25' 1 x 3; random lengths
C C G G G
18' 1 x 2, randoms lengths
6' 1 x 6 D D H D
box 11⁄2" plaster nails
4 3" flat head wood screws
extra extra

Parts List
Plywood or MDF Masonite

A Top (1) 48 x 24 E Top (1) 48 x 24

B Back (1) 48 x 12 F Sweeps (1) 29 x 22
C Case Sides (2) 18 x 22 G Drawers (3) 111⁄2 x 22
D Case ends (2) 113⁄4 x 22 H Case back (1) 133⁄4 x 18

Directions
. Cut the pieces, except for the sweeps
drawer components. The dimensions
given do not allow for a saw kerf. If
you are using a handsaw, this space
is not too important, but you should
allow for an 1⁄8" kerf if you use a table
saw.
. Glue pieces A and AA together to make the top. Use a white glue
like Elmer’s or Tite-bond, set the pieces together, and clamp or
weight them overnight. Traditionally, jewelers benches have a
“belly hole” to allow closer access. Benches without cutouts are
preferred by watchmakers. Use a saber saw after the parts have
been glued together if you want a hole.

 Tools > Studio Tools > Basic Bench

 Basic Bench

. Make both leg assemblies, using . Screw the xx"cross brace into . Lay to top in place and use the "
a square to be sure that the the leg braces. Glue and screw. screws to join it to the legs. Use four
pieces are at right angles. Glue Attach the back (D), allowing half of screws across the back (D) to anchor
and screw each joint. it to project above the legs. it to the top.

make

"

Leave space
for the cross
brace.
"

. Make a plywood box to hold the . Nail the top and bottom between the . Flip the bench upside down and set
three drawers. This will be fully sides. Lay the box face down and nail the box into place. Attach it with
assembled, then screwed onto a Masonite panel on the back. screws into the top and the legs.
the underside of the top.
First, cut 3⁄4" by 3⁄4" strips from
a x to make the cleats. Nail
and glue these onto what will
be the inside walls of the box.
make


"

" 3⁄4"

. The drawersides, fronts and
backs are made from of x. Nail
or screw them together, then
glue and nail a Masonite panel
on the bottom. Sand all the
edges to make them round.
. The sweeps drawer slides between
the two cleats on each side. If all
other measurements were accurate, it
will be " wide, but this might have
changed. Measure the space and make
the drawer to match. Assemble like
the other drawers, using x boards
for the sides, front and back.
. You can be cut on the dotted line
for easier access, but don’t cut away
too much of the sides or the drawer
will tip forward when open. Rub the
drawer bottom and the cleats with
soap to help them slide easier.

cleats

Tools > Studio Tools > Basic Bench 

 Advanced Bench

Advanced Bench
This sophisticated bench costs a little more and is a bit more difficult to make
than the one on the preceeding page, but the extra effort will be repaid by
years of efficient work. Use this pattern as a starting point, but feel free to
make changes to suit your individual needs.

Materials
This bench is made of maple or a similar hardwood. Construction requires a
table saw and cabinetmaking skills. The sizes given are standard, but of course
you can change them to suit your needs. An advantage of this bench is that it
breaks down tof travel and can be fit in the trunk of a car.

All measurements refer to inches.

36" 22"

36"

10"

Parts List Top (1) 36 x 22 x 11⁄2 Drawer

Legs (4) 36 x 3 x 11⁄2 Sides (2) 20 x 6 x 3⁄4
Front (1) 34* x 6 x 3⁄4
Short Braces (4) 20 x 3 x 11⁄2 Back (1) 32* x 6 x 3⁄4
Long Braces (2) 36 x 3 x 11⁄2 Sweeps
Sides (2) 20 x 3 x 3⁄4
Front (1) 34* x 2 x 3⁄4
Back (1) 32* x 3 x 3⁄4

* approximate

 Tools > Studio Tools > Advanced Bench


. Make the top, either from plywood
laminated with Masonite, by gluing
up strips, or from commercial butcher
block. The heavier the better, since
this helps anchor the bench.
. With the braces in position, drill 3⁄8"
holes directly through the tenons
from the outside. These will be
joined with bolts that will hold the
legs together but allow them to be
disassembled. A 1⁄2" hole in the
brace allows access
for a washer
and nut.
. Cut a dado on the front piece and
either dovetail or lap joints on
the back corners. Set a piece of 1⁄4"
plywood or Masonite into a groove
along the bottom edge.
. To hold a bench pin, buy a " x " x 1⁄4"
piece of steel. Route an opening this
size at the front edge of the top.
Advanced Bench
. The two leg units are made with . Cut additional
mortise and tenon joints and mortises at right
permanently glued angles to the
up. Drill 3⁄8" holes leg units to hold
across the top pieces. two cross braces.
Corresponding
tenons are cut on
the ends of the
brace pieces.
make

. Flip the bench upside down and set . Make two drawers, one with " sides
the top into position. Attach it with that will be close to the top and
lag bolts and washers. another with shallow sides that will
catch sweeps. The dimensions will
depend on the space between the
legs and the clearance needed for
the drawer
glides—
calculate
this before
starting the
drawers.
. Install drawer glides as specified by . To divide the drawer into smaller
the manufacturer. units, cut a center divider with a shelf
track. Set small board of the same
height along the walls, and make
small open boxes about half the depth
of the drawer to slide along these
tracks.
. Cut away an additional area . Insert a 1⁄4" T-nut, matched with
equivalent to the tang of a bench pin. a thumbscrew. This will hold the
Drill a 1⁄4" hole centered in this space. pin in place. Secure the steel with
countersunk screws in each corner.
Tools > Studio Tools > Advanced Bench 
 Hammering Table

Hammering Table
This page shows an inexpensive design for a sturdy table built of familiar
lumberyard materials. These plans show a low broad table that uses a full
sheet of MDF as a top. It would be appropriate for mounting vices and stake
holders, surface plates, and a rolling mills. A narrower version would look
much the same, and might fit better into small studios. Adjust the height
and width to suit your needs.

Materials List
Top 1 sheet of 3⁄4" MDF or
plywood
Shelf 1 sheet MDF or plywood
(thickness depends on
your use)
Lower Frame 4 pcs. 2 x 3 x 8' *
Frame & legs 7 pcs. 2 x 4 x 8' *
Legs 1 pc. 2 x 6 x 8' *
. The table will be built upside down. . Attach a x onto the end of each
Select a workspace that is flat and short side, making it flush to the
large enough to allow you to move outside edge of the
around. Lay out the frame pieces frame. Use at least
then screw them three screws here.
together, using Repeat at all four
two screws in the corners.
end of each strut.

At least a pound of 21⁄2" screws.

*clear and straight

. Attach a x onto each existing leg. . Make a second frame, which will add
These will overlap the narrower leg support and also provide a shelf. It
piece; attach both can be made of xs as shown or
into the frame and xs if more convenient. A single
into the edge of cross brace
the first leg pieces. is sufficient
Repeat for each leg. because this
does not carry
much weight.

Slide the second frame into position, so

the top edge will be about " above the
floor when the table is inverted.

. Attach a ° brace at each corner.
This will overlap the
first frame and butt
up against the legs.
Repeat for all
four legs.
. Invert the table and set the top in
position so there is an overlap of "
on all sides. This is handy for
clamping. Secure the
tabletop by screwing
it to the frame.
Countersink these
screws to make a
smooth table surface.

Climb onto the table and jump up and

down. Pretty solid, right?
 Tools > Studio Tools > Hammering Table
Chapter 

Shaping
 Layout

Guidelines
> Avoid making scratches that will need to be removed later.
> Before any surface is applied, the metal should be degreased. Clean the
it with a solvent like alcohol or a waterless hand cleaner, or scrub it with
pumice powder, fine sandpaper, or Scotch-Brite. To allow drawn lines to
show up better, rub abrasives in a circular motion.
> To show pencil marks or scribed lines, paint the
metal with white tempera, white shoe polish, or a
proprietary layout fluid.
> Drawings can be made on label paper, available from
office supply stores or printing shops.

Multiples Computer Layout

Photocopies can sometimes speed Computer graphic programs can
layout. Copy graph paper onto be a fast way to develop forms,
When storing metal, label stock or duplicate production especially geometric shapes. As an
use paper between templates. Set the copier on its added bonus, these are easily saved
sheets to protect lightest setting so the grid is pale. for future reference. Print onto label
against accidental paper and paste onto the metal for
scratches. cutting.

After piercing, remove paper with solvents or by burning. Ventilation is

suggested.

Storyboard
I hear and I forget. Most jewelry pieces are built in
a series of steps. In some cases,
I see and I remember. the sequence of operations is
important—sometimes even critical.
I do and I understand. Plan the construction process by
assembling the piece in your head.
It is often helpful to jot down notes,
either in words or as a cartoonlike
Chinese proverb story board. This simple operation
can save redundant efforts, like
polishing a piece too soon, then
needing to to it again.
Sequence
Sometimes several pieces can be laid
out at the same time, but in other
cases the dimensions of one piece
are affected by others. In those cases
it might be best to cut out (and
bend, solder, etc.) the first element
before laying out the next. Consider
these factors and plan the sequence
of events before you get started.

cut pieces make tubing remember to allow

 ga. assemble with H solder for clearance

 Shaping > Cutting >Layout


Safety
At the moment the cutting edge
breaks through the underside of
the piece being drilled, there is
a tendency for the bit to snag.
This can be dangerous, especially
when a large blade is being used
on a thin material. The work-
piece can be forcefully yanked
out of your grip and left spinning
like a propeller in the drill press.
To avoid this, always start with a
small bit and move sequentially
to larger bits.
Step Bit
A step bit is a single tool
that accomplishes this
without spending a lot of
time changing bits. These
can be purchased in several
ranges, and while they are
expensive, they can pay for
themselves in saved time
(and saved fingers).
Drill Bits
Twist
Core
Pump
Pearl
Spade
Drilling
General Rules for Drilling
> Run the drill slowly.
> Avoid wiggling.
> Keep the bit at a constant angle.
> Let the bit do the work; don’t push.
> Avoid creating friction heat; lubricate as needed with beeswax (health-food
stores), oil of wintergreen (drugstore), or proprietary coolant (Bur-Life, etc.)
from jewelry suppliers.
Impact Method
Probably the earliest method of making holes was to pound a pointed rod through
the metal. You can use a nail, but a hardened, tapered point is more effective.
Do not use a scribe; this is a drawing tool and will be damaged if struck with a
hammer. Work on a piece of scrap wood to avoid making holes in your bench.
Strike a solid blow to create a crater, then flip the piece over and file off the tip of
the conical projection. Insert the tool from this side and strike again.
Drills
Pin Vise Electric
For light use, grip a bit in a pin vise Many jewelers today use electric
or glue it into a dowel or similar rod. and battery-pack drills or flexible
The tool will be more comfortable shaft machines to drill holes. While
to use if it has a freely rotating knob these are
on top, like the example shown hard to beat
here on the left. for ease,
care must
be taken not
to run them
too fast.
Whenever possible, a drill press
is preferred over a handheld
model because it guarantees a
perpendicular angle of attack.
Pump Drill Bow Drill
This variation allows one-handed This ancient
operation. A string is tied to the mechanism
shaft (or passes through a hole) and increases
connects to a bar that is free to ride rotation speed
and uses a
up and down along the shaft. A heavy
graceful motion
wheel captures the
to rotate the
momentum. To start, bit. The bowstring is wrapped once
twist the shaft so that around the shaft and the bow is sawn
the string wraps around back and forth to spin the drill. A
it. With a little practice block of wood with a loose-fitting
you’ll get the hang of hole is used to secure the top end of
an up-and-down, wrap- the shaft. Alternately, the shaft rides
unwrap rhythm. in a depression in the bench and the
workpiece is held in the hand.
Shaping > Cutting > Drilling 
 Chisels & Shears

Chisels
Chisels have been used for centuries
to cut metal. Work on a piece of
scrap copper or brass set on an anvil
to protect the edge from damage. A
chisel with two angles will cut most
efficiently, but a single-faced chisel
can be used when a neater edge is
needed.

Shears
Chisels and drill bits cut when enough force is concentrated at a specific
area to break the molecular bonds of the material. This point (called shear
strength), varies, which is why we can cut aluminum faster than steel. In
the case of these tools, all the action comes from one direction and must be
supported by a stable support below. Think of chiseling with work set on a
pillow and you see the idea. Shears are more effective than a chisel because
force is applied from both directions.

Aviation Shears Leverage

Most shears use a single pivot. The To get the best mechanical
rules of leverage dictate that force advantage, grip one handle in a well-
is greater close to the fulcrum, anchored vise and extend the other
so always slide the work well arm by slipping a length of pipe over
into the blades when cutting. A it. Be careful though—this might
compound-action shear uses two exceed the strength of the tool
pivot points to increase leverage. and break it.
Aircraft manufacturers developed
a conveniently sized compound
action shear, now known as aviation
shears, that is widely used in
metalsmithing. Aviation shears are
available with straight jaws (most
versatile) and with jaws that track
left or right, designed for cutting Nonjointed Shears
curves. Small Shears of this design are found in
serrations on many cultures, for uses as varied
the jaws help as sheep shearing and embroidery.
prevent the
metal from
sliding out.
These can be
sanded or
ground away
if you prefer a
smooth edge. A miniature version, bought or
made yourself, should be sized to
coordinate with specific tasks.
 Shaping > Cutting > Chisels & Shears

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Library
on CD
Blade Size
Ideally there will be three teeth on
the metal at all times. Slight differ-
ences are okay, but if
you are way off, the
blade will be difficult
to control and more
likely to break.
Piercing
Piercing is the term given to sawing
when working within a piece.
Begin by drilling a hole in each
compartment to be sawn. Only
a tiny hole will be needed. With
the blade secured
into the frame at
one end, thread the
other end of the blade
through the hole and
connect to the frame
as usual. After the cut
is complete, it is often
helpful to refine the shape by filing
with the blade, rubbing it along the
sawn edge. To remove the blade,
loosen either end and withdraw it.
Holding Strap
Measure the distance from your
bench pin to the floor and make a
loop of strapping
or fabric that is
almost twice that
length. Drape it
over the work
as it sits on the
pin, and set your
foot into the bottom of the loop. This
added pressure will take some of the
load off your hand, which you can use
to position the work.
Sawing
Process
When done correctly, sawing is a relaxed
and rhythmic experience. Muscles are
loose and fluid, time seems to slow down
and the saw propels itself. By contrast,
when one factor is out of whack—timing,
blade tension, or blade size—the whole
enterprise is frustrating.
> The piece being sawn should be horizontal and held securely. A
wooden bench pin is the typical arrangement. Clamping in a vise is not
recommended because the angle is wrong and action becomes stiff.
> The blade must be tightly strung in the sawframe; see below.
> The teeth of the blade must point toward the handle. To determine the
direction, look closely or stroke the blade against fabric. The blade will
snag in only one direction.
> The blade should always travel at a right angle to the workpiece.
> The hand holding the sawframe should be relaxed. Do not clench or jerk
the frame.
Blade Insertion
METHOD ONE METHOD TWO
Clamp one end of the blade in place After loosening the screw on the
and tighten the screw finger-tight. back of the sawframe, set the blade
Adjust the length of the frame so into position, being sure the teeth
the tip of the blade just overlaps the are pointed outward and toward the
other gripping plate, then tighten handle. Tighten the gripping plates
the frame screw. Lean the frame at each end of the blade. Use both
against the bench, blade uppermost, hands to slide the frame open as
and press hard enough to collapse shown, laying a thumb into position
the frame. Slide the loose end of to hold the back of the frame once
the blade into place and tighten the it is fully
screw. When extended.
you release While
tension, the holding it,
frame will spring tighten the
back and put screw on
the back of
tension on the
the frame.
blade.
Lubrication
Though lubrication is not necessary, it sometimes speeds sawing, especially on
“gummy” metals like sterling and copper. Beeswax or a proprietary wax
(e.g., Bur-Life) can be warmed and fused onto the
base of the bench pin. Or, put a bit of fabric in a
small container with a hole in its lid, then saturate
the cloth with oil of wintergreen. As you saw, pause
periodically to touch the blade to the cloth.
Shaping > Cutting > Sawing 
 Filing & Filework

Files
It’s easy to think of a file as a simple tool
that rounds off sharp edges, but in skilled
hands, files can do much more. Skill consists
of using the correct file, proper stroke,
and stable grip. See the Tools chapter for
information on the files themselves.

Stroke
All files cut on the push stroke, away from the handle. To extend the life
of the tool, lift up slightly on the return pass. This prevents the teeth from
being pushed down and is especially important when working on tough
metals such as steel, platinum, or titanium. Files cut in proportion to the
force behind them—without a solid pressure, even a sharp file will have little
effect. Place your index finger on the top face of the file to improve control
and increase leverage.
A downward force is only as good as the upward support beneath
it, which is why the bench pin is so important. It must be stable, at a
comfortable height, and shaped so it prevents the workpiece from slipping.
Don’t file while walking around or holding the work unsupported; you’ll do
more harm than good.

Exercises
Time spent mastering the use of
files will be rewarded in confidence
and efficiency. Here are several
time-honored exercises designed to
teach and test proper filing. Brass
rod is ideal for these because of its
low cost and clean cutting.

Sweeps
Filings of precious metals are caught so they can be recovered. Most
craftspeople send the small particles to a refiner for this, after pulling out
small clean pieces they will recycle themselves. In other studios it is more
efficient to send everything to a refiner.
Traditionally, leather aprons were attached to the underside of the
bench, a system that guarantees almost total capture. More common now
is the watchmaker’s variation in which a drawer is pulled out to catch filings
as needed. If you work mostly in one metal,
let all your filings mingle and let the refiner
sort it out. If you work equally in gold and
silver it will be worth your while to keep the
sweeps separated. Make two drawers, or
use trays that stack into the sweeps drawer,
putting the appropriate tray on top.

 Shaping > Cutting > Filing & Filework


A hole punch is a familiar example of a
cutting die. A positive shape is matched
by a tight-fitting negative hole of the
same shape. When a material is pressed
between them, its shear strength is
exceeded and the piece is cut out.
Cutting dies must fit perfectly together,
be aligned, and be tougher than the
material being cut.
Angle Cutting Jig
You can make a jig by attaching a
bench pin to a piece of wood that can
be gripped in a vise. Attach a piece of
steel to the top of the pin to make a
solid seat for the magnetic base of an
angle gauge. Clamp the tool in a vise
at the angle that is needed for the
steel you are using. This only works if
the sawblade
is kept
vertical, so
use a square
or a plumb
bob behind
the tool to
provide a
sightline.
steel
plate
Cutting Dies
Disk Cutting Die
This precision tool allows rapid and consistent cutting of disks. It is usually
sold in two sizes, one running from 1⁄4" to 1⁄2" and the other from 3⁄8" to ". The
method of use is the same for both. Hardened cylindrical punches are held
vertical and in alignment by passing through a top
plate before resting on the metal to be cut. A single
solid blow will shear metal.
. Set the die block on a level solid surface at a good
striking height. If an anvil is used, cover it with a
piece of wood to avoid damage.
. Slide the workpiece into position, sighting down
through the hole as needed. Sometimes it’s helpful to draw crosshairs.
. Slide the snug-fitting die into position, taking care not to shift the parts.
. Strike a blow with as large a hammer as you can control.
. Do not drive the die all the way through! Turn the block over and tap the
die out with a wooden or plastic rod. Do not use steel for this because it
will ruin the punch.
Blanking Dies
In the s, Douglas Aircraft developed an ingenious way to make relatively
inexpensive and simple cutting dies from a single sheet of metal. These tools,
sometimes called “pancake dies,” remove the need for an external apparatus
to ensure alignment by attaching the two parts of the die at one end. The
outline of a desired shape is cut so that one edge remains attached to its base
plate. It is free to lift and fall like a diving board, punching out a shape when
dropped under pressure.
In the s Roger Taylor brought this approach
to the jewelry world in a form he called the RT
Blanking System. What follows here is a basic
introduction; for more information see Die Forming
for Metalsmiths and Artists, by Susan Kingsley.
Making a Die
In a normal cut, the saw kerf will remove material and make the positive
smaller than the negative shape. By sawing at a specific angle, the inner and
outer edges of the cut slide against each other to create a shearing action.
This angle is determined by the thickness of the die material and the sawblade
being used. In order to keep it consistent, a guiding device of some kind is
needed. Several companies sell a rig that holds a sawframe vertical and allows
the sawing plane to be adjusted. Some drill presses have a tilting table that
can be improvised to accomplish the same thing. Buy a magnetic angle reader
and tilt the table to the correct angle for the die thickness
you are using. Sight against the column of the drill press
as you work to be sure the saw travels vertically. Care at
this step is vital to a functioning die—don’t rush.
Shaping > Cutting > Cutting Dies 

Overhand the hammers swing,
overhand slow, overhand so sure,
They do not hasten, each man
hits in his place.
Walt Whitman
 Shaping > Forming > Forging
Forging
Forging
Forging can be defined as the controlled shaping of metal by the force of a
hammer. This technique lends itself to graceful transitions from plane to plane
and appealing contrasts of thick and thin sections. It is equally appropriate
for large and small work. Gold, sterling, and copper forge very well. Low-zinc
brasses can also be forged but require frequent annealing.
It is a sign of good forging to require very little filing. Force and control
must work together. Control in forging comes from the cross-peen. Its wedge
shape can push the metal in only two directions. This push can be directed
along the axis to increase length or outward from the axis to increase breadth.
Tips
> Sit or stand close to the work in a posture you can comfortably maintain.
> Work on a smooth, hard, stable surface.
> Keep your fingers and thumb wrapped around the hammer handle, not
pointing along it.
> Anneal as needed; don’t press your luck.
> Keep the hammer face polished.
> The hammer must make solid contact with the anvil; don’t strike with a
“jelly wrist.”
> Don’t hold the workpiece where you intend to hit it.
Forging a Taper Forging Jig
Strike a series of This homemade tool uses the curve of
blows along each a round bar to make two forging peens.
side of a square rod, It is especially good for small work.
starting first at the
top of the intended
taper (), then a second series,
starting further down (). Repeat as
much as necessary to complete the
taper. Planish out bumps by rotating.
  
Rhombus Double sided forging
This refers to a cross section shape Most people forge on the flat face of
that is easy to make but hard to an anvil, but an alternative method
correct. It is usually the result uses the curve of an anvil horn or
of striking with an angled blow. stake to force the metal to flow
Continued striking will only make the outward from the point of contact.
workpiece thinner (and the problem
worse), so correct these as soon as
you see them form. Either file off the
red areas or forge the piece into a
round rod and from
there return to a
square section.

Do not
Keep hitting when the metal has
nowhere to go.
Use a punch that is larger than
the die.
Use wet or hardened metal.
Working Surfaces
pitch
soft wood
microcrystalline wax
leather
lead—scrub hands
and metal after using
Dapping Rings
Shallow domes can be made by
hammering into rings made of steel or
brass rod. Heat round steel rods to red
and bend into a symmetrical hoop.
Short lengths of PVC pipe can also be
useful. Punches can be made from
wooden dowels and, for some sizes, a
hammer or mallet may work.
Shallow Forming
General Rules
> Use your fingers as much as possible. Wood, plastic, or rawhide tools are
used next, and steel tools (hammers, pliers, etc.) only when absolutely
required.
> Whenever possible, anneal the metal. This step takes less time than
removing the marks that can result from working on unyielding material.
> To achieve a sharp bend, score the metal at least three-fourths of the way
through. After bending, reinforce the groove with solder.
Shallow Forming
Shallow forming (also called “bossing”) . Saw out the shape.
is a method of giving a minor . If the piece is to be stamped,
curvature or doming to sheet metal. chased, textured, or have married
It usually makes a piece look thicker metals, do these things next.
and, because curved surfaces show . After annealing, work the metal
more reflections than flat sheets, on a yielding surface with a
the result is often brighter and more mallet, hammer, or punch.
dynamic. Bossed areas are structurally . If the edges do not blend into
rigid in
the piece, they can
the same
be formed over a
way that
dapping punch or
corrugated
cardboard is hammer held
in a vise.
stronger than
flat paper.
Dapping
This term refers to a process that uses a
die and punches to create domes from
disks of sheet metal. Dapping dies are
made of steel, brass, and wood, either in
the form of a cube with depressions on
each side, or as a thick rectangular plate
with similar hemispherical depressions. A
variation used by blacksmiths is called a
swage plate.
Dapping punches are short rods, usually steel, with a symmetrical dome
or sphere on one end. A full set typically contains  punches but a partial set
can often prove adequate. Neither die nor punches are usually hardened.
. Cut out and anneal a disk.
. Select a die cup that is a little larger than the disk, then find the punch that
makes a loose fit in it.
. Set the die on a solid surface, drop the disk into the cup and strike a few
light blows. Stop when the punch makes solid contact in the cup, or
“bottoms out”).
. Transfer the dome to a smaller die cup and strike it again with the
appropriate punch.
Shaping > Forming > Dapping 
 Repussé

Repoussé
Repoussé is one of the oldest metalsmithing techniques in the world. Virtually
every ancient culture with a tradition of metalwork has left examples of this
technique. It is a versatile process appropriate to any scale and all malleable
metals, from aluminum to steel. Many approaches are used, so the outline
below should be taken only as an introduction and point of departure.
The word comes from the French verb meaning “to push back.” Simply
stated, repoussé is the process of creating volumetric forms by pushing metal.
The pushing is usually done on both the front and the back.

Support
The material used to support the metal is very important. The most commonly
preferred support is pitch.

Too hard: metal is thinned.

Too soft: difficult to control.

Good pitch: hard enough

to hold its shape, but soft
enough to yield.

Pitch
 parts Burgundy or Swedish pitch
 parts Plaster or pumice
Access Video  part Linseed oil or tallow
Library
Mix in a double boiler over low heat and pour into a sturdy vessel.
on CD
Pitch Containers
Pitch can be held in whatever vessel best meets your needs and budget. Here
are a few popular options:

Pitch pot Cake pan

Allows rotation Weighted with
and can be tilted lead or cement.
to any angle.
Ready to use pitch is available from:
Northwest Pitchworks
 th Ave., NE.
Seattle, Washington  Cast iron skillet
() - Doesn’t tilt, but
Wooden tray provides good
Leaves a lip for weight.
clamping.

 Shaping > Forming > Repoussé


To make a matting tool, file a line
around a tool steel rod, harden it,
then snap it off. A fine grain pattern
will result.
What we see depends mainly
on what we look for.
John Lubbock
Repussé
Tools for Repoussé
Although tools can be bought,
many people prefer to make their
own. Only a few are needed to
begin but a collection of  or 
is typical. These tools, especially
the modeling punches, do not have Tracers, for Modeling &
to be hardened and tempered but making lines planishing
most people prefer to do this. Tool
steel may be bought or salvaged
from broken tools.
Curved punches Matting tools
Process
. Draw the design on annealed metal.
. Warm the pitch with a gentle torch flame or hot
air gun and set the metal right-side up onto a
smooth area of pitch. Pull a rim of pitch onto
the metal with a dampened finger or a stick to
achieve a better grip.
. Go over the lines lightly with a tracing punch.
. Lift the metal out of the pitch by prying, rapping
the pot, or warming it and lifting with tweezers.
Remove excess pitch by burning or (better) by
dissolving it in baby oil or turpentine. If burned,
do not allow ignited pitch to drip back into the
bowl. When it burns, pitch becomes brittle and
must be discarded. Ventilation is recommended
when burning pitch.
. Turn the metal over and set it back into the
pitch. Boss up forms with whatever round-
tipped tools will fit the shapes. When the metal
feels stiff and the corners are curling out of the
pitch, remove the work, clean off the pitch, and
anneal the metal.
. Dry the sheet and return it to the pitch for
further work on either front or back as needed.
Shaping > Forming > Repoussé 

Ugly things are ugly in much
the same way the world over.
Bruno Munari
 Shaping > Forming > Sinking
Sinking
Sinking
Sinking is a versatile technique used to create domed forms in sheet metal by
pounding the metal into a hemispherical die. Sinking can be used by itself or
as a first step in raising.
Process
. Strike a small dimple in the center of a sheet
and scribe a circle with dividers. Cut out the
disk with shears or a saw. A typical thickness for
small vessels is  or  gauge sheet.
. Draw pencil guidelines with a compass on the inside of the
form at 1⁄2" intervals.
. Place the disk so the edge is across the
center of a depression carved into a stump
or wood block. Strike with a ball-faced
hammer or mallet, progressing from the
circumference inward toward the center.
. Repeat to achieve the desired depth,
annealing as needed. When the desired
depth has been reached, smooth the
form over a mushroom stake.
Tools
Sinking blocks are usually made of wood, preferably using the end grain.
Carve depressions with gouges or turn them on a lathe. The die shapes
are general forming aids and do not need to
exactly fit the final shape. Mallets are generally
preferred over hammers because they cause
less stress on the workpiece, but the added
weight of steel hammers has the advantage of
speeding up the process.

Stretching an Asymmetrical Form
It’s probably a good idea to learn
on a round vessel, but once you
understand it, stretching lends
itself to irregular forms. Because
the process is immediate and direct,
some people liken it to working clay
on a potter’s wheel. In the case of
an asymmetrical form, each blow
is laid on with sensitivity to force
and angle, which makes it possible
to feel the shape develop at your
fingertips.
Stretching
Stretching
Stretching is a technique that causes sheet metal compress
to dome by forging it against an anvil. As tension
expand
is created between expanded (stretched) and
unhammered areas, the metal is pulled upward.
Repeat this on a disk and the result is a dish;
a volumetric form. This transformation can be
controlled by the shape of a hammer and the
angle at which the metal is held.
Advantages
> Stretching requires only a few simple tools.
> Stretching makes it easy to create a thick rim.
> When starting from an ingot, stretching saves a step over raising because it
thins the sheet while creating the form.
> The size of the finished circumference is the same as the starting disk. This
might be important when fitting, as in the case of a lid.
• A disadvantage is that, since all the hammering is done from the inside,
stretching is limited to shallow forms.
Process
. Start with an annealed disk of relatively thick
metal. The thickness will depend on the
diameter of the disk and the intended height
of the vessel. A typical thickness for a small
bowl or cup is – gauge B&S (– mm).
. Polish a ball-peen hammer. For a tall vessel,
you will need a hammer with a long reach.
Also polish a section of an anvil or a flat stake.
. Starting in the center, strike a spiral of strong,
overlapping blows. As soon as the form begins
to curve upward, angle the resulting dish so
that the metal is flat on the anvil at the point
of contact.
. When you reach the rim, anneal the metal
and take a moment to shake out your hands
and arms.
. Dry the metal and repeat as many courses
as necessary to punch the form into shape.
Hammers with a smaller radius will pull the
metal up at a sharper angle, but they will
also make rounded dents on the inside of the
form. Planish over polished stakes to smooth
away irregularities.
Shaping > Forming > Stretching 

There is only one right way to
raise—the way that works. Methods . Make an actual-size drawing and a
will differ depending on the size
and shape of the piece, the tools
available, and the metal being
raised. This page illustrates the steps a dome, twice the length of line AB.
in raising a vessel and should be
enough to get you started, but only
when you actually do the work will
these tips synthesize into a method.
In an open vessel, planishing is done
after the form is complete, but for
necked-in shapes, the lower section
might need to
be planished
midway in the
process while
the stakes still
fit inside.
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Truth is something you
stumble into when you think
you’re going some place else.
Jerry Garcia
 Shaping > Forming > Raising
Raising
Raising
template from it. The diameter of the
starting disk is the sum of the widest
and tallest measures (AB + CD) or, for
. Draw concentric guidelines about 1⁄4"
apart with a pencil compass. Give the
sheet contour by sinking or angle
raising. The goal is to convert the disk
from a flat plane to a volumetric form
as efficiently as possible. If the vessel
is to have a flat bottom, leave the floor
area untouched.
The progress from
the base line to
top edge is called
a course.
. When the curve of the form restricts
access for a hammer, continue work
from the outside over stakes made
of wood, plastic, or steel. Start at the
baseline with the sheet held at about
a ° angle, and strike the hammer
so its leading edge touches the metal
first. The
idea is to
compress
the metal,
pushing it
into itself.
. As raising continues, the top edge will
thicken slightly. To exaggerate this,
tap the edge with a cross-peen at the
end of each course. Support the work
on a sandbag
or in your hand
while doing this.
. Centerpunch the sheet and scribe a
circle with dividers. Cut with shears
then file and burnish the edge to
make it smooth.
. Keep in mind that material at the edge
has to cover a greater distance than
the metal near the base line. Because
of this, it is easy to accidentally create
a “bugle horn” shape. If the bowl flares
out too much, raise a course or two
starting at mid-height.
. As work proceeds, rotate the disk and
drop the hammer in even blows. After
going around the form once, slide
the disk back about 1⁄2" and continue
raising. The
idea is to make
a bulge and
then work it to
the edge.
. Check the straightness of the form
with a surface gauge or by drawing
lines with a stationary pencil. Cut
the top as needed and file it smooth.
Planish as described on the next page.
 Raising

Crimping
Crimping is a technique used in the early
stages of raising to quickly change a flat
sheet into a volumetric form. Some people
prefer to begin raising by sinking, but the
advocates of crimping hold that it is a faster
method.
Mark the disk into segments and hold it
across a notched stake so the line is over the
center of the notch. Use a cross-peen mal-
let or hammer to make a fluted bowl shape.
Smooth out these flutes over a T-stake in a
standard raising operation. Always raise from
the point of the crimp out to the edge.

Planishing
This word comes from the Latin planus, which
means to flatten or level. It refers to the smooth-
ing, toughening, and polishing of metal by ham-
mering. The effect of planishing can be only as
good as the surfaces of the tools being used.
Hammer faces and
stakes or
anvil must be
mirror-finished.

A hammer held in a vise can be … and so can a dapping

used like a stake… punch held in a vise.

Raising Stake Hammers Mallets

You can make your own raising stake Any smooth-faced hammer can be Raising with mallets goes slower
from a piece of hardwood, or even a used for planishing but the ideal tool than with hammers, but the time
common two-by-four. A has one flat face might be saved because less plan-
valley in one end is used and one slightly ishing is needed. Use wood, horn,
for crimping, and the crowned face. nylon, delrin, or other plastics.
rounded tip of the other To get maxi-
stands in for a T-stake. mum contact
but avoid leav-
"
ing marks, use
the flat face on
curved surfaces and the domed face
on flat or nearly flat surfaces. A heavy
hammer (– oz.) is best for quick
work and flattening wire, but a light-
weight hammer (– oz.) is recom-
mended for final finishing.

Shaping > Forming > Raising 

 Seaming

Seaming
Although any shape can be raised
from a flat sheet, it is sometimes more
efficient to fabricate a shape that
approaches the desired end result and
use forming techniques from there.
The solder seams in such pieces will
receive a lot of stress so some special
provisions must be made.

Interlocking Finger Joint

. To provide more surface area for the solder, file
or planish a bevel equal to about five thicknesses
of the metal. Angle the two ends of the strip in
opposite directions so when they connect they will
mate to make a smooth joint. The two edges to be
joined should thin out evenly over about a 1⁄2" area.

. To prevent the two edges from sliding over

and past each other, cut and bend tabs in
each end. Mark a line 1⁄4" in from each edge
and lay out the same number of tabs on
each edge. Generally, the tabs are of equal size, but variations are
possible as long as the two ends are identical. The tabs can be so
small they hardly show up or large enough to be important to the design.

. Saw these lines on both sides, stopping at the 1⁄4" mark. On stock under 
gauge a single cut is sufficient but for heavier
sheet, cut a skinny V.
Cones with straight sides are
. On one edge, bend the even-numbered tabs
the starting point for funnel
up slightly. On the other edge bend the even-
and nosecone shapes.
numbered tabs down. Paint the whole area with
flux, slide the edges together, and wrap the
form with binding wire.

. Set the form over a stake and mallet the tabs

down. Sometimes it helps to use a burnisher or
bezel pusher to press the end of each tab.

. Apply solder generously to the joint—remember,

there is a lot more surface area here than meets
the eye. Wire solder lends itself to this job. After
soldering, quench in water and examine the joint. If
there are voids, planish the seam, reflux, and remelt the solder. When the
joint is solid, raising and planishing can proceed as usual.

 Shaping > Forming > Seaming

 Shell Structures

Shell Structures
When two or more formed pieces of metal are soldered together the
resulting hollow form is called a shell structure. In making hollow forms,
remember these rules:

Pieces to be joined must be clean and tight-fitting.

When using binding wire, allow for expansion by putting

a zigzag in the wire.

Allow for the release of air from enclosed spaces.

Process
Shell structures can be classed as mono-, bi-, or tri-shell, depending on the
number of parts that come together to make the object. Each case is unique,
but most will follow this general sequence.

. Make the largest element by raising,

die forming, foldforming, etc. Planish
and smooth the edges to make the
form as resolved as possible.

. Lay a piece of stiff paper against the

form and trace the edge to develop
a pattern. Cut outside the line and
test again, then cut the metal for the
second shell, leaving a flange. Form as
needed.

. Tie the pieces together with binding

wire. Make notches in the flange as
needed to keep the wire from slipping.
Flux well and solder with a large bushy
flame. Quench in water, remove all
wires, and pickle.

. If additional shells are needed, repeat

these steps.
For extensive coverage
of this topic see
Form Emphasis for Metalsmiths,
. Cut off excess material with shears
by Heikki Sëppa then file and sand all edges.
Kent State University Press,
Kent, Ohio, .

Shaping > Forming > Shell Structures 


Access Video
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on CD
Sinusoidal Stakes
A flat sinusoidal stake can be made
of hardwood or plastic. A metal
variety is made by bending a tapered
steel rod. All curves should be
smooth, uniform, and symmetrical.
 Shaping > Forming > Anticlastic Raising
Anticlastic Raising
Terminology
The word synclastic describes a
form in which the dominant curves
both move in the same direction.
When the two dominant axes curve
in opposite directions the result is
known as an anticlastic form. A bowl
is a synclastic form and a saddle is
an anticlastic form.
Making a Spiculum
. Grade roll a sheet so one end is
thinner than the other.
. Lay the metal along a groove in a
wooden block. Strike with a cross-
peen along a line just inside one
edge. Overlap blows, taking small
steps from one to the next.
. Continue in this way, striking
lines that run along the axis of the
form, each time moving closer to
the center. It may be necessary to
switch to a narrower groove in the
forming block. Stop when the form
is slightly oval, with the opening at
the longest axis of the oval.
. Cut a shape from annealed sheet
and file the edges smooth. Anneal
and dry.
. Reverse the form and and repeat
the hammering along the opposite
edge. If the form curls, bend it back
to straight in your hands.
. To close the seam, hold the
spiculum in a V-groove or (better)
a rounded groove and tap it with
a cross-peen hammer. When done
correctly,
the form will
close as if
with a zip-
per, and the
result will
be round in
cross-section.
 Anticlastic Raising

Making a Curved Double Spiculum

. Cut a graceful form and file the edges
smooth. Shapes do not need to be
symmetrical but this is recommended
in early learning exercises. Trace the
pattern for future reference.
. Bend the annealed sheet into an even
curve and lay it over the stake while
holding the legs together. With a
smooth cross-peen hammer or mallet,
strike the metal to begin the curve.
Do not allow
the legs to
pull upward.

Bending a Spiculum
Modest curves can be made in a
tapered tube by bending it in your
hands. Use a mallet to tap the tube
lightly so that its round cross section
becomes oval. Note the location of
the solder seam.
Anneal and bend gingerly,
distributing the force along the
spiculum such that the curve lines
up with the tall axis of the oval. Stop
when the cross section returns to
round. If needed you can repeat this
process a couple of times, but more
than that and the cross section will
become square.
. Move along the edge, starting in the . Continue in this way on the long axis
center and moving outward, left to gradually roll the form upward.
and right. Resist the temptation to move too
Reverse the quickly. Use gentle overlapping
metal and blows, stopping
repeat on as needed to
the opposite manually twist
edge. the piece back to
symmetry.
. Stop when the form is oval in cross-section. Anneal
and dry. Hold the form beside a curved stake like an
anvil horn or a ring mandrel gripped in a vise. Tap on
the edge directly opposite from the
point of contact, rolling the form
and advancing along that point.

Grade Rolling
Control of anticlastic raising requires an understanding of the thickness-to-
diameter ratio. Imagine using coat hanger wire to make a series of rings. A
two-inch hoop will be easy, a one-inch hoop will
be challenging, and a half-inch hoop will be almost
impossible. As the diameter gets smaller, the metal
needs to be thinner.
To create a situation where the thickness-to-
diameter remains constant, the metal must be made thinner as it goes to the
point. This can be done by careful planishing or with the help of a rolling mill.
Rolling can be done before or after cutting out the blank, but it will slightly
distort the form, so some filing will be needed in either case.
Set the jaws so they equal the metal thickness, then close them a quarter
turn. Roll the metal almost all the way through, then back it out. Close the
gap another quarter turn and roll almost as far as last time, then back it out.
Continue in this way to create a subtle stair step progression. Planish the ridges
lightly with a polished hammer to make a uniform ramp. Anneal, file the edges,
and proceed as above.

Shaping > Forming > Anticlastic Raising 

 Die Forming

Defining Dies
In general terms, metal forming is
done by forcing the material over a
rigid object. When the rigid form has
the shape and contour of the desired
result, it can be called a die and the
process is called die forming.

Uses Categories of Die Forming

Die forming has many applications
Non-conforming punch dies
but is especially good for:
• matching halves, like spouts and Non-conforming silhouette dies
fabricated containers
Embossing dies
• matching parts, as with a box and
lid Conforming punch dies
• production situations where Cutting (blanking) dies
interchangeable parts are
important Combination
• designs with repeated elements (e.g., silhouette with detail)

Sequence Silhouette Dies

This shows the usual progression of
The silhouette dies described
tooling, moving from outside edges
inward. Hold here are modern versions of an
the punch at a ancient process. Cut an outline
slight angle and (silhouette) of a desired shape in a
the hammer rigid material that will become the
blows will push die. In use, metal is held against the
it along. die and pushed into the open area.
Variations involve the die material, Silhouette dies allow a variety of
the ram, the force behind the ram, depths to be made in a single die.
and the method of holding the
workpiece to the die.

The Flange
A unique feature of die forming is the flange or skirt that surrounds the
form. Leave the flange around a die-formed shape to keep the form intact
through surface decorating. If serious deformation is planned, fill the piece
with pitch by pouring from a pan or melting lumps right in the formed area.
Keep the flange intact for later refitting into the die. Before cutting it off
consider its use as…

a latch legs

a hinge
bearing
handles

 Shaping > Forming > Die Forming

 Die Forming

Supports
When dies are thinner than the
form being generated, they must
rest on something to keep them up
off the table while forming.
> Styrofoam
> wood frame
> sandbag
Wooden Dies
. Masonite will create a stronger edge than
plywood so it is used on the outer surfaces.
Make a die block by gluing together pieces of
plywood and tempered Masonite. Use a white
glue and clamp or weight the layers until the
glue dries.
. Mark the design on the Masonite and cut out
the die hole, usually with a coping saw. Take care
in sawing that the sides of the hole are vertical.
The opening in the top must be the same size
as the opening in the bottom. If you use a band
saw, the sawn opening must be glued closed.
Insert a strip of wood (like a tongue depressor),
add glue, and clamp.
. Plan the location of hold-down screws and drill
holes. These should be about 3⁄8" ( mm) from
the die hole.
. Make a rubbing of the die and use this to cut
the metal and locate the holes for screws. The
holes should be a little larger than the threaded
part of the screws.
. Fasten the metal onto the die with 3⁄4" sheet
metal screws. To reveal the outline of the form,
tap the metal lightly with a mallet or hammer
handle. While working, the die can sit on a
bench, sandbag, or opened vise.
. To anneal the workpiece, remove the screws and
take the metal off the die.
If the piece is symmetrical (like a hemisphere)
both pieces can be made on the same side of the
die. For asymmetrical designs, turn the die over
and start with Step .

Reinforcing the edge Semi-conforming dies

A Masonite-faced die can be used
several times before the edge starts
to break down. For a more lasting
die, cut a piece of thin steel sheet
with the same hole as the rest of the
die and fasten it onto the Masonite
with countersunk flathead screws.
When a specific contour is needed,
like the angle shown here, it may
be built into the die by filing the
Masonite to the correct shape.
Note that this is not a reversible
die; two dies must be made for
matching halves.

Shaping > Forming > Die Forming 


Steel Silhouette Dies
Because steel is stronger than
wood, a thinner die will give
equal support. Steel dies are less
cumbersome and more durable
than wooden dies, but they take
longer to saw out. Because the die
material is thinner, it is easier to
guarantee that the wall of the die
hole is vertical.
Sheet metal screws
When the die hole is fairly small—say
less than  square inches—you can
use steel thinner than 1⁄8". Instead of
threading this (step  above), use sheet
metal screws (also called self-tapping
screws). Drill a hole only as large as
the shank of the screw
and force it in. It can
be unscrewed without
damage and will work
from both sides.
The space between parts will
determine the slope of the form.
Common items like screws
and wire can be used to
construct a press die.
 Shaping > Forming > Die Forming
Die Forming
Process
. Draw the design on 1⁄8" steel sheet
with a permanent marker. Any kind of
steel will do.
. Plan the location of screw holes about
1⁄4" from the die hole;
centerpunch for each.
Use oil when drilling.
Match the size bit for
the tap to be used next.
. Make a pencil rubbing of the die to
determine the sheet of metal needed
and the location of the holes for the
hold-down screws. These holes should
be a little larger than the screws.
Press Dies
A press die consists of a matched pair of complementary shapes. When a softer
substance is set into position between them, the positive and negative parts of the
die are pressed together, causing a deformation of the softer material.
. Draw a cross section plan. Cut pieces from . When the pieces are in place on one
wood, Masonite, brass, or steel. As you
measure, allow clearance, remembering
that the greater the clearance, the softer
the form. The
thickness of the
work metal will also
affect the sharpness
of the contours.
. Test with thin metal
or aluminum foil.
. Join shallow dies with a hinge. Deep dies
can track along pins. Drill holes through
the assembled parts, then attach metal
rods or wooden
dowels. Rub the rods
with soap to help the
parts slide easily.
. Pierce with a jewelers saw using a large
blade (e.g., #).
After sawing,
smooth the
edges with a file
and sandpaper.
. Cut threads with a tap using oil to
lubricate. Individual taps and handles
can be bought at a
hardware store for a few
dollars. Advance a quarter
turn, then reverse to clear
the chips. Short screws
will make the screwing
and unscrewing go faster.
. With the annealed metal screwed onto
the die, the forming proceeds as usual.
After each annealing, begin forming
from the outside edge.
side of the die, contrive a method of
transferring location points from one side
to the other. This could include using
chalk dust, tempera paint, carbon paper,
or clay. Complete the
die assembly by gluing,
soldering, and/or screwing
the second die.
. File, carve, or
build up with
epoxy or auto
body filler if
needed.
. Put annealed metal into position, slide
the die into a large vise, and squeeze.
Use a thin metal
like heavy-duty
aluminum foil to
check the results.
 Die Forming

Hydraulic Forming
The word hydraulic comes from the Greek word hydros (water) and aulos
(tube). A hydraulic jack uses fluid to exaggerate a movement of one piston
into a greater movement of another piston. Such a jack
can be positioned in a stable frame so that the pushing
action of its ram is trapped behind a fixed plate. This is
called a hydraulic press; when it is used to form metal
in a die, the process is called hydraulic die forming.

Accessories Containing the Action Equipment

The hydraulic press A simple version of a press die
brings two steel plates would have a punch coming down
called platens together on a sheet of annealed metal as
with an even and it rests on a rubbery pad. In this
controllable force. The configuration a lot of the “give”
force can be manipulated by using of the pad
accessories such as domes, T-stakes, is dispersed
and holding collars that are attached
outward
by bolts to the platens. Development
which wastes
of innovative accessories in recent
the force of
years has enlarged the possibilities
the ram. To
of hydraulic forming for small-scale
metalsmithing studios. eliminate this
wasted energy,
the yielding
pad (usually
urethane) is fitted into a steel box
or cylinder. This allows the press
to operate more efficiently, which
speeds up the operation.
Presses are
available in
several sizes and
with jacks of
varying pressure.
Press frames are
simple in concept
and exacting
in practice.
Dimensions and tolerances must be
well understood to make a press that
can use the full potential of the jack.
Joins must be strong and alignment
precise or the frame can literally tear
itself apart. This seems to be one of
those cases where the smart money
is to buy a well-engineered and well-
built tool from the beginning.

Blunder ahead with your
own personal view.
Robert Henri
Urethane
In ancient times, lead was used to force thin sheet metal
into bronze dies. A modern synthetic material called
urethane is preferred today because it is safer and more
efficient. Urethane can be manufactured to include a
variety of properties, including a wide range of hardness,
known as Shore Hardness. Because it is measured
with a tool called a durometer this term is also used.
Urethanes run from  durometers (pencil eraser soft)
to  durometers (used for car bumpers). Urethanes are
impervious to water, oil, and oxidation but will start to
break down at temperatures above º F (º C). Never
heat, burn, saw, or sand urethane because dangerous
gases are released. Always cut with scissors or a knife.

Shaping > Forming > Die Forming 

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Uses: Drawing Wire

> to make wire thinner
> to change section, e.g., to make
round wire into square wire
> to make tubing
> to make wire springy by work
hardening
Historians cannot be sure exactly when drawplates were invented, but they
were in use in Europe in the th century. The monk Theophilus, writing at
that time describes “two iron plates … thin and
pierced thoughout with three or four rows of
holes of diminishing size.” The drawplate we use
today hasn’t changed much from its ancestors.

Annealing Wire Process Specialty Wires

Coil wire closely so individual strands
are not overexposed to heat that
might melt them. Wrap the coil with
wire; if the wire is steel, be
sure to remove it before
putting the coil into
pickle. If stainless,
brass, or copper is
used, the work can
go directly from water
quench to pickle.
Cross section
Drawplates are made in a variety
of cross section shapes such as
triangular, star-shaped, and oval.
These are somewhat rare and have
limited use because the shapes are so
specific. The force needed to pull wire
through a
fancy plate
usually
requires a
drawbench.
No vise?
If a vise is not
available, hold
the drawplate
on a pair of
boards across
a door jamb.
Native American
silversmiths used to anchor their
plates against pegs in the ground, a
position that has the advantage of
using leg muscles, which are usually
stronger than arms.
. Clamp the plate horizontally in a vise. To make special shapes in standard
. File a gradual taper at the tip of drawplates, start by soldering two wires
the wire. This filing together for a length of about 1⁄2" at one
avoid is made easier by end. File this area to a gradual taper.
this cutting a notch in
your bench pin.
. Feed the tip of the wire through the
unnumbered side of the plate into
the first hole where it fits snugly. > Use a round plate
Use heavy-duty gripping pliers called to make half-round
draw tongs to pull the wire through wire and a square
the plate in a slow, smooth motion. plate to make
. Pull the wire through successive rectangular wires.
holes until it > To make triangular wire in a square
feels tough plate, first make half-round wire.
and springy. Anneal it, but do not pickle—the
Anneal and oxide will prevent parts from
dry, then continue drawing. The bonding, which is a good thing here.
point might need to be refiled as Hold a thin knife blade diagonally
drawing progresses. across the square in the plate as you
draw the wire.
Lubrication
Clamp a piece of rag or sponge Fancy Mixed Metal Wires
onto the plate and moisten it with Use the process described above with
a light oil such as metals of contrasting color such as
wintergreen or olive silver and copper. After drawing and
oil. The wire may also annealing, these wires can be twisted
be rubbed with wax, to alter the effect.
but this can
clog small holes.
Homemade Drawplates About those numbers…
Drawplates for tubemaking and chain The numbers on a drawplate have
drawing can be made of plastic or a no correspondence to wire size. The
hard wood like maple. Drill a series of largest hole on any drawplate is
holes and carve a funnel shape with a labeled # regardless of its diameter.
bud bur or tapered reamer. A few manufacturers offer drawplates
with holes in B&S sizes.

Shaping > Forming > Wire Drawing



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Precise Inside Diameter
To achieve a desired inside diam-
eter, set a steel or brass wire of the
intended diameter into the tube
midway through the process. Oil the
wire lightly and be sure it is longer
than the tube. To remove it, pull
the wire through the plate from the
front and pull it out with tongs.
Calculations
For a given outside diameter:
od + thickness* x . (pi) π
For a given inside diameter:
id – thickness* x . (pi) π
*Thickness of the sheet being used.
Tubemaking
Tubemaking
. With scissors, cut a strip of thin
gauge metal with parallel sides;
dividers are handy for marking this.
Cut a point on the strip.
. With pliers or a mallet, continue
bending this trough into a tube.
Take special care that the point is
symmetrically
curled. If this is
well formed, the
rest of the strip
will usually roll
evenly.
. Continue pulling until the edges
just meet. If the seam looks rough,
pause before closing to even the
edges with a needle file. Do not
overlap the
seam. If the
tube ripples,
anneal
it before
proceeding.
Commercial Tubing
Most dealers of metals sell some-
thing called extruded tube. This has
been made using a continuous cast-
ing technique and so has no seam.
Though it is never essential, in some
applications this is a handy feature.
. Lay the annealed strip in a groove to
start the form. This can be a trough
cut into the endgrain of a log, a
V-block, or the open jaws of a vise.
Set a rod along the center line and
strike it with a mallet.
. Pull the strip through the drawplate
just like wire. Pull the tube straight
out, perpendicular to the drawplate.
. Solder the seam, usually with hard
solder. Prop is up on a brick so the
seam remains upright and easy to
watch during soldering.
Thick Walled Tubing
Tubemaking works best with metal
 gauge or thinner. To make thick-
walled tubing, follow the directions
above to make a tube of a larger
diameter than what is needed.
Solder the seam. After pickling
and drying, continue drawing the
tube. This will make it smaller
in diameter, longer, and thicker
walled.
Shaping > Forming > Tubemaking 
 Foldforming

Types Foldforming
The hundreds of variations can be The term foldforming refers to a group of procedures pioneered by Charles
grouped under four headings Lewton-Brain in the early s. These techniques and the ever-increas-
Line folds ing variations developed by other metalsmiths share the idea of using the
internal property of metal to assist in the development of form. A sample
T-folds that is uniformly annealed will bend equally in all directions and so a stake
Woven folds or mandrel is needed to control the shape. If the sample is selectively work-
Scored folds hardened, the internal stresses can be used to guide the form. This is the kind
of thinking that led to the invention of foldforming.

Line Fold Variations

Anyone who has folded and creased
a paper knows that this permanent-
ly alters the material. The crease will
never completely disappear. Line
folds use this fact to create a ridge
or raised line along a surface.
. Fold a sheet of metal
(experiment with thin
gauge).
. Crease the fold by
striking it with a mallet
or passing the fold through a roll-
ing mill.
. Anneal, quench, and dry.
. Open out the sheet, ideally using
only fingers.
. Planish the ridge to press the line
into the sheet. This step is called
confirming and
can also be ac-
complished
with a light pass
through a rolling mill.
> Multiple lines can be made
by going through the process
described above, several times on
the same sheet.
> Partial lines are made by
hammering only a portion of a
fold, for instance, by planishing
between a domed stake and
a curved
hammer.
> Forged lines
start with a
basic fold but
use a cross-
peen hammer
to thin the metal just inside the
fold. This will cause a rectangle to
arc and, if taken far enough, will
create a helix.

Less is only more where
more is no good.
Frank Lloyd Wright
T-Folds Variations
To start a T-fold, • Angle the position of the metal in
bend a sheet the vise.
of metal over • Planish only part of the fold.
and grip it in • Use the process multiple times on
a vise so that the same sheet.
the fold portion extends above the • Use a cross-peen hammer
jaws. Make sure the loop at the top to stretch the folds. Uneven
is open and strike it down against thinning will create curving
the vise to create a “T” section. forms.
Planish the folds, either in the vise
or against an anvil. Anneal, quench,
dry, and open.

 Shaping > Forming > Foldforming

 Foldforming

Rolled Folds
These are variations on T-folds
in which a rolling mill is used to
press layers of metal together. The
ability of the mill to apply extreme
pressure and to yield a uniform
thickness gives these foldforms their
unique character.

Plunkett Fold
. Make an angled T-fold.
. Bend up the top of the T to make a Y, then
keep going until the sections touch.
. Mallet the top sections closed and pass the
piece through the mill just enough to press
the layers flat.
. Roll again, this time under pressure, starting from the pointed end.
Continue additional passes, tightening the rollers each time until the metal
feels almost ready to split.
. Anneal, quench, dry, and open.

Variations Scored Folds

> Fold a strip repeatedly on the Traditional metalsmithing uses files or cutting tools to remove metal along
diagonal. Tap, roll, anneal, open. an intended bend line in a process called scoring. The foldforming approach is
This is called an Eckland fold. to simply compress and anneal the fold path. While traditional methods lend
themselves to straight folds and are less effective on curves, the reverse is
true of this method—curves are easy but straight lines can be difficult.
. Bend a wire to the proposed curve. . Set the wire onto sheet and position
The wire should be no thicker than the sandwiched assembly in a rolling
the metal being formed. Nickel mill so that very firm pressure is
silver, annealed binding wire, or needed to
brass is typical. move the
Note that curves rollers. Send
will open out the assembly
when rolled, through in a
so compensate single pass.
by making
the curves a bit tighter than the
intended result.

For more detailed information . Anneal, pickle, rinse, and dry. Bend . Flux and flow solder into the fold to
about fold forming, see the metal along the incised line, strengthen it. To convert this into
Forming Using Metal Characteristics using only a line-fold, mallet
Charles Lewton-Brain fingers if the sample flat
Brain Press: , revised  possible. and confirm the
raised line.

Shaping > Forming > Foldforming 


Access Video
Library
on CD
Compression Scoring
For simple jobs you can compress
metal rather than remove it. Strike
over the edge of an anvil or use a
hardened bar such as the corner of a
punch. Strike a single blow,
anneal, and bend.
 Shaping > Forming > Scoring
Scoring
Scoring
Scoring is the process of removing metal along the line of a proposed fold. On
thin sheet, it can be achieved with a sharp scribe. On metal over  gauge,
scoring is done with a graver, a file, or a scraper made just for this purpose.
To Score a º Groove in a Narrow Band
. File one edge smooth and straight, then use a square against the edge to scribe
a perpendicular line.
. With the metal braced against the bench pin and angled, file a notch at the
edge with a triangular file or the corner of a flat hand file.
. Repeat this file stroke, tilting the workpiece a few degrees further with each
pass. The file will cut a tall V that extends across the band with each stroke.
Continue until this V reaches about two-thirds of the width.
. Turn the workpiece around and repeat the process from the other side.
. Switch to a square needle file and refine the groove to a uniform depth.
. Bend with fingers, check against a square, flux, and solder.
To Score a Wide Panel
. File one edge so it is smooth and straight.
. Use a square against this edge to scribe a clear perpendicular line. For large-
scale work use a fine-tipped permanent marker.
. Clamp the metal onto a workbench using C-clamps and protective pads. To
prevent damage to the table, set the work on a piece of scrap wood. At the
same time, clamp a straight piece of wood or steel beside the marked line to
guide the tool.
. Set a sharp scoring tool near the top edge and
against the fence and pull it firmly toward yourself.
Pull many times with medium pressure rather than
a few times with extreme force.
. To score the top edge, use a file, or turn the piece
around and repeat the process.
. Continue until a raised line is visible on the reverse side of the sheet.
Scoring and Measurement
It’s easy to get confused when scoring because the fold will happen at the base
of the V-groove. When laying out multiple bends, think in terms of the exterior
dimensions and allow a little extra material to compensate for the bend area. To
make all the corners look the same, score then break off the end piece. For curved
scoring with a wire, refer to foldforming earlier in this chapter.
break off this piece break off this piece
 Metal Clay

Concept
In the s scientists in Japan developed a combination of binders and metal
particles to create a material with the working properties of modeling clay,
known as precious metal clay, or PMC. This water-soluble product is available
from several manufacturers in the form of lump, sheets, slip, and ready-to-
use syringes.
An organic binder provides elasticity while holding very tiny grains of
metal in suspension. After the water is driven off, the object is heated to the
fusing temperature of the constituent metal. During heating, the binding
material burns away, which causes the object to shrink to a degree equal to
the volume originally occupied by the binder.
The process is easiest with pure silver and pure gold because these
noble metals resist the formation of oxides and fuse at easily attainable
temperatures. Platinum (the other noble metal) can be made into a clay but
requires temperatures beyond the reach of most kilns.

Working with Metal Clay

The working properties of metal clays are related to moisture content. Avoid
working in a draft or using materials that will absorb water (like paper and
cardboard). Take only the amount to be used at the moment, sealing the
rest in plastic wrap to keep it moist. Put a few drops of olive oil or an organic
skin lotion in your palms and roll the metal clay to apply a thin layer of oil.
This will help seal in moisture.
To make sheets of metal clay, roll it out
Access Video like cookie dough, using a convenient length

Library
of plastic pipe as a rolling pin. To ensure
uniform thickness, set matching spacers on
on CD each side of the clay. Tongue depressors,
pieces of matte board or stacks of playing
cards make good spacers.
Cut metal clay by dragging a needle
through the material or with a knife, (which
leaves a neater edge). A long, razorlike
medical industry tool, called a tissue blade, is a useful (though dangerous)
cutting tool. Plastic picnic knives make a nice alternative when children are
involved, and the edge of a playing card works too.

Crystal Structure
slow firing;
less dense Metals are made up of small clusters of molecules called grains that arrange
themselves according to several external conditions including heat, stress, and
time. Metal clays are, by their nature, loose-packed compared to traditional
quicker firing; metals, which are compressed into rods and sheets under great pressure.
more dense Because pure metals are almost always more malleable than their alloys,
these two factors explain why basic sintered metal clay is more malleable than
wrought metals. Metal clays with shorter firing times (e.g., PMC+) use several
fast firing;
sizes of particles to yield a denser and therefore tougher material.
most dense

Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay 

 Metal Clay

Slip
Metal clays can be thinned with water to make a paste (called slip or slurry)
that is useful to join elements, repair cracks, and as a surface texture. Because
Access Video the material is very dense, simply stirring is not sufficient to blend additional
Library water into the mix. Instead, use a palette knife or similar flexible blade to
blend clean water into a small piece of PMC. Seal the mix in an airtight
on CD container and allow it to rest for a few hours, after which it will be ready to
use. The water and binder will separate if it is left unused for several days,
but at this point they can be stirred together easily and used immediately.
Some people find it useful to have several consistencies of slip available—just
change the proportion of water to make these.

To make slip, either smear water into Carving

metal clay with a palette knife, or rub
a dried piece of clay on coarse paper . Make the shape . To allow the work to dry, lay it on
to reduce it to dust, and mix this with by molding the foam rubber or a crumbled wad of
water. To retard the rate of drying, fresh clay into paper (to increase air flow). You
add a drop of glycerine, but be careful an object that can also dry it
not too add too much or the clay will suggests the in an oven, on a
never harden properly. final form. warming tray, or
with a hair dryer.
Do not set it on
aluminum, including foil.

. Shape with knives, files, and . To engrave lines, use a V-gouge such
sanding sticks. Catch the dust on as those for linoleum engraving. Use
a piece of the small bits for surface decoration
paper and or rehydrate with
add it to water. High-quality
your slip jar miniature gouges
with a little are available
additional from Prairie Craft
water. (--,
prairiecraft.com).

Textures
Metal clays are great at capturing textures. Textures without undercuts can
be collected by simply pressing the metal clay against an object. If a release
agent is needed, use cooking spray (e.g., Pam) or roll the clay between oiled
palms to create a film on its surface.
When working with delicate objects that are also
combustible, it is usually easier to leave the textured
object in place and simply allow it to burn away during
the firing step. Examples include leaves, flower petals,
fine fabric, lace, feathers, and thread.

 Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay


Look for points in common which are not
points of similarity, it is thus that the poet
can say, “A swallow stabs the sky,” and
turns the sparrow into a dagger.
George Braque
Metal Clay
Firing Equipment
The ideal tool for firing is an electric programmable kiln.
These kilns combine the benefits of accurate control
with freedom since they do not require monitoring.
Several kilns have been developed just for metal clay and
can be purchased through jewelry supply companies.
Next best is a
manual kiln with an accurate
pyrometer. As the kiln approaches the desired
temperature, regulate the heat by adjusting the knob
or cracking the door open. Kilns appropriate for this
method include enameling kilns, burnout ovens, test
(glaze) kilns, and many kilns used to fuse or anneal glass.
Large ceramic kilns are not recommended because the
internal temperature
varies throughout the chamber.
Some metal clays have been created to
have relatively short firing times. These open
the possibility of alternate firing techniques
using a torch, campstove, or alcohol-based
fuel. Because technology is changing rapidly,
consult the Web or contact a supplier of metal
clay for the latest information.
Firing Surfaces
To make it easy to set objects into the kiln and remove
them after firing, place your work on shelves or trays.
These can be soldering blocks, bisque tiles (ceramic
supply), most floor tiles, terracotta saucers, and slabs of kiln bricks. If in
doubt, run a test firing. All these materials will eventually break from use,
but their lifespan can be extended by reducing exposure to thermal shock.
When a shelf has been unloaded it should be put back in the warm kiln to
cool slowly.
These materials can be stacked using pieces of soldering block as
supports between layers. Shelf materials are brittle so use common sense in
providing support and avoiding stressful situations.
Solderite boards cut into Setting a heavy dish like this on an elevated
one-inch blocks make handy shelf is tempting fate. Better to put the saucer
stilts to stack trays. on a low shelf. The single blocks make it
easier to lift the tray with a spatula.
Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay 

Creativeness often consists of merely turn-
ing up what is already there. Did you know
that right and left shoes were thought up
only a little more than a century ago?
Bernice Fitz-Gibbon
Acceptable materials include:
> brass
> some glasses
> fine silver
> high-karat gold
> laboratory-grown gems
> titanium and niobium
> stainless steel
> ceramic elements
 Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay
Metal Clay
Firing with a Torch
Some versions of metal clay are made of such tiny
particles that they can be fused quickly enough to
make torch firing practical. A few minutes at fusing
temperature (indicated by a glowing red color) is
enough to make the metal solid. Simply set the
dried object on a soldering or firing surface and heat
it evenly with a torch.
An alternate approach is to
jerryrig a furnace from a flower
pot. Line the terra cotta pot with
aluminum foil to reflect the heat, and find a way to prop a
jeweler’s torch so that its flame is directed into the cham-
ber. This method reaches around ° F (° C), which
is good for several versions of metal clay. It is practical for
-minute firings; something that isn’t comfortable when
you’re holding the torch the whole time.
Patterned Rollers
To make a patterned roller, carve a pattern into
a length of PVC pipe with linoleum cutters,
wood carving tools, or gravers. You can also
make a patterned roller by gluing a sample of
a textured material onto a piece of pipe. For
instance, cover a clean length of PVC with glue
and press a piece of lace into place, securing it with
rubber bands until the glue dries. If a specific repeat
length is desired, use a cylinder with a diameter of
one-third the intended repeat. A mark on a " pipe will
reappear about every three inches when rolled.
Embedding
Materials that can withstand firing temperatures
can be pressed into clay. Allow for shrinkage by
leaving a gap around the implant. One way to
achieve this is to wrap the piece with tape or coat
it with wax equivalent to the shrinkage. Sometimes
it is enough to wiggle the element to enlarge its
socket. Don’t quench after firing—allow the work
to air cool. Remember that metal clay shrinks from all sides in all directions.
Material beneath the implant will often push it upward as it contracts.
Before & After Before & After
Note space left Without space, the
around the implant. implant is bent.

Shrinkage Around Stones
The natural
shrinkage of the
process will curl
metal over the top
of the stone, which
is what we want. But it will also
push the stone upward from below.
For this reason, press the gem down
far enough into the clay that the
table is below the level of the PMC.
Metal Clay
Laboratory-grown gems
Natural and synthetic stones are likely to break and discolor under prolonged
heat. The exception to this is a specific category of gemstones created at very high
temperatures. These are always translucent and may be cut either as cabs or as
faceted gems. They will be clearly identified as “lab-grown” by reputable vendors.
Setting a Round Faceted Stone
. Make the object, creating a . With a pencil point, sharpened
thickness equal to the height of the dowel, or similar
stone where the gem will go. tool, poke a conical
hole roughly the
same size as the
stone.
. Use a needle (wiggled in a circle) or . Lay the stone in position and press
a small straw to remove clay from it down securely into the clay. Be
the bottom of this hole. While not certain the stone
mandatory, this both conserves is level and seated
material and makes a more elegant below the surface of
setting. the metal clay.
Setting Heat Sensitive Stones
For stones that cannot withstand the firing temperature of PMC you’ll need
to make a socket into which the stone is set conventionally. While the clay
is soft, press the gem into position to create a starter hole. Because the clay
shrinks, you’ll need to enlarge this socket by either  or  depending on
which clay you are using. This is often nothing more than wiggling the stone
in all directions.
In the case of a round stone, the math is easy and
because there are hundreds of cylinders in our lives, it’s
easy to come up with a tool. Imagine a  mm round
cabochon set into PMC+, which has a  shrinkage
rate. Locate a dowel, pen, nail head, or similar tool that
is – mm in diameter and press it into the clay to
make the proper socket. After firing and finishing you
can put the stone into place and press the fine silver
over it with a burnisher.
Finishing
After firing, metal clays are  metal and
can be soldered, filed, sanded, oxidized,
patinaed, and polished like any other metal—
almost. Because of their porous nature, high-shrinkage materials like original
PMC should be burnished or tumbled to compact the structure before
finishing. This is especially important before soldering and machine buffing,
procedures that will otherwise soak up solder or compounds.
Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay 

Equipment
An extremely simple experiment
can be conducted with two  volt
lantern batteries. The process will
work, but this setup lacks power
and control. For higher voltage, use
a battery charger or a car battery.
In order to have control, either of
these will need to be fitted with
an ammeter and rheostat. By the
time you’ve invested in these,
you probably would have been
better off buying a rectifier, which
combines all these parts in a single
system. The initial cost is justified
by the greater control and the more
efficient and cheaper use.
 Shaping > Forming > Electroforming
Electroforming
Electroforming
Conventional plating deposits a thin film of metal onto the surface of an
otherwise finished piece of work. Electroforming uses this technology to
build up a substantial layer of metal, often on a matrix of a nonmetal such as
wood, plastic, or paper. As anyone blessed with bronze baby shoes knows, it
is possible to electroform over nonmetallic objects. The only requirement is
a coating of a conductive paint. This can be painted onto a matrix of wood,
plastic, paper, stone, or about anything else. In some cases (like baby shoes)
the object will remain encased in its metal shell. In others, the original form is
burned away once the metal is sufficiently strong to stand without it.
Process
. Create a model using any combination of materials and techniques. Be
certain that the final assembly is completely free of oils by washing it in an
alcohol solvent. Everything to be coated with metal must be conductive,
either as clean metal or by coating it with a conductive paint, which is
available at electronics stores. Porous materials (paper, leaves, etc.) should
be sealed with several coats of varnish or acrylic medium before this
step. All metal parts to be left unplated should be covered with stop-out
varnish. Delicate objects such as shells, organic gems, and so on should be
stopped out to protect them from the relatively harsh electrolyte solution.
. Prepare enough electrolyte to completely submerge the object. Using
protective clothing and ventilation, mix one pound of copper sulfate with
 cc of sulfuric acid and a half gallon of distilled water. Stir gently until
the copper sulfate dissolves. This solution is used at room temperature.
. Clean a piece of copper roughly equal in surface area to the piece being
electroformed and connect it to the positive (+) pole. This is the anode.
The copper can be a single piece bent around the object or several pieces
hanging from bus bars that are connected by a wire. The objective is to
provide sufficient and evenly spaced supply of copper to the solution.
Allow at least 1⁄2" between this copper and the object. They must never
touch!
. Suspend the workpiece from a stout copper wire that is connected to the
cathode, the negative (-) pole. When you are certain that the elements
are not touching each other, turn on the rectifier (or connect the wire to
batteries).
. The thickness, texture, and speed of the plating reaction depends upon
many factors including heat and strength of the solution, voltage,
amperage, and the size and shape of the anode. Experiment to learn how
to control your setup.
. When the object is sufficiently rigid, turn off the power and remove the
work. Cut away support wires and, if appropriate, remove the matrix
material. Wax can be removed with boiling water. Neutralize the work by
soaking it in a baking soda solution, then finish as usual. Electroformed
objects can be soldered and colored but they are too brittle to withstand
much forming.
Chapter 

Surfaces

Mastery doesn’t interest me—
there is a world full of virtuosos.
I like to work as if I’m
at the beginning.
Betty Oliver
Martelé
In the early years of the twentieth
century, Gorham Silver, a large
American manufacturing company,
introduced a line of hollowware
influenced by the Arts and Crafts
Style that was then popular. This
line, called Martelé, (French for
hammered) replaced the company's
production methods with handwork
to achieve the rich surface that only
hand hammering can achieve.
 Surfaces > Mechanical > Hammer Marks
Hammer Marks
Hammer Marks
There is something intrinsically appealing about
hammer marks on metal. They celebrate the process
of transformation—from flat, smooth raw material
to embellished, contoured object. Along with this,
hammer marks carry the gesture of the maker, the
imprint of the human hand. Like fingerprints in clay,
they remind us of the unseen maker.
Modified Hammers
Hammer faces can be altered with files, burs, and
punches to create unique texturing tools. Pick
up damaged and discarded hammerheads at
flea markets and garage sales to have a ready
supply. Sample marks first on clay then by
striking annealed metal. To achieve the best
impression always work on a heavy and stable
base like an anvil. You can also create a rich surface by
hammering the metal onto a texture, such as rusted
steel or concrete.
Improvised Hammer Double-Sided Textures
To make a punch into a hammer, To mark both sides of a piece of
grip it in vise grips or a hand vise. metal, secure a punch or hammer in
Fingerprint Protection: Hammer a vise and pinch the metal between
marks can be used strategically in this surface and a hammer.
places where handling will create
unsightly fingerprints. Use a rough
texture to hide tarnish on handles,
flatware, and the backs of pins or
pendants.
 Roll Printing

Roll Printing
To transfer texture and pattern from
one material to another (e.g., fabric
to metal), make a sandwich of the
materials and pass it through the
rolling mill under great pressure.
This embosses the reverse image of
the material into the metal.
Procedure
. Anneal and dry the metal to be
embossed.
. When appropriate, anneal the
texture material. An example is a
paper clip.
. Set the rollers by eye and test the
tension. Adjust the rollers so the
handle is difficult to move, but
not so difficult that it requires two
people.
. Roll the assembly through the mill
in a continuous movement so the
texture is created in a single pass.

Suggested Materials Paper Templates

Cut a paper pattern with scissors or a
Burlap Screen
blade and lay it between the annealed
Sandpaper String
work metal and a stiff backing sheet
Lace Binding wire
(such as brass). Each paper template can
Netting Coarse paper
be used only once, but where duplicates
Templates Tissue paper
are desired, you can photocopy the
image. Each variety of paper will
leave a different surface when rolled.
Experiment with card stock, drawing
Access Video paper, and tissue.

Library Printing from a Metal Matrix

on CD To create a raised pattern on the workpiece, prepare a matrix by making
indentations in a metal sheet, for instance by stamping, engraving, etching,
or roll printing. A tough metal like brass or nickel
silver is recommended. Follow the steps above to
transfer the pattern to an annealed workpiece.

Surfaces > Mechanical > Roll Printing 

 Stamping

Stamping
Stamping is a noncontinuous series of indentations made by a tool, usually
driven by a hammer. It is like leather tooling.
> Work on an anvil, preferably polished.
> Anneal the metal before starting.
> Use stock thick enough to absorb the blow.
> Hold the handle where it is comfortable. A lower grip increases power.

Thickness
Material under the stamping tool
will compact but there is a limit to
how far it can go. Thicker material
provides more metal within which
to distribute the blow. This means
that a strike on thick sheet will yield
a deeper mark than the same blow
on thin sheet.
Factors
The drama and clarity of stamping are affected by these elements. If one of
these is faulty, the results will probably still be OK, but if two or more are
bad, the stamping will be disappointing.
Tool Design Working end should be exactly perpendicular to tool’s
axis, flat, and crisp.
Metal Should be annealed and reasonably thick (at least  ga).
Force The hammer blow must be confident and forceful.
Resistance If the workpiece is on a yielding surface like a wooden
table, the impact of the blow is severely compromised.
To demonstrate, strike blows on various surfaces in the
studio using the same hammer and punch. The difference
will be dramatic.

Letters & Numbers Top

Commercially – This area should be symmetrical and rounded so the crown
made letter is centered over the axis of the tool.
and number – Avoid square corners; they can deflect the tool sideways if
the hammer blow is angled.
stamps can
– When the top starts to mushroom over, grind, or file the
be used
edges smooth to avoid the risk of splinters being thrown off
for surface when the tool is struck.
enrichment.

Shaft
– Thick enough to prevent the tool from bowing or wobbling
when struck.
– Comfortable to grasp; no sharp corners. Some people like to
wrap their tools with cord or leather.
– If the stamp has a specific orientation, it is helpful to build in
a tactile reference, for instance, a notch you can feel under
your thumb.

Face
– Square to the axis.
– Flat (not crowned).
– Chamfered edges, especially on large tools; this helps the
material flow outward.

 Surfaces > Mechanical > Stamping

 Chasing

Chasing
Chasing is an ancient and often misunderstood technique used to incise lines
into metal. The result can look like engraving, and the process resembles
stamping, but chasing is a technique by itself. Unlike engraving, no metal
is removed. Unlike stamping, the tool moves in a steady, unbroken motion.
Chasing can be used to create linear patterns on flat or shaped sheet metal,
and is used to sharpen details on castings.

Tips Tools
> The tool is usually drawn Though any light hammer
toward the worker, held at such can be used, this one has
an angle that it propels itself evolved over
along as it is struck. the years
> Use a lightweight hammer just for this
and sit comfortably. The technique.
process should be delicate and It is light
controlled. enough to
> For small radius curves, tilt the be used for
tool more or switch to a smaller hours, has a
tool. Since a sharper angle may large face to
cause the tool to slip, a new find the tool,
tool is the better solution. and fits on a
> It is important that the comfortable
workpiece be securely held. pistol grip
> In some applications, a raised handle. The
element is created by lowering handle is thin
A twisted
shank the surrounding metal. and springy, so the hammer
provides “spanks” the tool.
sure grip.

Securing the workpiece The workpiece can be nailed to a

To keep clamps at a distance, use block of wood. Insulated staples are
A gradual taper a strip of steel or a thin piece of already cushioned with cardboard.
on the shank wood. Protect How handy!
makes it easier
to guide the
against
tool. scratches with
a rubber band.

The tongue on this wood block is When clamping directly onto the
not essential, but it allows the wood bench, use
Access Video to be clamped a wood,
more securely
Library
leather, or
in a vise. cardboard
on CD pad to
prevent
scratches.

Surfaces > Mechanical > Chasing 

 Engraving

Engraving
Engraving is a cutting process in which a steel tool called a graver or burin
slices small bits of metal as it is pushed along the surface of a sheet. Gravers
are made of high-quality tool steel and are usually sold in the hardened,
untempered state.

Cutting
Proper cutting involves a sliding rather than a scooping
stroke. Press the graver straight down into the metal at
the beginning of the cut, then slide the tool forward at a
consistent depth. The scooping stroke can be recognized by a
telltale scar left behind the intended beginning of the line.
To vary the width of a line, don’t dig deeper, but
Styles of Gravers instead, roll the graver on its side as it is pushed along. To
cut a graceful curve, roll the graver and return it upright.
flat In most cases the work is brought in to the graver. This
is especially true of curved lines. Curves and circles are
generally cut counterclockwise.
knife

Holding Devices
round It is impossible to engrave with control unless the metal is securely held.
Here are several common solutions.
spitstick
Engraving Block Shellac Stick Vise Stick
(a.k.a. Graver’s Ball) This is a platform and This homemade
liner This is a heavy steel handle that is held against device is especially
sphere with vise jaws the bench pin while cutting. useful when engraving
This can be as simple as a several objects of the
on top. It sits on a
piece of tree limb. Coat the same shape. Carve the
donut-shaped pad
platform with a layer of outline of the piece
that allows it to tilt flake shellac, sealing wax, into the endgrain of
universallly. The top or a mixture of the two. a wooden shaft and
Wiggle Cut element rotates on Gently heat both shellac add a thumbscrew to
Use a flat graver or liner to make this a bearing; these two and the object and press tighten. The long saw
simple and versatile cut. Hold the tool features combine to them together. Though not cut down the center
at a steep angle and “walk” it forward, make any motion as rigid, the glue sticks used allows the clamp to
rocking from side to side. The amount possible. in hot glue guns will work open and close.
of swing in the wrist will alter the cut for this.
from being closed to open. Any size
graver may be used.

 Surfaces > Mechanical > Engraving

 Engraving

Handles
Graver handles are available in several styles; choice is a matter of personal
preference. Since large bulbous handles can get in the way when making
shallow cuts, those with a flat face are generally preferred. Because gravers
will get short with repeated sharpening, some engravers start with a short
Access Video handle and later switch to a longer one to prolong use of the tool.
An EFB adjustable handle is often used with a square graver. The tool is
Library held in place by a cone-shaped metal sleeve slid
on CD tightly along its shaft. A notched piece of brass
provides for the changing length of the tool.
Most gravers are available with flat or bent
shanks. The curved shape is usually preferred
for working on a concave surface and other
areas not easily accessible.

Grip
Hold the graver between your
fingertips and along the length of
your thumb. This will feel awkward
at first but is worth getting used to.
The handle should rest in the fleshy
part of your palm. This is where the
push comes from.
To determine the correct length of a
graver, hold a pencil like this. The end
of the tool’s handle will press into the
heel of the hand where the flesh is
thickest.
Position
Work should be at mid-chest height.
When using an engraving block, a
table lower than a jeweler’s bench
will be needed. Most engravers
rely on a magnifying headset or
microscope. If you can’t see it,
you can’t cut it. There is more
information
about
magnification
in the Tools
chapter.

Plastic Layout
Thermoplastics like Aquaplast, Ditto, Because engraving is a precise and demanding process, it is usually unwise to
and others offer a clean and quick design as you cut. Careful layout will allow you to concentrate on one task at
holding material. Soften the plastic in a time. Drawing directly on the metal with a pen or pencil will create a wide
hot water, press it around the work, and line that can easily smudge, so it’s better to coat the metal with white paint
allow it to cool (a minute or two). For (Chinese white, tempera, white
small pieces, the plastic can become shoe polish) and draw on this with
the handle, or it can be shaped for a a sharp pencil. Trace over the design
vise or fitted
with a sharp scribe or a sewing
onto a handle.
needle held in a pin vise, then wipe
To release the
off the white layer. Though it takes a
work, reimmerse
in hot water. little longer, this kind of systematic
These plastics approach is recommended for good
can be reused engraving. Centuries of experience
indefinitely. is worth paying attention to.

Surfaces > Mechanical > Engraving 


Changing the Length
Most tools are too long
as purchased, so they
need to be shortened.
Determine the desired
length as shown on the
preceding page, taking
into account the length
of the handle. Tighten the graver
in a vise at the correct length with
the tang sticking out and hit it with
a sharp blow. For safety, catch the
broken piece in a towel.
The angle can be modified to make a
tool that will cut lines of various widths. . Grip the tool in the sharpener and set
The angles do not need to be identical,
but their points should meet.
 Surfaces > Mechanical > Graver Sharpening
Graver Sharpening
Graver Sharpening
All engraving requires a keen, precise edge. Repeated sharpening will be
needed to keep the cutting edge in shape. Although sharpening can be done by
hand, an indexing device is recommended to keep each surface absolutely flat.
> To speed up the sharpening process, reduce the size of the tip. Use a grinding
wheel (any size; flex shaft is OK) and quench often
to retain the temper. If the graver gets blue you have
canceled out the heat treatment. Refer to the page on
hardening steel to reharden and retemper.
> The face angle for most gravers is °—less for soft metals and slightly more for
hard materials. Set both a sharpening stone and the indexing jig on a smooth
flat surface, such as a piece of glass or Plexiglas. Clamp the graver into the
jig and rub the tool face on a stone that has a coating of light oil. Follow the
coarse stone by a similar stroking on a fine stone. Continue this until all the
obvious scratches are gone.
> To remove burs, jam the tool a couple of times into a block of
hardwood. Polish the graver by rubbing it along a piece of
fine sandpaper held on a hard flat surface. A couple of slow,
steady passes are usually sufficient. A properly sharpened
graver will “bite” against your thumbnail, rather than slip.
When it passes this test, stroke the face and belly of the
tool lightly on a piece of crocus paper impregnated with
rouge until they are mirrorlike.
Sharpening a Square Graver
. Rotate the tool and count the markings
the bottom edge of the graver flat on the sharpener. Grind this surface
against a whetstone. Raise the tool to (called the belly) first on a coarse stone
an angle of about °. Use a protractor and then on a fine stone. Rotate the
for guidance. barrel back to its original position, then
continue turning to the same number of
notches used on the first side. Grind as
before.
. Turn the barrel around so the face . Fix the graver into its handle and
points downward and set the angle at polish its three cutting planes by
˚. Grind the face on the coarse and rubbing them on fine sandpaper
fine stones. held on glass. Test the point against
a thumbnail; the tool should stick to
the nail without pressure. Polish the
face and
belly facets
on crocus
paper.
 Special Engraving

Types of Engraving Description Advantages Disadvantages

Manual The tool is pushed along by
hand in a smooth stroke.
Machine Assisted A precision machine
thrusts a point forward
and backward in tiny
movements.
Machine Pantograph A rotating bur is passed
across the surface, guided
by a fixed pattern or
template.
Deep, lasting, expressive cuts;
great versatility; low cost.
Ease of control; low fatigue
rate; relatively quick to learn.
Uniform result: no layout skills
required; easy to learn.
Requires practice and
skill.
High cost, delicate
equipment, not mobile.
Shallow cuts; lack of
expressive line, not
much versatility.

Speed versus Stroke Pantograph Engraving

The rate at which the tip of the tool
moves out and back is controlled
by a foot
rheostat.
While some
tools can
achieve
speeds as
high as , strokes per minute,
they are not meant to run that fast
all the time. Aim for speeds in the
, range. Generally it is best to
slow down as you go around corners
or make deep cuts.
The length of the stroke is
controlled elsewhere on the tool,
often by a knob on the controller.
This is adjusted for various jobs
depending on the tool, the metal
being cut, and the nature of the
design.
Machine engravers do for (or to) engraving
what the typewriter did for calligraphy.
Hand engraving is more expressive, more
versatile, and more demanding than machine
engraving. Just as anyone can make a legible
word with a typewriter, the demands of
using a pantograph machine are modest.
Unfortunately there is no way for personal
expression to affect the result.
The work is gripped in a vise on the
bed of the machine and pre-cut brass letter
templates are locked into position. A steel nib slides along each plate to guide
a rotating bur that is attached to a small precision motor that rides over the
workpiece. Holes along the pantograph arms allow the scale of tracing to be
changed, which means that a single set of letters can cut the same shape in a
variety of sizes. Machines generally cost from -.
Process Machine Assisted Engraving
. Prepare the metal as for other Machines are either electrical or
engraving. It should be securely pneumatic (air-powered), and must
anchored in a holding device that deliver a reciprocating action in the
can be rotated, with a neat line range of – strokes per minute.
scratched lightly into the surface. Air tools are slightly preferred because
. Make sure the tip of the graver is they are quieter and have a better
sharp and polished. Test it on a maintenance record. Electrical motors
piece of scrap or your thumbnail. have the benefit of simplicity—plug
. Set the tip of the graver into them in and you’re ready to work.
position, press down lightly to bite
into the surface, and step gingerly
onto the rheostat to start the
cutting action.
. Guide the tool along the design,
constantly making subtle
adjustments of lift, tilt, speed, and
pressure. Unclench your jaw and
remember to breathe.

Surfaces > Mechanical > Special Engraving 


Safety (yours!)
> Work only in a ventilated area.
> Wear rubber gloves, an apron,
goggles, and a respirator.
> Keep baking soda handy to
neutralize acid spills.
> When mixing, always add acid to
water. Acid is the denser fluid
of the two and will fall to the
bottom of the dish and begin
mixing.
> Store acids in narrow-necked
glass or plastic jars with glass or
plastic lids. Store in a cool dark
place; never store up high.
Acids (a.k.a Mordants)
Chemically pure (CP) 
Reagent approx. 
Commercial approx. 
By its nature, acid is a
temperamental commodity. Up to
a point, diluting makes it stronger.
In some cases it gets stronger as
it absorbs other chemicals, so acid
that has been used for a while is
better than a fresh mix. Increased
temperature will accelerate the
action of acid but once it gets going
it produces its own heat and so will
continue a strong bite. The only
rule is that there are no rules and
each time you etch you must pay
attention to what is happening.
Gas Bubbles
During etching, gases are released in
the form of bubbles. If these remain
on the metal they will
prevent the acid from
reaching it and will cause
an uneven bite. To remove
bubbles, brush the work
lightly with a feather or
a mop made from string.
 Surfaces > Chemical > Etching
Etching
Etching
Etching is a technique that uses acid to cut a design into metal. It has been
used in many cultures and in a wide variety of applications, from armor
in Medieval Europe to printing plates. Etching is often associated with
printmaking, and in fact the history of decorating metal and making an
impression from a metal plate are intertwined. The etching process consists
of covering part of the metal with an acid-proof material (resist) while leaving
areas exposed to the corrosion (bite) of the acid.
Traditional Etching Solutions
Most acids are available in three grades. The first is expensive and not
necessary for studio purposes. Most people use reagent grade and most
formulas are written for this. If you have a more dilute acid, modify the
formulas accordingly.
Gold  part nitric,  parts hydrochloric (aqua regia)
Sterling, silver  part nitric,  parts water
Copper and
copper alloys  part nitric,  part water
Aluminum . oz. ammonia,  gm copper sulfate,  oz. sodium
hydroxide,  gallons of water
White metals
(lead, tin, etc.)  part nitric,  parts water
Iron, steel  parts hydrochloric,  part water
Process
Either paint resist onto the area that is to remain
at the original height or cover the whole piece
and selectively scratch the resist away after the
paint dries.
To achieve different heights, etch a while,
pull the piece out, rinse it, and apply resist over
the areas that have sufficient depth. Allow the
fresh resist to dry then return the work to the acid
bath. The opposite approach can yield the same
effect. Scratch out only that part of the design you
want deepest and begin etching. After a while pull
the piece out, rinse, and scratch away more of the
design. The first design will continue etching deeper
along with the newly cut design. This may be done
repeatedly to achieve several distinct layers. This
technique is especially appropriate to subsequent
basse-taille enameling.

Ferric Chloride
Ferric chloride (a salt rather than an
acid) gives a clean etch on copper
and brass. The work must be level,
and should be suspended just
below the surface of the fluid. Use
electrical
tape or
contact paper
can be used
to protect
the back. In addition to the resists
listed above, permanent felt tip
pen and photocopy toner can be
used with this mordant. The etch
will usually take – hours, but
each case is unique so remember to
check the work regularly. Rinsing
in water will not stop the corrosive
action: scrub the metal with
ammonia.
Alternate methods for ferric
chloride etching are to spray the
acid onto the metal in a sealed tank
or to attach the metal to a wheel
that dips into and out of the acid
like a millpond water wheel.
Retrieving work
Use a loop of string to safely lower
work into the acid bath. If you use
tweezers, be careful that they don’t
scratch the resist. Wooden tweezers or
chopsticks work well.
Etching
Low-Tech Photoetching
In this process the toner used in photocopiers and laser printers is transferred to a
metal plate where it becomes the resist for traditional etching. Make copies from
a high contrast black-and-white image onto acetate film, then transfer the heat-
sensitive toner with an iron.
. The metal must be clean. Use Scotch- . Photocopy the image onto a sheet of
Brite or pumice to remove surface oils plastic film. For most copiers you’ll
and create a little roughness. Follow this need to be sure the acetate is a
with a wipe of solvent like nail polish standard size. Tape
remover, acetone, or paint thinner. small pieces onto
a standard sheet
of paper to help
feed them through
the copier. If there
is any sign of dirt
or oil on the film, gently clean the
acetate with solvent.
. Lay the film, toner side down, onto . Set a piece of paper or light fabric on
the clean metal and make a tape hinge top of it and press with a hot iron at
along one edge. the cotton/linen setting (–º F,
–º C). Use a firm pressure and
allow the heat to soak through the
plastic. Insufficient heat will result in
an incomplete transfer, but too much
will cause the lines
of the image to
bleed outward.
Make a practice
piece to get the
feel of the process.
. An alternate method is to set the . When the metal has cooled, peel
metal on a hotplate or an inverted away the film to reveal the transferred
iron. Allow the heat to flow upward image. Do this slowly so you can
through the metal until it softens the make repairs if necessary. If you are
toner image, then not going to etch immediately, leave
burnish through the film in place to
the plastic protect the resist.
with a jewelers Etch as usual, then
burnisher, a remove the transfer
brayer, or a small with paint thinner
graphics roller. or a similar solvent.
Resist Solvent None of these resists will bond well
asphaltum turpentine to unclean metal. Clean by scrubbing
oil based paint turpentine with pumice or Scotch-Brite to
shellac alcohol remove oils and simultaneously create
lacquer lacquer thinner a slightly rough surface. Rinse the
(e.g. nail polish) sheet, pat it dry, and hold it by the
press type turpentine or thinner edges to avoid contamination.
Surfaces > Chemical > Etching 

Stilts
Ever notice how flat strips have a
tendency to fall over just as solder
starts to flow? Putting a small bend
in the strip will help it stay put.
Solder Stops
To prevent solder from overflowing
from an overlay, file a slight bevel on
the underside of the piece on top.
 Surfaces > Physical > Overlay
Overlay
Overlay
This ancient process has been a metalsmithing standard for centuries and the
possibilities are far from exhausted. The concept is as simple as a layer cake,
where pieces are applied on top of a base, typically to create pattern and
image. Here are a few broad possibilities:
Layers with see-through openings. Layers with contrasting textures
or colors (or both).
Layers that are not parallel. Layers on stilts or spacers.
Work that is formed after layering. Combinations of several of these.
Process
. Make tracings from an actual-size drawing to determine the pattern for
each piece. Transfer to label paper.
. Saw out each element and remove the paper with solvent or by burning.
. File the edges that will be difficult to reach later. Don’t bother with edges
that will need to be reworked after soldering.
. Clean and flux the surfaces to be joined. Pre-melt the solder onto the back
of the smaller piece.
. Preheat the other piece until the flux becomes fluid, then flip the top piece
into position. Working under the flame (to keep the flux liquid), slide the
piece around with a needle tool as needed.
. Heat the assembly, focusing on the bottom piece, until both pieces reach
the solder temperature. You will usually (but not always) see a line of shiny
silver glistening at the edge of the upper piece.
. Allow the work to cool for a few seconds, then quench it in water. Do not
pickle until you are sure the soldering is complete. Quenching in pickle will
pull the acid into the joint, which makes it difficult to resolder.
 Overlay

Even Heat Clamps

The challenge of many overlay To prevent pieces from
projects is to heat the larger, hidden sliding out of position,
base sheet without overheating the make clamps from
decorative overlay element. Find a steel, nickel silver or
way to get the heat under the piece. brass. Coat hangers
Any of these methods will work; and large paper clips
find your favorite or invent another. provide handy material. A simple
clamp is bent like a hairpin.
> Prop the
work on
several pieces To make a spring clamp:
of pumice or . Wrap a length of wire at least
firebrick. twice around a mandrel, ending
so the legs are parallel.
> Support the work
on a screen made
of nichrome wire. . About an inch out from the coil,
Rest this on a tripod bend the wire º, then bend it
or bend the corners to return the end to parallel with
to lift it off the the other leg.
Access Video soldering pad. . Repeat for the
Library > Lift the
second leg.
. Squeeze at the
on CD work off the arrows to
soldering pad make the
with a needle. legs pass
each other.
> Set the work Adjust the shape
on a nest of and tension to
binding wire. match the job.

Troubleshooting
Problem Reason Solution
Firescale leaves a ghost Piece got too hot for too long. Don’t try to sand it a way. This will only make it worse.
image around the overlay. More flux might have helped. Use patina or texture with gravers or burs to make
the best of the situation. Next time, use a hit and run
approach with your torch.
The overlay piece is not Uneven heat, dirty metal, a) If all extremities are secure and the result is visually
fully attached. insufficient flux. acceptable, overlook this. Do better next time.
b) If the metal was only quenched in water, apply
paste flux, mallet the parts down and reheat.
c) Get creative with rivets.
Edges and layers are worn Too much sanding, abrasives Stop sanding. Buff lightly or not at all. File edges back
thin. were cushioned, metal was too to a thicker area. Burnish the edge to thicken it. Learn
thin to start. from the mistake.

Surfaces > Physical > Overlay 

 Inlay

Puzzle Inlay
In this process pieces are cut out to fit together in the same way that the
elements of a jigsaw interlock. While considerably more tedious than the
lamination inlay, this method ensures an undistorted image that is visible on
both front and back.
One-Step Process
Clamp or glue pieces of metal together and
saw through both pieces simultaneously.
This pretty much guarantees a good fit. Some
cunning is needed when piercing to get
started. Drill and saw to the proposed line
before positioning the second sheet.

Two-Step Process
First, saw out one unit, either the positive or the
negative. Next, trace around it on the other piece of
metal with a sharp scribe. A sewing needle in a pin vise
works well. Saw the second unit carefully; the two pieces
should make a perfect fit, like parts of a jigsaw puzzle. File
or planish as needed, then solder the pieces together.

Soft solders like Sta-Brite and TIX Solder Inlay

work well for inlay, In this simple and versatile technique, solder is allowed to flow into grooves
but after they are made by hammering, engraving, roll printing, or etching.
applied, the piece . Prepare a recess that is at least 1⁄2 . Flux the piece well and flood the
can’t be heated above mm (.") deep. recess with solder. Remove the torch
º F (º C). as soon as
the solder
has filled
Use gold solder on: the recess.
• steel
• nickel silver . After quenching, file away the . To show up the pattern, dip the piece
• copper excess solder, being careful not to into a liver of sulfur solution during
• brass file away so much filing. A high polish
• bronze
that the design is does not show the
• sterling
damaged or lost. effect of contrasting
metals.
Use silver solder on:
• steel
• nickel silver Kerf Sequence
• copper
In complex shapes, the kerf of the Because the inlay material is solder
• brass
• bronze saw becomes a factor. This space will and is flowed into place with heat,
• K gold need to be filled by subsequent heatings must be
• K colored gold solder, so it must thought out carefully. If the inlay
• K white gold be kept small—use is done before fabrication, use IT or
a blade no larger hard solder. If the inlay is going to
than 4 /0. be a final step, use easy solder.

 Surfaces > Physical > Inlay


Relief
This technique takes advantage of
the fact that gold is not dissolved by
most acids.
. Prepare a base plate of sterling,
copper, brass, or nickel silver
with recesses made by engraving,
etching, stamping, or rolling.
. Flux and flood the recesses with
gold solder, K or
higher.
. Cool, pickle, rinse,
and file to remove
overflow.
. Mask off the back and edges of
the piece with asphaltum or wax
so they will not be attacked by
the acid.
. Etch away the
metal around
the solder inlay.
Remember to
wear protective clothing and use
ventilation.
. Finish with a scratchbrush or
similar low-impact media so you
don’t compromise the effect.
Inlay
Lamination Inlay
In this simple process, sheets of metal are soldered
together and then pressed until they are flush. This
gives the appearance of an inlay. A rolling mill is
helpful but not necessary for lamination inlay.
. One piece of metal must be thicker than the desired
goal and the other should be very thin, around
 gauge. Clean the two pieces and solder them
together. The bond must be complete, extending all
the way to the edges. Achieve this through careful
preparation and heating, not by using surplus
solder. Excess solder will make a yellowish ghost
image around the inlay in the finished piece.
. After pickling and drying, pass the sheet through
a rolling mill or planish it with a polished hammer
until the two surfaces become flush. If rolling is
to take place in both directions, anneal before
changing the direction of the stretch. Lamination
inlay is not recommended where specific shapes are
required since distortion is inherent in the process.
. Finish conventionally with files, paper, and buffing if
desired. Subsequent soldering could spoil the effect.
As a precaution, use a lower melting solder and
protect the inlay with yellow ocher.
Variations Self-Clamping
Complex patterns can be developed Here’s a neat trick to hold two
by borrowing a technique used by pieces together while sawing: Cut
beadmakers and slots into the larger sheet to form
sushi chefs. Solder fingers that bend up over the top
wires together to sheet. Pierce
make a length of the rest of the
material (cane) form, leaving
whose cross section the fingers for
reveals an interesting pattern. Use last. After all
wires of contrasting color, either the sawing and
in a planned filing is done,
or random saw off the
way. Slice thin fingers of metal
sections from and the two
this and solder pieces will fall
them down to a base sheet. Roll apart.
this through
the mill or
planish it
until the
surface
becomes flush.
Surfaces > Physical > Inlay 

Mokumé-Gane
In mokumé-gane (MO-ku-may
GAW-nay), layers of contrasting
metals create a multicolored
woodgrain effect. There are
several ways to create the billet of
laminates, and several ways to make
a pattern in the metal.
Creating the Pattern
Whatever method you choose to
create a billet, after all the work you
will have a rather boring stack of
metals, a sort of miniature plywood.
Additional steps are needed to
bring the piece to life. Roll or forge
the laminate to  or  gauge and
anneal. Set it on a medium soft
surface and strike it with small
punches to create a bumpy sheet.
File, sand, and polish the metal
using conventional techniques. If
a bump is made deeper than the
thickness of the sheet, a hole will
result when the tops of the bumps
are filed off. The richness of the
pattern will not show until the
mokumé has been colored.
Using a Furnace
This variation uses a firing chamber
made from soft brick to contain
and magnify the heat of a torch.
The system has been researched
and described by Steve Midgett in
his book and videotape, Mokumé
Gane in the Small Shop, Earthshine
Press, .
 Surfaces > Physical > Mokumé
Access Video
Mokumé Library
on CD
Diffusion
Diffusion is the best method of joining the layers of a stack because the resulting
block will be seamless and can be treated like any other metal mass.
. Prepare panels to be flat, clean, and similar in length, width, and in thickness.
Preparation is critical: time spent here is an investment in success.
. Wrap the stack in stout binding wire (as you would wrap a package for mailing).
. Set the bundle onto charcoal or pumice pieces and heat it with a large bushy
flame. Once you begin, keep the flame on the metal—taking it off invites
oxygen into the region.
. Heat the stack evenly until you see the surfaces
shimmer and appear wet (this is called sweating). Press
down firmly on the stack with a steel rod, starting at
the center and moving outward to the edges. Diffusion
requires that parts being joined are in contact, the point
here is to close any gaps caused by warping.
. Continue to heat until the entire stack is glowing with
one color. The layers will seem to disappear.
. Air cool, examine, and repeat if needed.
Soldering
Soldering is handy when a small piece of mokumé is needed and when very little
forming is to be done. A disadvantage of this method is that subsequent soldering
can endanger the bond between the layers. Use hard solder for stacking and
minimize soldering around the mokumé in the construction of the piece.
. Flatten small sheets (say, " square), and scrub them with pumice or Scotch-Brite.
. Roll or planish pieces of hard sheet solder to make them as thin as possible.
. Flux each panel on both sides and stack the alternating colors with a piece of
solder between each one. This pile can have  to  sheets, not counting the
solder.
. Heat the whole pile with a large bushy, reducing flame. If your torch cannot
be adjusted to a reducing flame, work on charcoal with
another charcoal block set behind. Continue until you see
the solder flow at the seams.
. Air cool. Do not quench, especially in pickle.
. Forge or mill the sheet to about half its original thickness.
Clean the two exposed surfaces with sandpaper and cut
the piece in half. Using another piece of solder, join these two pieces. This will
double the number of layers in the stack. Again, air cool.
. Thin the composite sheet, cut it again and repeat the last step until the desired
number of layers is achieved. A stack of – layers gives attractive results.
Carving
Drill the still-thick block, taking care not to go all the way through. Use a
spherical bur to convert the pointed recess of the drill tip to a round-bottomed
hole. Further possibilities are opened by engraving or
machining the recesses. Forge or mill the carved ingot
to cause the pattern to emerge. Use repeated carving
and forging steps to bring out the full pattern.

keum “gold”
boo “attached”
Tools and Equipment
> a standard electric hotplate or gas ring
> a piece of steel sheet to diffuse the heat
(for instance " x " x 1⁄4")
> polished steel burnishers of various sizes
> gloves (to protect your hands from heat)
> a cup of water (to cool the burnishers)
Gold
Keum-boo requires pure gold, also
known as  karat or . Au. The
ideal thickness is .–. mm
(.–."). Thinner material,
called leaf, is more difficult to cut
to shape, fussier to apply, and thin
enough that the silver base shows
through, making the color pale. If
thicker sheet is used, it springs back
when burnished and, again, the
process is made more difficult than it
needs to be.
Often keum-boo
starts with preparation
of the gold sheet.
Sandwich the gold
between sheets of
paper or plastic and
set this stack between two pieces
of copper. Roll this through the mill
in several passes at high pressure,
tightening the gap until it appears
that the paper and gold are taking up
no space at all. Anneal by setting a
sheet of brass, copper, or steel on a
hotplate and allowing it to heat up.
Lay the gold on this and remove it
with tweezers when it becomes red.
To anneal with a torch, lay a diffusing
sheet between two bricks or use a
tripod.
Keum-Boo
Keum-Boo
This ancient Korean technique takes advantage of the ability of pure gold to
join readily to other pure metals with moderate pressure and temperatures.
Historically, the process was used to ornament and empower silver utensils
and vessels by applying symbolic characters to the interior surfaces. In this
way foods and beverages would be touched by gold (a health-giving metal)
and by the character being used (fortune, for instance), making that cup of
tea especially beneficial.
Process
. Complete all soldering and finishing steps (except stone setting, cold
connections and patinas, which can be done after keum-boo).
. The silver surface must be clean and neutral. Pickle, rinse, and scrub with a
toothbrush dipped in baking soda and water.
. Cut the desired shapes from the gold foil with scissors. For more control,
sandwich the foil in a fold of tracing paper.
. Set the work on a hotplate and allow it to warm
up. For small pieces, use a sheet of steel or thick
brass to spread the heat.
. Set a gold shape onto the work with a damp (not
wet) brush and press it down lightly to ensure
contact with the silver.
. Allow the work to reach –º F (–º C). If you don’t have a
pyrometer, the color can be read by placing a sanded piece of steel (a nail
will do) on the work. It will turn pale yellow at the
beginning of this range, shifting through brown
to blue. If the steel gets blue, turn down the heat,
and lift the work so it can cool slightly. Have a
couple of sanded nails standing ready so you can continue to monitor the
heat.
. Use one hand to hold the work steady and with
the other, burnish the gold so it makes perfect
contact with the silver. This is the key—when
molecules of silver and gold touch they bond.
Pressure is required only to remove any
microscopic gaps that will prevent adhesion.
Start in the center of a shape and work outward,
constantly monitoring the heat so it stays in
the critical range. You’ll probably adjust the
hotplate from high to medium and back to
high as you work. As the tip of the burnisher
gets hot, dip it into water, shake off excess, and
continue.
. Repeat with additional pieces until the keum-boo is complete. Allow the
work to cool and examine the edges of the gold with a loupe to be sure
diffusion was successful. If not, rework the piece and burnish again. When
the gold is attached, the work can be pickled, rinsed, and lightly polished.
Surfaces > Physical > Keum-Boo 
 Granulation

Granulation
This demanding process was highly developed in ancient times, particularly
by the Greeks and Etruscans. It uses a delicate, solderless bonding to attach
small pieces such as granules to a surface. The techniques involved can be
used for other shapes of applied ornament and rely on a diffusion process
related to eutectic bonding. The term granulation is often expanded to
include all aspects of the procedure.
The stunning quality of proper granulation is achieved by having
granules adhered to the surface by an almost imperceptible bond at the
tangent point. Because this fine precision is impossible with conventional
soldering, a different sort of bonding is needed. In brief, a small amount
of metal (usually copper) is introduced to the contact area and, when
appropriate heat is reached, an alloy of a lower melting point is created at the
point of contact.

Process
When working on fine silver or high karat gold, you’ll need to introduce
additional metal to make up the low-melting alloy that will create the bond.
Metal-Laden flux
Coat the metal and granules with
a mixture of flux (containing
a metallic salt) and a glue
that contains carbon. At high
temperatures the metal becomes
an oxide (such as CuO₂). The carbon
from the glue then unites with
oxygen and passes off as carbon
dioxide gas (CO₂). This leaves a small
amount of metal at the joint.
For flux, use Prip’s, antimony
trioxide, copper chloride, verdigris,
or copper nitrate. To make copper
nitrate, dissolve copper scraps
in a closed jar of ammonia until
the solution turns blue (about
 hours). Any organic glue can
be used for granulation: gum
tragacanth, mucilage, hide glue,
etc. Thin these with water to a
pale, soupy consistency. Do not use
epoxy, DuCo cement, Elmer’s, or
other glues made with petroleum or
mineral products.
Pre-Coated Granules
Copper can be supplied by plating
the granules before applying them.
Set the granules in a steel container
such as a jar lid and pour in copper-
saturated pickle. The plating should
be thin (rosy colored) because too
much copper will cause a flooding
of the bonding alloy. When using
coated granules, any flux may be
used and the glue can be omitted.
When granulating on sterling,
the copper content of the alloy
itself provides the metal needed
to create a low-melting solution
at the point of contact. Use any
flux and a trace amount of glue. A
disadvantage is the proximity of the
fusion point (º F, º C) and the
melting point of sterling (º F,
º C).

 Surfaces > Physical > Granulation


Learning stamps you with
its moments. It isn’t steady.
It’s a pulse.
Eudora Welty
Granulation
Two Ways to Make Granules
 
. Line a coffee can with about 3⁄4" of powdered charcoal, made by pulverizing
briquettes or charcoal soldering blocks.
. Cut tiny chips of metal and sprinkle them
on top of this layer, keeping the number
small enough that the chips aren’t likely to
touch each other. Build up alternate layers of
charcoal and metal chips.
. Set the can into a kiln until it glows red hot
and hold it at this heat for about  minutes.
Ventilate well because this process creates
carbon monoxide.
. To test for granule formation, scoop out a
spoonful of the mixture and drop it into a dish of water. Pour off the
carbon debris and you’ll be able to examine the granules. If the shot is not
completely spherical, continue heating.
. When ready, air cool the can and pour the contents into a dish of water.
The charcoal will float off, leaving the granules on the bottom of the dish.
 
. Cut the metal into chips and sprinkle them onto a
clean flat charcoal block.
. Hold the block in a gloved hand about " above
a dish of water. Use a torch to melt the metal,
holding the block at an angle that allows each
granule to roll off as it draws into a sphere.
Firing
Set the granules onto clean metal with tweezers or a brush. You can scribe a
line to help locate the tiny beads. Avoid a single line of granules if possible
because it is weak. Dip the granules in the flux/glue
mix before applying, but pick up excess liquid with
a tissue. Allow the work to dry thoroughly before
applying the torch.
With a broad flame, bring the whole piece to
bright red. Remove the torch when the joints flash
(which looks like solder flow). Many people find
the process easier to control if heat is supplied
from both above and below the work. Place the
prepared metal on a small heated pad called a
trinket kiln. These are available from many jewelry
supply companies. Pickle and finish, avoiding rough
handling. Scratch brushing is recommended.
Surfaces > Physical > Granulation 

Ventilation
The process of making niello will
always involve lots of nasty fumes.
To contain and vent the eye-
watering, throat-clenching fumes
of sulfur smoke, create a structure
that surrounds a window from stiff
cardboard. With the window open
and a fan positioned to force the
smoke away, it’s possible to make
small quantities of niello in almost
any studio. Be sure the fumes that
go outside are not traveling into
someone else’s breathing space.
Surfaces > Physical > Niello

Niello
Niello
Niello (nee-EL-o) comes from the Latin nigellum, meaning “blackish.” This is a
mixture of copper, lead, and sulfur used to fill an incised design. The process
was used in ancient times by goldsmiths and armorers. In modern times its
use has been confined principally to Thailand and Russia.
Making Niello
Though the recipes seem complicated, niello is really a simple mixture of
three metals and all the sulfur they can hold. In general terms:
• Sulfur causes blackness.
• Copper deepens the blackness.
• Silver raises the melting point.
• Lead provides for fusion and ease in spreading.
. Melt the metals in a borax-lined crucible
and stir them with a carbon rod. The
crucible cannot be used for other metals
once it has been contaminated with
niello.
. Add sulfur and continue to stir. The
smoke that results is dramatic and acrid.
Provide very good ventilation.
. When no more sulfur can be absorbed,
pour the mix into water or a warm ingot mold.
. To make powder, grind the resulting chunks of niello in a mortar and
pestle. Mix with sulfur and remelt. Pour and regrind. The niello is now
ready to use.
. To make rods of niello, pour into an ingot mold,
a carved charcoal block or a length of angle iron.
Recipes
Heinrich Ruklin #
silver or sterling 1 oz. silver 1
copper 2 copper 2
lead 3 lead 4
sulfur 6 sulfur 5
Augsberg # Persian
silver 1 silver 1
copper 1 copper 2.5
lead 2 lead 7
sulfur 8 sulfur 25
ammonium chloride 2.5
 Niello

Applying the Niello

Powder Process
Contamination Alert
Keep files, sandpaper, and solder-
ing block (if torch firing) reserved
for this work. Traces of niello will
damage sterling and gold when
they are heated to their usual
soldering temperatures. Because
of the lead content, wash your
hands thoroughly after working
with niello.
. This process is similar to the way enamel powders are fused onto metal. Grind
the prepared niello to a powder, being sure it contains no impurities. To be sure,
wash the niello powder by swirling it in a shallow dish under running water.
. Complete the workpiece through a medium sandpaper stage. All soldering should
be done, but stones should not be set. The niello will fill grooves as deep as  mm;
and these can be made by etching, stamping, chasing, roll printing, or engraving.
After cleaning thoroughly, coat the metal with diluted (milky) paste flux or a thin
solution of ammonium chloride and water.
. Lay the niello into place with tweezers, a brush, or a small spatula. Dry it in a
warm place like under a lamp or on top of a warm kiln.
. When all the moisture has been driven off, heat the
piece either with a torch or in a kiln. The kiln should
be set at –° F (–° C) depending on the
recipe of niello you are using. When using a torch, heat
from below and avoid touching the niello with the
flame. The niello will bead up and
glow red-orange as it melts. If it does not flow, spread the
niello with a steel or carbon rod. Be careful not to overheat
it. Even with high-melting niello, the metal to which it
is being fused should never go above a dull red. Most
niello fuses around ° F (° C). Try to keep the fusing
operation brief because prolonged heat can cause the niello
to pit and attack silver and gold.
. Remove the heat as soon as the recesses have filled. Air cool. Finish by filing,
burnishing, and sanding. Machine buffing should be avoided because it will wear
away the niello faster than the metal around it and contaminate the buffs.
. If the finished niello contains pits, the process can be repeated once, but no more
than that. Overheating threatens to burn off the lead, creating more pits.

Solid Method
. Prepare the metal as for the powder method. Complete all soldering, finish
through medium grit sandpaper, pickle, rinse well, and dry. Set the object on a
firebrick that will be reserved for this purpose.
. Apply diluted paste flux or a solution of ammonium chloride and water.
. Heat the object with a soft flame until the flux becomes active, stopping before
the metal glows red.
. Withdraw the torch a few inches and touch a
solid piece of niello rod to the workpiece. If the
metal is at the correct temperature, the niello
will melt like wax and flow into the low areas of
the design. Continue applying the niello, passing
the torch flame across the piece intermittently to
maintain the necessary temperature.
. Allow the piece to cool naturally, then file off excess niello. Catch and discard
this lead-filled powder. Repeat Step , if needed, to fill in pits. Take care to keep
the entire coating from becoming fluid.

Surfaces > Physical > Niello 


Because copper plays an important
role in reticulation, higher copper
content generally enhances the
results. K yellow or rose gold
will work better than K green or
white or any color of K. An alloy
of  parts silver (balance copper)
produces especially dramatic
results. You can make your own
reticulation silver by adding 
copper (by weight) to sterling, or
it can be purchased from Hauser
& Miller Inc. or Hoover and Strong
(see Appendix for addresses).
 Surfaces > Physical > Reticulation
Reticulation
Reticulation
Reticulation is a process by which metal is made to draw itself into ridges
and valleys, creating a unique texture. Many alloys can be made to reticulate,
but a formulation of  silver and  copper yields particularly dramatic
results. The buckling is the result of the different cooling rates of the two
strata created in the sheet. The copper oxide layer at the surface will remain
solid while the interior of the sheet becomes molten. When heat is removed,
the interior contracts, pulling the skin into ridges. The effect may be achieved
by careful heating of most nonferrous metals (heat scarring), but it is much
more dramatic when the metal is prepared as described here.
Process
. Because the process is somewhat unpredictable, work on a piece of metal a
little larger than your actual need. – gauge sheet will produce the best
results. Heat the piece to º F (º C) and hold at this temperature for
 minutes. This is most easily done in a kiln but can be done with a torch by
keeping the metal at a dull red. Do not use flux, since the purpose of this
step is to create a layer of copper oxide. Air cool. The metal will be dark gray.
. Pickle in hot fresh Sparex or a  sulfuric acid solution. This removes
copper oxide from the surface, leaving a
silver-rich skin and locking in the copper
oxide layer beneath.
. After rinsing, heat as before to the same
temperature, this time for at least 
minutes. Oxygen cannot react much
with the silver-rich skin so it penetrates
and promotes growth of the copper
oxide layer into the sheet (i.e., interior
oxidation). Air cool. The sheet should be
only slightly gray. Pickle as before.
. Reticulation is done with a torch. In order to make the metal molten
throughout its interior, either preheat a soldering block and then allow the
heat to rise up into the sheet, or work on a wire mesh. Bring the sheet to
red with a sharp, hot flame, then quickly pass the torch over an area,
allowing it to cool. The cooling is what causes the metal to buckle. The
skin may melt but try to minimize this because surface melting softens the
sharpness of the ridges and diminishes the effect. Allow the piece to lose
redness before quenching.
. Reticulated metal can be soldered, colored, and finished like its original
stock. Because it is brittle, extensive forming is not
recommended. The copper oxide layer is porous
and soaks up solder so you should burnish edges
before soldering.
Chapter 

Joining
 Tabs & Staples

Tabs
Tabs provide a simple and secure cold
connection by bending a finger of metal
on one piece over another piece. Bending
is usually begun with pliers and finished
with a mallet. Finishing is typically done
before the pieces are joined.

Variations
> Tabs can reach from inside a pierced
form outward.
> Tabs can provide graphic or textural
interest.
> Tabs with steps can be used to create
space between layers as they hold
parts together.
> Instead of folding down, tabs can grip
Collars by being rotated. Cut slots along the
Collars are straps of metal that are bottom edge to facilitate the twist.
wrapped around several pieces then > Rather than lay flat, tabs can curl or
hammered down to take other interesting shapes.
secure the joint. They
can be any size and Tips When Using Wire
range from simple Start with annealed wire.
wraps to complex,
puzzle-like devices. Anchor the first end well. When wrapping wood or
plastic, drill a tight hole, file a point on the wire and push
it in securely with pliers. If this won’t work use a small
amount of epoxy and let it dry before continuing.
Plan ahead to provide a way to tie or twist the other end.
If you can arrange for an eyelet for instance, the binding is
stronger and neater.

Wrapping with a Buried End

Lashing This is a neat trick that makes a tight wrap. Besides holding parts together,
It’s hard to get much simpler than this is a great wrap for stamping tools and hammer handles.
binding elements together with
. Make a long loop that covers the area you want wrapped.
wire. Countless examples can be
. Starting at the end opposite the loop, wrap the cord neatly around the rod,
found in farm tools, kitchen utensils
covering the loop.
and ethnic jewelry from around the
. Thread the end of the cord through the loop.
world. For suggestions on specific
. Pull the end of the loop that extends out the bottom
knot structures consult books on
of the wrap. When the other loose end is pulled tight,
macramé, sailing, and scouting. For
trim it to 1⁄4" and pull until it disappears beneath the
extra points, what do you call the
wrap.
art of knot tying?
. Cut off the pulling string as close as possible to the
Marlinespike Seamanship wrap. Though not necessary, it can be interesting to
lightly coat the wrap with wax, lacquer, plaster or dirt.

 Joining > Mechanical Connections > Tabs & Staples

 Basic Rivets

Basic Rivets
Rivets are ancient, universal and brilliant examples of a mechanical joint. A
metal pin is fed through holes in the parts to be joined, then a projecting tip
on each end is hammered back on itself (upset) to create a head that locks
the stack together. Rivets are used to hold steel girders together, to grip
handles to knives, and in a thousand other uses from aircraft to xylophones.
There are dozens of varieties of rivets, each with its benefits and appeal.
All versions, though, will share these basic rules.
> Complete all the parts before riveting them together.
> Fit the pin tightly to the hole.
> Don’t allow too much material for the rivet.

Guidelines
. Select a drill and wire of the same size. If you don’t have a
perfect match, start with a larger wire and sand a gradual
taper.
. Drill all the holes you need in one piece; drill one hole in
the other piece.
. Insert the wire, snip and file so a tip equal to roughly half
the thickness of the wire extends on both sides.
. Set the work on a solid surface, suspended so that the wire
still sticks out of both sides. Strike the end lightly with a
sharp crosspeen hammer.
. Flip the piece over and repeat; continue as needed until
heads form on both ends of the wire.
. Drill another hole and repeat. When two rivets are in place,
drill and set all the remaining rivets.

Access Video Nailhead Rivets

This popular version of rivets is useful when a larger head is needed, either
Library for the look of it or because the material being held requires a wider grip. It is
on CD also handy when one end of the rivet is difficult to reach, for instance inside a
cup or when the material is fragile enough to warrant minimum hammering.

. Draw a bead . Slide the wire into a tight hole on

on a wire the numbered side of the drawplate.
with a hot, Strike with
sharp flame a planishing
Nailhead rivets are recommended for point. hammer to
– gauge wire. Smaller wire doesn’t flatten the bead.
leave enough head to show and
heavier wire does not easily
form a bead. . Shape the resulting nailhead with . Slide the wire into the workpiece,
punches or a nail set while still in the trim to the correct length and form a
drawplate, or remove it and file to a standard rivet head
Traditional rosette: Use desired shape. on the other end.
four angled blows of a ball
peen hammer to make
this traditional rivet head.

Joining > Mechanical Connections > Basic Rivets 


. As with other rivets, the first
. Set a scribe into the tube
Getting Started
Some people like to form a head on
one end of a wire before inserting
the rivet into the pieces being
joined. Grasp a
short length of
annealed wire in
parallel-jaw pliers,
rest these on the
edge of the bench,
and tap the wire with a cross peen
hammer to pre-form a head.
Polished Rivet Heads
To make symmetrical polished rivet
heads, first form a basic rivet as usual
with a hammer. Next, set a beading
tool into a drill press or flex shaft and
press it over the head as it spins. A
little lubrication is a good idea. You
can buy beading tools or make your
own from a nail using a ball bur.
 Joining > Mechanical Connections > Special Rivets
Special Rivets
Tube Rivets
These gentle rivets are recommended when hammering might cause damage.
This would include enamels, shells, delicate mechanisms, and stones.
. Slide the tube into position and saw
step is to drill a hole through all it so no more than half a diameter
the pieces being is sticking out on each
joined. This must side. The tube seam
make a tight fit should be soldered and
with the chosen the tube annealed.
tube.
. Set the rivet on a round
and swing it around to punch and tap it with
flare out the mouth. another round punch to
Repeat this on the other curl the edges outward.
end of the tube.
Washers Plastic Rivets
When a material can stretch (like Plastic rivets can be made from
leather) or enlarge through wear rod or sheet, in either opaque or
(like pewter) it’s transparent material. Besides being
wise to include a low stress connection, plastic
washers in the rivets add color, especially where
rivet assembly. light can be seen through the rivet.
Washers offer a Buy plastic scraps or scavenge from
great opportunity housewares and toys.
for interesting . Drill a hole or slot in all the pieces
solutions. They can be… to be joined. Plastic can be easily
> round (but it’s been done) filed or sanded to fit.
> square
> asymmetrical
> used for several holes at once
> richly ornamented
> inlaid (e.g.,into wood)
. Slide the plastic and cut it to the
To be effective, the washer must appropriate length.
make a tight fit on the rivet. . Heat a steel tool in a torch or
alcohol lamp and press it onto the
plastic while supporting the rivet
When riveting in tight spaces, on the other end. The tool should
you might need to devise special not be too hot to hold in the
tricks, like here, where the end of hand. Avoid heating the plastic to
a stamping tool the point of bubbling.
is clamped in a . Invert the piece and repeat to
vise to support a form the other rivet head. Finish
rivet. plastic with files, sandpaper,
and polishing compounds. Use a
carpenter’s nail set or similar tool
to shape round rivets.
 Special Rivets

Cutler’s Rivets
This ingenious mechanical closure works because of friction between its
parts, all taking place inside a tube. Cutlers rivets were developed to attach
handles to knives (cutler, get it?) and enterprising metalsmiths will find
many other uses.
> The solid rod should be slightly
larger than the interior of the
tube. Only slightly, though.
> File a chamfer on the solid rod to
help it track into the tube.
> The hole in the material being
joined must be a bit larger than Variations
the tube because it will swell as • bezels (use a spacer to avoid crimping)
the parts are engaged. • inlaid (recessed)
> Use a vise or C-clamp to apply • hollow connection
even pressure as the parts are • cast elements as rivet caps
squeezed together.

Making Flush Rivets Blind Rivets Projecting Rivets

Start by These useful rivets are built with a Use lengths of
making holes head already formed on one end. tubing to extend
that match They are ideal when location or the reach of a rivet.
the wire size, ornamentation makes it difficult to If the tube and rivet
as usual. Bevel hammer one end of a rivet. Blind pin are of the same
the upper edge of each hole so that rivets can be made of round wire, metal they can be made
the swell of the rivet will be below tubing, or strips. To locate the rivet: to appear as one unit.
the surface of . File the end of the pin flat. If If they are contrasting
the materials two or more pins are used on a metals the rivet head can provide an
being joined. single head, file them to the same interesting highlight.
Use a bud bur, height. An alternate
a setting bur, . Dab a bit of paint, way to create
or a cone bur. ink, or correction projecting
Either or both ends of a rivet fluid on the tips rivets is by
can be made flush. If the rivet is of the rods and filing blanks
made of the same metal as the lower the piece like these from
piece it is holding, the rivet will onto the joining thick wire.
blend in completely. This is called a material. This will leave inky dots
disappearing or invisible rivet. After that indicate the location of the Rotating Parts
forming the rivet head with a small holes. Sometimes rivets are used to
cross peen hammer, planish, file, . Lift away, centerpunch, and drill connect pieces that need to pivot.
sand, and finish to match the rest of the holes. In this case, insert a piece of thin
the piece. . Cushion the decorative rivet head cardboard into the joint. Make the
on plastic or leather so it won’t be rivet as usual, then either burn the
damaged and form the rivet head cardboard
as usual. away or wet it
and rotate the
parts until the
paper shreds.

Joining > Mechanical Connections > Special Rivets 


Uses
Threaded mechanisms offer diverse
attributes, often several at once.
Threads provide:
A low pressure grip for fragile
and brittle materials.
Removable cold connections
that can facilitate repair and
also allow owners to modify
pieces.
Tightening (sizing) mechanisms
Closure for boxes, necklaces,
and bracelets.
A playful, potentially dramatic
way to initiate movement.
Dies Are Brittle
Dies are designed to cut away ma-
terial between threads—do not rely
on them to cut a rod down to size.
These cutting tools are hardened
and (in order to retain maximum
edge cutting power) usually left
untempered. This means they are
brittle, so handle them carefully.
 Joining > Mechanical Connections > Threaded Connections
Threaded Connections
Threaded Elements
The idea of an ascending spiral is credited to Archimedes, a mathematician
who lived in Sicily in the third century . Anyone who has watched a moving
spiral like an old fashioned barber’s pole knows how powerful the attraction
can be. Because screws, bolts, and jar lids are ubiquitous in modern life, we
can easily forget their magic.
Thread Size
The two most common systems in the US are called National Coarse (N/C) and
National Fine (N/F). Sizes are identified by two numbers, the first referring to
diameter (or in small screws, a number from –) followed by the counted
threads per inch. Two common sizes, for instance, would be written as N/C
/ and N/F –. These screws have the same diameter but the second
one has finer teeth. The metric system is slowly gaining poularity here; in this
system, threads are measured according to the diameter of the threaded shaft.
There is only one pitch.
Taps and Dies
There was a time when metalsmiths made their own dies, but today most
workers find a trip to the hardware store more efficient. The tool that cuts
an interior thread is called a tap and looks like a tapered screw with several
channels cut along its long axis. Threading dies are used to cut threads on the
outside of a rod or cylinder, and usually take the form of a thick steel disk with
four holes in the center. Both tools are made with a specific size and pitch,
which means that you must use a matching set.
Tapping a Hole Using a Threading Die
. Drill a hole of the correct size. This is . The diameter of the starting rod
important: too large and the threads should be equal to the finished
are shallow; too small and the tap outside diameter of the threads. Roll,
might break. draw, or file as needed to get to this
. Mount the tap securely in a handle size. File a short taper on one end,
and anchor the workpiece in a vise. then anchor the rod in a vise.
. Hold the tap so it is perpendicular to . Grip the die in a handle
the work, and screw it in until it bites and screw it onto the
into the metal. Add light lubrication tapered end slowly.
and screw it half a turn further. Rotate a full turn then
. Reverse the action, unscrew a half turn to
unscrewing enough clear away the chips
to clear the cuttings that were just cut.
from the tap. . Continue in this way—full turn
. Screw in a full turn forward, half turn back—until the die
and reverse a half spins easily. Add a few drops of light
turn, continuing oil every few turns to lubricate and
this rhythm until wash away the chips.
the tap no longer cuts. . It is important to keep the die
. Do not force the tool because it will perpendicular to the axis of the rod.
easily snap. Add lubricant (any thin When the rod is gripped close to
oil) and be patient. Allow the tool to the vise, the jaws provide a point of
do the work. reference. If this is not the case, rig up
a visual guide.

Torch Safety
> Secure tanks so they cannot
tip over, for instance by
chaining them to a table leg.
> Use only correct fittings.
Never modify a fitting or use
tape to enhance a joint. If
the threads are not sufficient
to prevent leaks, return the
tank, and fitting to a dealer
immediately.
> Check each junction with
soapy water each time the
tank is changed out.
> Never allow grease or oil to
come in contact with oxygen.
> Do not use excessive force
when tightening fittings or
when turning off a torch.
This can impair the fit.
> Get in the habit of sniffing
the air before soldering. If
there is a trace of fuel smell,
open a window, disconnect
the torch, set it safely
outside, and call a supplier to
come and pick it up.
Eye Care
Most jewelers use a low intensity flame
for relatively short periods of time,
and in this context eye protection
is not usually needed. Of course
everyone is unique, and your eyes
might need special care. Dark lenses
are sold at welding supply companies
in a wide range of eyeglass and face
shield configurations. The darkness,
or shading, is rated by a numbering
system that ranges from  (lightest)
through  (darkest). For oxy/acetylene
welding, lenses of at least a Shade  are
suggested. Electric welding requires
Shade –, but in this, as in other
safety issues, let your personal needs
dictate the safety devices you use. If
your eyes sting, form tears, or if you see
spots for a minute after soldering, move
up to a darker shade.
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Torches Library
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Flame Types
Reducing – Bushy, pulsing flame, deep blue color.
This fuel-rich flame absorbs oxides and is best for
annealing, though cooler than a neutral flame.
Neutral – Sharp point, gentle hiss, medium blue
color. All the fuel gas is being burned. The hottest
point is 1⁄2–3⁄4" in front of the cone.
Oxidizing – Thin cone, angry hiss, pale lavender
color. This fuel-starved flame has no advantages
when soldering.
Types of Torches
> fuel / atmosphere (a.k.a Presto-Lite)
The flow of the fuel draws air into the torch.
> fuel / forced air
A blowpipe, bellows, or compressor provides
atmospheric air.
> fuel / oxygen
Pure oxygen ( times richer than atmospheric
air) is combined with fuel in the torch.
Acetylene Natural Gas
Acetylene is perhaps the most Natural gas, also called “city gas”, is
widely used gas in the jewelry supplied through pipes and requires
community. It is derived from installation by a certified plumber. It
petroleum today but was is inexpensive and easy (no tanks to
change) and does not require a regulator.
originally made from limestone
Temperatures with air reach ° F
and coal; a technique that holds
(° C); with oxygen, ° F (° C).
promise for the future. It was
Propane
discovered in England in  but
Propane is similar to natural gas, but
saw limited use because of the
considered slightly cleaner and hotter. It is
danger of exploding. A technique
familiar from the squat white bottles used
developed in  by Gustaf
in barbeque grills. Temperatures in air =
Dalén that made it safe to store ° F ( °C); with oxygen =° F
and transport acetylene, opened (° C).
the door to many uses, from
welding to illumination. Jewelers Butane
are aware that they use a “B” tank, Butane (C₄H₁₀) is another liquid
but did they know that the letter petroleum gas, LPG, that is finding
stands for Bus, since this size tank increased use in jewelry torches. It is
was originally developed to fuel commonly used in cigarette lighters, and
because of this, refill cannisters are easily
headlamps on buses?
available.
Joining > Hot Connections > Torches 
 Soldering Surfaces

Charcoal Ceramic Soldering Boards

Charcoal creates a reducing
atmosphere and is soft enough to
embed work, but it’s expensive and
messy. Charcoal
can be a fire
hazard because
it will smolder
for a long time
after being used. Quench the block
in water when you are done for the
day. Extend the life of the block
by wrapping it with a strip of thin
copper or brass or a piece of binding
wire. Blocks are available as natural
(solid wood) and in a composite
made from charcoal powder.
Most suppliers offer several versions
of soldering pads that fall into this
category. All are good; generally
more expensive pads are denser
and therefore they last longer.
Some ceramic blocks give off an
unpleasant
odor when
first used.
To cure a
block, bake
it in a slow kiln for an hour, ideally
when you will be out of the studio.

Coiled Refractory Paper Fire Brick

This is a flat and relatively soft coil
of refractory paper fitted into a
shallow metal
pan. Older
versions
were made
of asbestos
and should be discarded but new
versions are safe. They are especially
good for pinning work into position.
These soft, inexpensive bricks are
available from ceramic suppliers,
where you might be able to buy
broken bricks at a discount. Ask
for soft bricks; they will often be
referred to with a number, as in
G-, which is rated at ° F.
Bricks without
numbers are too
hard for soldering
purposes.

Wire Nest and Pumice

The more I design, the more
certain I am that elimination is
the secret of beauty.
This is an old standby. It is very good for annealing or in cases where a flat
surface is not needed. Wrap binding wire around a
pencil to make a coil, then stretch, and bend this to
make the nest. A cake pan makes a convenient dish—
attach a lazy-susan turntable for greater versatility.

Gustav Stickley Maintenance

Like any other tool in the shop, soldering surfaces need periodic attention to
provide consistent service. The greatest problem is the build up of flux glass,
especially when paste flux is used. To avoid this, apply flux while holding the
work in your fingers instead of when it is sitting on the soldering block.
Most surfaces will become irregular after normal use.
Use a piece of coarse abrasive paper to dress a soldering
block, or rub two blocks against each other. Work over
a waste basket and wear a respirator. Fire bricks can be
trimmed with a hacksaw blade.

 Joining > Hot Connections > Soldering Surfaces

 Fluxes

Flux
Flux comes from the Latin word for flow, and refers to the chemicals that
facilitate the flow of solder by preventing the formation of oxides. Generally
fluxes work by forming a coating that protects metal from oxidation. Most
fluxes are thinned with water to make a liquid that can be sprayed or painted
onto a workpiece. When heated, the water evaporates leaving a clear glassy
coating. This acts as an “oxygen magnet” by providing a compound that is
more attractive to oxygen than the metal being soldered. As oxygen and
other elements combine with this coating, its protective power diminishes; a
change signalled by a blue or green tint in the flux.

Boric Acid & Alcohol Borax Handy Flux

This is a time-honored way to pro-
tect against oxidation and firescale.
To make the solution, add boric acid
to denatured alcohol until it stops
dissolving (i.e. make a saturated
solution). The resulting thin paste
will need to be shaken or stirred
periodically. To use it, dip the work
into the solution, set it on a solder-
ing block and ignite it. The alcohol
will quickly burn off, leaving a white
film of borax. Many jewelers paint
a little Handy Flux on the joint
in conjunction with this. This is a
highly flammable liquid and must
be used carefully. For safety’s sake,
keep only a small jar on the solder-
ing bench.
sodium borate
Na₂B₄O₇ x H₂O
This mineral is usually ground to
a powder and mixed with water to
form a paste. It is probably the most
commonly used flux worldwide,
though it is less common in the US.
It can be purchased in solid form
as a cone that is ground into a dish
and mixed at the bench as needed.
Borax melts at ° F (° C).
Battern’s (My-T-Flux, etc.)
A fluoride-based flux with a watery
consistency that is often yellow
or green. It is called self-pickling
because it doesn’t leave a resilient
flux glass like boron-based fluxes.
This does not have the oxygen-
absorbing power of the borax fluxes
and it is not recommended for
metals that oxidize rapidly such as
copper, brass, and nickel silver.
(paste flux)
A white borax-based compound
available from jewelry and welding
supply companies. It provides
substantial oxide protection and
leaves a tough glassy skin. The flux
becomes clear and fluid at ° F
(° C) which makes it a reliable
temperature indicator. It is effective
up to °F (°C). Remove flux
glass with pickle or hot water. A
black version (B-) is formulated for
higher temperature applications,
such as brazing stainless steel.
Cupronil
This is a commercial flux similar
to Prip’s but especially good at
preserving a finish through a
heating operation. This makes it
valuable for repair work.

Prip’s Flux
Borax  ml Boil these ingredients in two quarts of
Tri-Sodium Phosphate (TSP)  ml water until dissolved. If the solution
Boric Acid  ml crystalizes, slowly warm it again.

This flux is a popular protection against firescale. To build a thick glassy

coat, warm the work slightly, and quench it in Prip’s solution. Repeat several
times. An alternative is to warm the work then spritz solution from a spray
jar. Again, several applications are recommended. The resulting glassy skin
is waterproof, so it can be sustained throughout several solderings if you
quench only in water. It will dissolve in pickle.

Joining > Hot Connections > Fluxes 


SAFETY WARNING - When
mixing, always add acid to water.
Protect yourself from splashes by
wearing safety goggles, an apron,
and rubber gloves. Always wash
hands after working with pickles
or other acids. Keep baking soda
close at hand to neutralize spills.
Hydrogen Peroxide
Normal pickle will remove some
oxides from brass, but usually leaves
a thin, rosy-colored layer of copper.
To remove this color:
. Clean the work in warm standard
Sparex to remove the dark gray
oxide.
. Mix a tablespoon of Sparex
crystals into a cup of hydrogen
peroxide (H₂O₂ – available at
drugstores). Quantities may be
multiplied as needed for larger
scale work.
. Warm the piece slightly and dip
it into the peroxide solution.
Repeat as necessary to remove
the pink layer. The peroxide
solution will give up its extra
oxygen atom to the air, so it is
only active for a short time. Mix
fresh solution as needed. If brass
is left in the solution overnight it
can be damaged by etching.
 Joining > Hot Connections > Pickle
Pickle
Pickle
Pickle is a strong chemical bath used to dissolve surface oxidation and flux
residue from a metal surface. Pickles work at room temperature but the
reaction is hastened with heat. In bygone eras, vinegar was used to clean
metal as well as to preserve food, and it is from this overlap that we derive
the name we use today. If you’re in a bind, you can still use vinegar.
Pickle Solutions When Good Pickle Goes Bad
Pickle absorbs oxides like a sponge
> Ferrous metals Sparex # soaks up a spill. Like a sponge, pickle
will reach a point where it has taken on
> Non-ferrous metals Sparex # about all it can carry. It is chemically
possible to “wring out” the pickle but
> Sterling  part sulfuric acid it is cheaper to discard the used pickle
 parts water and make a fresh solution.
The first indication that pickle
> Gold  part nitric acid is reaching saturation is that it will
become blue, but don’t discard it at
 parts water
the first sign of color because even
at a bright blue, the pickle has some
life left. Warm pickle should dissolve
Sparex oxides and flux residue in a minute or
Sparex (sodium bisulfate) works two. When it takes longer than this, it
best at about ° F (° C ). It is time to replace the solution.
should never be heated to a boil Before discarding, neutralize the
because dangerous fumes will be pickle by adding baking soda. This will
generated. A convenient vessel is cause the solution to froth up, so work
a crock pot that has had its seams in a sink. When the bubbling reac-
sealed with tub caulk. As a substi- tion slows down it is safe to flush the
tute for jewelers pickle, use a swim- solution down the pipes. An alternate
solution is to fill a bucket with lime-
ming pool additive intended to raise
stone chips. Pour used solution over
the pH of the water. It has the same
the rocks and eventually it will become
active ingredient as Sparex.
totally neutralized.
Pickle Plating
When pickle is used to clean sterling or karat gold, it absorbs copper ions,
creating what’s called a super-saturated solution. This is a copper plating
solution, loaded with excess copper to transfer to a metal object. The plating
reaction can occur at room temperature in an inert bath, but both heat and
electrical charge will increase the plating response. The introduction of steel
into an acid creates an electrical charge, so copper, brass, or wooden tongs are
used with pickle to avoid creating such a charge.
A steel item in pickle will create a thin coating of copper to be deposited
on everything immersed at the time. The thickness of this coating is dependent
on the strength of the solution. Heavily used, (blue) pickle will create the
thickest coat. Freshly mixed pickle has no copper and therefore no plating
reaction will occur. When the steel is removed, the pickle is “de-activated” and
will no longer cause the plating reaction. Saturated pickle does not need to be
discarded, as long as the steel can be entirely removed.

Eutectic bonding
The term eutectic defines the
specific proportion of metals in an
alloy that have the lowest melting
point. This alloy is characterized by
changing directly from a liquid to
a solid without passing through a
slushy state. Technically, this is a
meeting of the solidus and liquidus
temperatures. See the phase
diagram in the Appendix for further
information. When two pieces of
metal are coated with their eutectic
alloy, they will easily join as soon as
heated to the eutectic temperature.
This is the principle used in bonding
granulation.
Fusing & Diffusing
Fusing
It is possible to connect pieces of
metal by heating them to their
melting point and allowing the
puddled surfaces to commingle.
This technique has limited control
but can create rich textures and
unusual effects.
Fusion
When two pieces of metal are heated above their melting point, molecules
from the two pieces intermingle. When the material cools and solidifies, the
interface between the two units has disappeared. Another name for this,
usually referring to ferrous metal, is welding.
Metals that are good heat conductors (like silver and gold) fuse well, but
because it is difficult to localize the heat, fusion is not practical for precise
work. An important exception is platinum, for which fusing is a common
fabrication technique.
Where control is not essential, fusing can be used to generate interesting
forms and textures. Coat pieces of metal with flux and heat them to their
melting point, taking care to heat all units simultaneously. If you are not
careful, the metal will draw up into a lump, but if the torch is lightly played
over the surface, it can guide the mirror-like flashes of fusion. Precious metals
will respond better to this than copper, brass, or nickel silver.
Diffusion
Diffusion is related to fusion and refers to the fact that electrons are
constantly wandering (technically, delocalized). If two pieces of metal are
clamped together and left at room temperature, this electron exchange will
eventually bond the two pieces together, especially if the relative valences and
crystal structures make the metals compatible. The movement of electrons,
and consequently the rate of diffusion, is accelerated by heat.
Diffusion is best between similar metals. Alloys of gold, silver, and copper
are commonly used. Parts to be joined must be clean and perfectly fitted
together. When sheets are being fused together to
make a laminate (for mokumé-gane, for instance)
the pieces are piled up and clamped securely
between sheets of steel. No flux is used. As the stack
heats, the metal panels expand more than the steel
around them, which has the effect of squeezing the
laminates together. This tightness prohibits oxygen
from entering and allows diffusion (electron migration) between the sheets.
Heat the prepared stack in a kiln or forge until it glows red and shows
a liquid film (sweating). Pull the pile out, tap it with a hammer, and quickly
remove the steel jacket. If it is still red, the billet can be forged to insure that
all areas are in contact and diffused. When done properly, diffusion results in a
bond that is as strong as the parent metals. Subsequent forming and soldering
won’t disturb it.
Joining > Hot Connections > Fusing & Diffusing 
 Soldering

Soldering
When a metal is heated to temperatures approaching its melting point, the
crystals of which it is made move apart, opening up microscopic spaces. The
idea behind brazing (also called hard soldering) is to introduce an alloy that is
fluid just at the point of maximum expansion. This alloy, called solder, flows
into the spaces of the expanded metal and bonds to the crystals there.
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tight fit crystals expand solder (red) enters soldler diffused into
by cappilary action the structure

Soft Solder Gold Brazing

Soft soldering uses an alloy of tin,
lead, and bismuth. Soft solder flows
at about one-third the temperatures
needed to cause the crystal spaces
to open. The holding power of soft
solder comes from its ability to fuse
onto clean metal. Because the grip is
only surface-to-surface, soft solder
cannot be filed
flush without
weakening the
joint. This is
not true of gold or silver solder.
Zinc Content
The amount of zinc in silver solder
controls its melting point. When
making solder, care must be taken
to avoid overheating, because
the zinc will go off in a vapor, and
change the proportion. Because of
this vaporization, each time solder
becomes fluid its melting point is
raised. Overheating a previously
soldered joint will burn out the
zinc and can leave a pitted seam.
Prolonged exposure to pickle can
also make seams visibly pitted
because the pickling
acid attacks zinc.
This is why you
shouldn’t leave
fabricated objects
in the pickle
overnight.
Gold parts can be joined with silver In brazing the parts being joined
solder, but to achieve a color match are heated to a temperature
a gold-based alloy is usually used. approaching their melting point. A
Gold solders are available in many non-ferrous metal, like brass or a
colors and melting points. Any gold silver alloy, is introduced and drawn
of a lower karat can be used as a into the host metal by capillary
solder. K will be a solder for K; action. The dividing line between
K will solder K, etc. “Repair soldering and brazing is placed at
solder” will be a karat or two lower º F (º C). What jewelers call
than the metal it will join. “Plumb silver soldering is properly called
gold solder” assays at the stated silver brazing.
karat, and uses other alloy materials
to lower its melting point. When
ordering, specify the color and karat
of the piece you are working on, and
ask for nominal or plumb solder.
Common Soldering Problems
  
Incomplete or Not enough heat; metal Avoid playing the flame
unsoldered joint was dirty; no flux; directly on
prolonged heating the solder.
Solder balls up Metal or solder may be Reflux and try again.
dirty
Solder jumps to One side is hotter than Keep the torch moving
one side of joint the other so all parts heat equally.
Solder spills out Too much solder; too Use smaller pieces of
into a large puddle high a heat solder; level the heat as
you approach the flow
temperature.

 Joining > Hot Connections > Soldering


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White Metal Contamination
Lead/tin alloys (like soft solder) will
create pits in gold, silver, copper
or brass when heated above º F
(º C). Where scraping or filing
won’t work to remove white metals
that have accidentally adhered to
a workpiece, soft solder can be
chemically removed.
Mix  oz. glacial acetic acid with
 oz. hydrogen peroxide. Heat but do
not boil. Brush onto the affected area
and allow several days to work. The
tin will be left as a white powder that
can be brushed off.
Solder Preparation
Clean a piece
of sheet solder
with sandpaper
or Scotch-Brite.
With scissors,
make a row of cuts no more than
one millimeter apart, perhaps 
millimeters deep. Uncurl the strips
with pliers. Cut across this, catching
the pieces on your finger and letting
them drop onto a sheet of paper. By
cutting at different intervals you’ll
have a range of solder sizes. Because
solder will tarnish, don’t cut up
more than a month’s supply.
Soldering Methods
Rules for Soldering
. The pieces must make a tight fit.
. The joint and solder must be clean: no grease, finger oils, tape, pickle,
buffing compound, or pencil marks.
. Use flux to protect the metal from oxidation. Reflux for each reheating.
. All the pieces being soldered should reach soldering temperature
simultaneously. Heat the adjacent areas to reduce the flow of heat away
from the joint. Take into account heat sinks such as binding wire, steel
mesh, and locking tweezers.
. When possible, position the torch so as to draw solder through a joint.
Generally, avoid directing the flame at solder.
Instead, allow heat to travel through the piece.
Solder flows toward heat.
. Use just enough solder to fill the joint; don’t settle
for whatever piece is handy. It takes less time to cut the correct size piece
of solder than to remove excess later.
. When soldering an enclosed area, provide an escape
for the steam trapped inside. If not vented, this will
expand and can cause the piece to explode.
. Metal temperatures are judged by color changes which can
be seen best in a dimly lit area. Whatever your lighting,
keep it consistent.
Soldering Methods
Each metalsmith develops a personal approach to soldering. Here is a
summary of the most commonly used methods.
Chip (pallion)
• Probably the most commonly used method.
• Puts the correct amount of solder at the right place.
• The solder itself serves as temperature indicator.
.
Sweat (tinning)
• Keeps solder out of sight when doing overlay.
• Provides more control when soldering large and small
pieces together.
• Helps direct solder flow.
Probe (pick)
• Especially good when the configuration of work makes
placement of solder difficult.
• An efficient method.
• Good for production work.
Wire (stick)
• This has the advantages of the probe method and eliminates
cutting the solder.
• Good heat control is important or excess solder is used.
Mud (paste)
• Commonly used in commercial assembly line soldering.
• Good for delicate work such as filigree.
• Flux can splatter, leaving a scar on sheet.
Joining > Hot Connections > Soldering Methods 
 Soldering Alloys

Solder Alloys
The amount of zinc in a silver solder alloy
controls the melting temperature; more
zinc means a lower temperature. When
making solder, take care to avoid over-
heating because the zinc will go off as
a vapor, changing the proportions. This
waporization is also a factor when sol-
dering. Each time solder becomes fluid,
its melting point is raised. Overheating
a previously soldered joint will burn out
the zinc and can leave a pitted seam.

Silver Solders
Name Ag Cu Zn CD °F °C
IT     
Hard     
Medium     
Easy     
Easy Flo      

Yellow Gold Solders Solidification Solidification Semi-solid

begins complete range
Karat Au Ag Cu °F °C °F °C °F °C
 . . .      
 . . .      
 . . .      
 . . .      
 . . .      
 . . .      
 . . .      

From Working in Precious Metals, Ernest A. Smith. N.A.G. Press, London

 Joining > Hot Connections > Soldering Alloys

 Investment Soldering

Investment Soldering
This technique uses a plaster-like material to hold small pieces into position
for soldering. It takes a little longer to set up, but in some cases it is the best
way to achieve a desired precision.
. Prepare the pieces to be soldered in the usual
manner. That is, they should be well finished,
the edges should be refined and the surfaces
being joined must make a good fit.
. Hold the pieces into position by pressing
them partially into clay or use an adhesive like
Super Glue to temporarily locate the parts. The
glue will burn away during soldering—avoid
breathing the fumes.
. Mix a small amount of investment to a thick
paste. Conventional investment is okay and in
fact even plaster of Paris will do in a pinch, but
the best material is true soldering investment.
It has the advantage of curing quickly and
remaining tough at high temperatures. Mix in
a paper cup or in the palm of your hand.
. Gently trowel the mixture over the workpiece,
taking great care that it doesn’t penetrate the
seams to be soldered. Use a brush, stick, or
finger, depending on the scale of the work.
. Set the result in a warm place to dry. This can
take from  minutes to an hour depending
on the wetness of the mix, the thickness of
the application and the choice of material.
Abbreviating the drying step can cause the
Criticism comes easier investment to shatter when soldering, which
means you have to start all over. Patience,
than craftsmanship. patience.
. Apply a thick flux (one that won’t remoisten
the investment) to each of the seams being
joined. Soldering proceeds in the conventional
Zeuxius,   way, remembering that the investment will act
as a heat sink.
. When all soldering is complete and verified,
quench the work in water. This will break off
a lot of the investment, but some scrubbing
with a toothbrush or a bath in an ultrasonic
will be needed. Note that there is a similar
product that does not harden and can be
reused. In that case do not quench, but
follow the manufacturer’s directions.

Joining > Hot Connections > Investment Soldering 

 Firescale
Firescale
The Jeweler’s Bane, firescale is an insidious deposit of cupric oxide that grows
within the structure of some copper alloys such as sterling and low karat
gold. It is also called Fire Coat, Fire Mark, Fire Stain, #*!!*!
What Happens
When copper-bearing alloys are
heated in the presence of oxygen,
oxides are quickly formed. Cuprous
oxide (CuO) is a black surface layer
that can usually be dissolved in
pickle. Cupric oxide (Cu₂O) is a
purplish compound that forms
simultaneously within the metal.
This is firescale.
CuO
Cu₂O
Prevention
Strictly speaking, the only way to
eliminate firescale is to heat the
metal in an oxygen-free environment.
This is the solution used in industry,
but it is rarely appropriate for the
craftsperson. By following these
suggestions, however, it is possible to
minimize the growth of firescale.
Avoid prolonged heating—use a “hit
and run” soldering technique.
Use a big enough flame to get the
job done efficiently. A small flame
can cause rather than prevent
firescale because it extends the
soldering time.
Use enough flux. Flux absorbs
oxygen and prevents it from
combining with copper. Flux will
become saturated, so be sure you
have enough.
Do not overheat when soldering.
There is no advantage to keeping
the work hot after solder has
flowed. Silver and gold alloys
should never need to go above a
medium red when soldering.
 Joining > Hot Connections > Firescale
Bright Dipping
If firescale has formed, it can often
be removed by dipping the work in
a strong solution of nitric acid and
water. After all soldering and rough
finishing are done (but before stones
are set), attach the piece to a wire
and dunk it for only a few seconds
into a / solution at room
temperature. Firescale will turn dark
gray. Rinse and scratchbrush. Repeat
until the scale is gone, neutralize
the piece in baking soda and water,
then polish. Wear rubber gloves,
protective clothing, and a respirator.
Depletion Gilding
A commercially popular solution
is to electroplate a coating of
oxide-free metal over an object
to cover scale. This is especially
good for work that is subject to
little wear. In the studio, a process
called depletion gilding can be
used on sterling and karat golds to
simulate this action without special
equipment. Copper in the alloy
is converted to copper oxide by
heating, and this is then selectively
removed in pickle. In essence, the
alloys are broken apart, leaving a
thin coating of pure silver or gold on
the surface.
After all soldering and finishing
is complete (but before patination
or stonesetting) heat the work until
a gray oxide forms and quench it in
clean pickle. Repeat the procedure
 to  times, rinsing in water and
lightly scratchbrushing each time.
Remember to protect yourself
against splashing pickle.
 Welding

Welding
The term welding refers to a variety of processes used to join metals,
especially steel. Welding is an ancient technology that is widely used around
the world in hundreds of industries.
Forge Welding
This granddaddy version is familiar to blacksmiths.
Iron or steel parts are fluxed with borax and
brought to a high temperature, then struck with
a hammer. The pressure of the blow forces the
exchange of crystals between the units and results
in a bond.

Gas Welding
A fuel and oxygen torch is used to heat the edges
of parts to their melting point. As the molten
metal puddles and starts to flow together, a
supply of addition material, usually steel, is added
to the melt.

Arc Welding
Electric current is divided between the two
parts to be joined. When they are very close, the
current jumps the gap (called “arcing”) which
generates enough heat to melt steel. Arc welding
is the most important form of welding used today.

Spot Welding
In this process, (also called resistance welding),
electrodes are placed on either side of the parts to
be joined. This has been used for several decades
in industry, where it lends itself to jigs and
repetitious joints. Advantages are speed, low cost,
Do what you can, and ease, since little clean-up is needed. A popular
jewelry-scale spot welder is called Sparkie®.
with what you have,

where you are. Inert Gas Welding

In this version of arc welding, an inert (non-
active) gas like argon or helium is directed
onto the weld area. By preventing oxygen from
Theodore Roosevelt entering the weld, a cleaner and more solid joint
is made. Since the development of TIG (tungsten
inert gas) and MIG (magnesium inert gas) welding
during and after World War II, the equipment has
come down dramatically in cost and size.

Joining > Hot Connections > Welding 

 Adhesives

Adhesives
Adhesives used as a substitute for properly made mechanical or soldered
connections are generally considered a sign of poor craftsmanship. There are
situations however, when adhesives are a legitimate and important technique
of heatless connecting. There are countless glues with more being developed
each year. Here is a summary of the basic categories.

Type Material History Advantages Disadvantages

Hide glue (a.k.a Animal collagen One of the oldest of all Easy to make, especially Hygroscopic (takes
rabbit glue) (fibrous protein from glues; identified in objects if you kill and clean moisture from the air)
skin, cartilage, bone of great antiquity. The animals for food. which can weaken the
and sinew). The word Egyptians used hide glue Inexpensive, water joint. When it gets
collagen derives from , years ago in their resistant, quick drying. very dry this glue be-
the Greek kolla which furniture. comes brittle.
means glue.

Casein Milk proteins Used by woodworkers for
centuries and currently
used to bind cigarette
papers. Developed
industrially in  by
Adolph von Baeyer (the
asprin guy) and widely
used in the s in the
construction of wooden
aircraft structures.
Low cost, ease of use, Not entirely water-
and broad application. proof. Subject to mold.
Most are water resistant
and can be easily
thinned to allow them
to penetrate porous
materials.

Polymer Polyvinyl acetate The first plastic polymer Very strong, waterproof, Moderate strength,
(Elmer’s, SOBO, (or similar) was made from cellulose some versions set low resistance to heat.
Duco Cement, nitrate (from wood). It was rapidly.
etc.) used to replace ivory in
billiard balls.

Epoxies Thermosetting A thermosetting plastic. Clear, very tough, Relatively expensive,

resins such as waterproof. must be thoroughly
diglicidyl ethers mixed, breaks down
of bisphenol A around º F (º C).

Cyanoacrilylate Acrylic resins A thermosetting (non- Hardens instantly when Not good on porous
(Super Glue, reversible) glue developed air is excluded; strong, surfaces, hard to posi-
Krazy Glue, by Kodak in  and sold clear, waterproof. tion work, relatively
Black Max) as Eastman #. It is expensive.
C₅H₅NO₂ anaerobic, meaning that
it hardens when air is
excluded.

Other glue materials include vegetable adhesives (mucilage) made from

starch and dextrin derived from corn, wheat, rice, or potatoes, serum albumen
(blood, used in plywood), and various gums derived from tree sap and nuts.

 Joining > Chemical Connections > Adhesives

Chapter 

Color
 Patinas

Preparation
It is always important to clean metal before any coloring operation. The best
way to achieve this is to avoid greasy materials like steel wool and buffing
compounds in the first place. Alternate finishing materials include pumice,
sandpaper, Scotch-Brite, and a scratchbrush.
When grease is present, clean the work in an ultrasonic machine or scrub
it in a solution of ammonia, soap, and water. When metal is thoroughly clean,
water will “sheet” or cover the whole surface rather than bead up. When the
work passes this test, dry it with a soft cloth or drop it in a box of absorbent
material such as sawdust. From here on, handle the work only by the edges.

Preservation
Some metals, such as pure gold or platinum, do not react to the chemicals around
them, but they are the exception. Most metals react with their environment,
which is what produces their color. A few metals, such as tin, oxidize to a stable
film, but most metals will continue to change. In choosing a particular patina we
are singling out one point on a continuum and trying to preserve it.
If this change is undesirable, the metal must be either returned to its original
finish periodically (as most silver hollowware is hand-polished) or sealed off
from the environment. A hard film such as lacquer will resist marring but can
eventually be chipped away. A soft film such as wax is more likely to be vulnerable
to wear but will probably just smudge across the protected surface, keeping the
film more or less intact. In articles to be worn, wax can rub off on clothing.

Lacquer
Use only top quality lacquer. You can
buy this as a liquid or a spray at an
art supply store. For small areas, use
clear nail polish. If the lacquer needs
to be thinned to spread smoothly,
buy lacquer thinner at a paint supply
store.
Apply a thin coat, taking care to
avoid bubbles and trapped dust. A
couple of thin coats are preferred to
a single thick one. Porous materials
(ivory, wood, clay, etc.) are likely to
contain unremovable oils that will
cause lacquer to bead or discolor; test
first. If the lacquer does not readily
bond to the work, clean it off right
away with thinner.
An acrylic (plastic) substitute
for lacquer is sold as fixative, used
to protect drawings from smudging.
It is typically in an aerosol spray can
and is available from most art supply
stores. Follow the same guidelines as
for lacquer, especially the warning to
avoid spraying on too much at once.
Wax
Beeswax and paraffin are commonly
used to protect metal objects. Popular
commercial preparations are Museum
Wax or Renaissance Wax. To make your
own, start with clean beeswax or wax
from a white candle. Hobby stores sell
wax granules for candlemaking that are
reliably pure.
One method of application is to
warm the object and rub the wax over
it. Another method is to reduce the wax
to a paste that can be rubbed on and
buffed. To make this, melt the wax in
a large spoon or disposable can (using
a double boiler for safety) and pour it
into turpentine, using roughly a /
mix. When it cools, the solution should
have the consistency of toothpaste.
Apply the wax in a thin even layer;
allow several minutes for the solvent
to escape, then buff with a soft cloth.
Repeat several times to develop a
durable layer. Furniture wax (such as
Butcher’s Wax) can also be used, but
avoid heavy-duty waxes like car polish.

 Color > Chemical > Patinas

Applying Patinas

Application Methods
The method of application depends on the size
and shape of the work. Note that various solutions
can be layered on top of one another. Sound like
experimentation is needed? You bet.

Immersion
This method is standard practice when coloring sterling with liver of sulfur. Clean
the work and dip it into a patina solution. Drop the piece in and retrieve it with
tweezers, or use wire and string to lower the work into a patina bath. Rinse in water
and reimmerse as needed. The results will be affected by the
temperature of the metal, the temperature of the solution, and
the duration of immersion. Many of the solutions work best
on slightly warm metal. Hold the piece under running hot tap
water, dip it into a solution, and flush again with hot water while scratchbrushing.
Repeat this warm—dip—rinse cycle until the correct color appears.

Spray
After cleaning, dry the work, and spritz it with patina solution, sometimes at room
temperature and sometimes with the addition of heat.
• Put the work on a turntable to facilitate even coating.
• Set a cardboard box behind it to catch overspray.
• Place a fan behind you to direct spray away from yourself.
• If climate allows, work outside. The sun will warm the
metal and the fresh air is healthier for you.
• To avoid overheating, use a hair dryer rather than a torch.
• To take advantage of drips, you may need to reposition the
piece during the process.
• Some patina compounds will clog a nozzle when they dry. To clean the spray
head, put the feeder tube in water and pump until clean water comes out.
• Remember to label all bottles clearly.

Brushing
Some patinas can be applied like paint. Use brushes, sponges,
wads of cheesecloth, and other improvised tools to dab
solution onto the metal. To thicken patina solutions so they
can be applied without running, mix cornstarch or flour into
a liquid patina solution to make a thick paste. Spread this
on the metal where you want the patina, then wash it off with running water. An
interesting halo effect is sometimes created by fumes escaping from the lump.

Vapor
Create an airtight environment appropriate to the work. Trap chemicals in the tent
to create the vapor and allow the work to sit untouched until the desired effect is
achieved. If possible, use a transparent container so you can monitor the patina
without releasing the vapor.

Heat Coloring
It is possible to heat color with a torch, but the hue of the flame makes it difficult
to observe color shifts. Instead, use a hot plate or stove, preferably in natural
light. Set the piece on a burner and watch it oxidize to a desired shade, then
quickly lift the work off with tweezers. Quench in water.
Color > Chemical > Patinas 
 Patinas

Application Burying
Methods This method uses sawdust, leaves, or similar porous materials to hold patina
(continued) solutions against randomly selected areas of a piece.
. Mix a patina solution.
. Prepare the metal by cleaning it.
. Half-fill a plastic bag or disposable container with
a dry porous granular material such as sawdust,
kitty litter, pine needles, confetti, or dry leaves.
Add a small amount of solution and toss (as you
would a salad) to slightly dampen the nesting
material. Add more patina compound sparingly as
needed to moisten the mix. When you squeeze a
handful it should feel just barely damp.
. Bury the metal object(s) in the saturated material and tightly seal the
container.
. Label the container with the ingredients and the day/time the process
began.
. The time needed to develop a rich patina depends on temperature,
saturation, potency, and size. Allow at least  hours before pulling the
piece out to check it. If the patina is pale or the coverage is incomplete,
bury the piece again, seal the container, and wait. When done, rinse the
surface gently under water to remove patina chemicals.

Wrapping
This is similar to the burying process but fabric, bark,
leaves, or strings are used to bring the patina solution into
contact with the metal.
• Various strings and fabrics will offer a range of effects.
• If the string or cloth is very wet, it will create vertical
drips. To avoid this, wring out the application material
slightly.
• In addition to patina recipes, this technique will work
with ammonia on copper and brass and with salt water on steel. Urine
will also produce an interesting patina (and lots of questions).

Fuming Green and Blue-Green

Suspend the work in a calcium carbonate environment. Create a closed space;
this could be in a deli container or a plastic tent depending on the scale of the
work. Use a transparent material if possible so you can watch the reaction.
Within this space, place the work, either on a pedestal or
suspended, again depending on the shape and size of the
work. Also set a bowl of water and a second bowl of very
diluted hydrochloric acid or vinegar. Drop bits of chalk
into the acid (vinegar) periodically. Allow several days to
produce a color. Warm environments work faster.
To increase the amount of blue, spray the piece with
salty water. To create splotches of blue, wet the surface
with water and sprinkle on table salt.

 Color > Chemical > Patinas

 Patina Recipes

Recipes
These recipes have been culled from
the scores available in the literature
of metalsmithing. Collected here are
a few simple mixtures that provide a
wide range of color potential. Recipes
that use dangerous chemicals have
been omitted, as have those that more
or less duplicate effects possible with
the solutions listed here.
Many variables will affect the
results you get. For instance, different
brasses will react in different ways to
a single solution. The temperature
of the mixture and the metal will
alter results, as will the finish and
cleanliness of the piece. Even the
weather can be a factor. In each case,
experimentation is required.
Because some projects will
require a large quantity of solution
and some will need only a spoonful,
the following recipes use the
unscientific system of percentages.
Usually, measurements do not need
to be precise; either weight or volume
units may be used. Ingredients usually
dissolve faster when warm. Solutions
are generally best when fresh and
often do not remain potent when
stored. Small quantities of chemicals
are sometimes available through the
chemistry department of a local high
school or college.

Liver of Sulfur Dissolve a small amount of liver of sulfur in warm Golden > scarlet >
water. A rice-size piece to a cup of water is usual. If blue > plum > gray >
the solution is too strong the resulting sulfide layer is black on silver alloys
brittle and will chip off. The solution can be warmed,
but should never boil. Use the dip–rinse–brush method Gray > purple > black
to slowly create a sequence of colors. on copper

Commercial On gold, steel is required to create the reaction. Use a nail Black—no transition
oxidizer or piece of wire (paper clip) to color specific areas. For colors
e.g., Silver Black, broader applications, daub with a bit of steel wool held
Black Max, etc. in tweezers. To color small pieces or chains, put a piece of
steel wool in solution and immerse the work. Available
through most jewelry supply companies. Avoid contact
with skin and especially protect against contact with eyes.

Green Patina #  part ammonium Apply the solution to the Variegated green layer
chloride () metal and allow it to dry.
 parts copper sulfate () Repeat several layers, allowing
 parts water () each to dry. Scratchbrushing
will alter colors.

Green Patina #  part zinc chloride () Dissolve all ingredients Variegated green layer
 parts acetic acid () together and mix well.
 parts ammonium Brush or spray onto the
chloride () piece, or immerse the work.
 parts table salt ()
 parts copper sulfate ()
 parts water ()
Gun Bluing Use full strength by brushing or immersion. On brass or Gray > deep purple
bronze, apply the solution with steel wool. This commercial
preparation is available at most sporting goods stores.

Barium sulfide Dissolve a pinch of barium sulfide in a cup of water. Scarlet > blue >
Brush on or immerse the work. brown > gray

Color > Chemical > Patina Recipes 

 Patina Recipes

Simple Copper Plating

Brass, gold, and platinum are notoriously difficult to darken. One solution
is to plate the work with a thin layer of copper, a metal that can be readily
colored. Because it is thin, the copper layer will not withstand wear, but if the
darkened area is recessed, this method offers a useful solution.
Saturated pickle (blue-green in color) doubles as a copper plating
solution because it is an acid charged with free copper ions. These have
a tendency to attach to a metal object, especially when electricity is
introduced. An easy way to create a slight electrical charge is to put into the
same acid solution a ferrous and a nonferrous metal. The electrolytic reaction
is further increased with heat.
. If used pickle is not available, set copper scraps in pickle
overnight or until the pickle turns blue.
. Wrap the object lightly with iron or steel wire. Binding
wire works well; paper clips are handy for small objects.
. Set the object into warm pickle. Note that everything in
the pickle at this time will be plated. After the steel is
removed, the pickle can be used as usual. It has not been damaged.
. Rinse the object and apply the chosen patina to the copper layer. When
the desired color is achieved, use fine sandpaper to remove the copper
plating from the raised areas.

Coloring Selected Areas

Most patinas are applied to the entire object—whether you want it that way
or not. It is difficult to localize the effect because even when the solution is
carefully applied it often drips or fumes and affects exposed metal.
Masking Bare Metal
After all assembly is complete, make sure the metal is clean and dry, then
mask off areas that are not to be colored. After the patina is complete, gently
remove the mask.
Mask Remove with
cake frosting warm water
rubber cement rub off with finger
liquid wax Boiling water
(available through
ceramic suppliers)

Controlled Patina Removal

Color the entire object, allow the patina to
stabilize, then use frisket tape or rubber cement
to mark areas where the color will remain.
Sandblast or scrub the piece with pumice,
Scotch-Brite, or sandpaper to selectively
remove the patina. Remove the masking
material gently so it doesn’t lift the color.
Patina with rubber cement After sandblasting

 Color > Chemical > Patina Recipes

 Enameling Materials

The science of glass chemistry can be traced back to Egyptian enamelists

, years ago. Over the centuries it has grown in variety and knowledge.
This brief introduction is intended only as an overview of a complex topic;
interested readers are encouraged to pursue specific literature.
Glass is a compound based on oxides of silicon, borax, and aluminum
or other metals. By manipulating the ingredients, it is possible to control
the melting point of a mixture and to render it transparent, translucent, or
opaque. Additional ingredients will change its color, and the rate of heating
and cooling can alter its physical properties. Most enamelists today take
advantage of commercial suppliers, but purists can still create their own
glass, cast it into blocks, and break it down to powder as it used to be done.

raw materials cast into a block broken into pieces ground into
powder

Color comes from metal oxides: Recipe

cobalt blue • silica (sand) … provides the body of the enamel.
copper turquoise & green • borates (borax) … facilitates mixing of ingredients; lowers temp.
platinum gray
antimony yellow
• alkali (soda & potash) … improves polish, sparkle, and elasticity.
manganese purple • alkaline earths
tin white (lime, magnesia, lead) … affects the melting point.
iridium deep black • oxides of metal … provide color.
gold red
Gums
Various organic fully combustible solutions are used to bind enamel particles
together before firing.

Gum tragacanth is a gelatinous substance derived from several plants of

the species Astragalus, found in Turkey and Iran. The hard sap dissolves
easily in water to form a thick gooey liquid. Dissolve a 1⁄2 oz. lump
overnight in a quart of water; thin as needed. Add a germicide to prevent
the growth of bacteria.

Gum arabic is a sap from several species of acacia trees. It can be dissolved
in water to yield a thick, colorless glue.

Agar (formerly called agar-agar), is a gelatinous colloidal material harvested

from several species of sea algae. It is used in candies, creams, lotions,
and winemaking, and also as a laboratory medium for growing bacteria.

Klyr Fyr is a manufactured flux. Do not mix Klyr Fyr directly into enamels;
this will make thousands of tiny air bubbles, which in turn create a
frosty effect.

Color > Applied Surfaces > Enameling Materials 

 Enameling Equipment

Equipment
Though enameling can be done with a torch, most enameling today is per-
formed in a small electric kiln. This provides a clean, contained environment
where heat can be sustained and measured. Modern kilns use lightweight
refractory (heat-resistant) materials that can be formed over the wires that
carry electric current. Older, heavier kilns are lined with bricks and reveal a
wire coil that generates heat when electricity is run through it. Either style
of kiln works equally well for enameling, though the exposed coils are poten-
tially dangerous and more likely to corrode.

Pyrometer
Diligent experimentation and notation of time and temperature are essential to
control and repeatability in enameling. Clearly the wonderful enameling of the
Middle Ages proves that it is possible to learn to read colors by eye, but we can
bet the Medieval goldsmiths would have used a pyrometer if they had had one.
Pyrometers work by measuring what happens when two different metals
are exposed to heat. This arrangement is called a thermocouple. In an analog
pyrometer, the two metals produce electric currents that are minutely different
and this imbalanced charge is used to push a hand across a dial. Because the
charge is so small, the hand must be very lightweight, which is why the needles in
pyrometers are almost invisibly delicate.
In digital pyrometers the current difference of the
thermocouple is converted to readouts, making these
devices both easier to read and more durable. When
replacing parts in a pyrometer, it is important to buy
components that are properly calibrated for each other.

Miscellaneous Stilts and Shelves Forks

Other equipment for enameling:
• heat-resistant gloves
• assorted sieves
• several small glass dishes for
washing enamel powders
• jars to store enamel powders
• glasses with protective lenses
• good quality watercolor brushes
• a kitchen timer
In the course of enameling, objects
are set into the kiln and removed
many times. A variety of racking
systems have been devised to
accommodate this—each enamelist
will have several. Good stilts will
hold objects securely while making
minimal contact that might damage
the enameled surface.
A traditional material for firing
flat objects is mica, a naturally
occurring heat-resistant mineral.
Do not allow moisture to enter
between the layers because this
can cause the mica to split when
heated.
Forks are used to insert and with-
draw objects from a kiln. They
should be sturdy enough to avoid
vibration and thick enough to slow
down the conduction of heat. Most
have two tines (which should fit
the shelves) and a guard to shield
the user’s hand from the heat of the
kiln. This is intentionally left loose
to discourage heat transfer from
one part to another. It is helpful if
the handle is rectangular or oval and
oriented to communicate the posi-
tion of the fork directly to the user’s
hand.

 Color > Applied Surfaces > Enameling Equipment

 Enameling Process

Firing Tips
> The enamel layer must be completely dry. Moisture
left in the enamel will expand rapidly and flick the
enamel off. Set the prepared work on top of the kiln
or under a lamp to insure that it is completely dry.
> Even when using a pyrometer, confirm the
temperature periodically with a visual inspection.
> Do not stare into the kiln for extended periods—
glance away frequently, or it will become difficult to
perceive colors.
> If using a torch, avoid directing the flame at the
enamel. To create a simple baffle, set a screen
between two cans.
> Heat the kiln to º F above the desired temp, turn
off the kiln, and set the work into the chamber.
Remove it when it becomes exactly the same color
as the kiln walls (i.e., when it almost disappears
through camouflage).
> Enamel particles cannot be mixed to create new
colors. A mix of colors will, at best, yield a speckled
result. This is why many separate hues are needed.

Test Panels
It ain’t what you do, There is very little resemblance between enamel powders and the rich
vibrant colors they reveal after firing. Besides this, enamel offers variations
it’s the way
depending on the recipe and metal on which it is fired. A universal fixture in
that you do it. every enameling studio is a collection of small copper panels that show the
results of each enamel. While every enamelist will have a slightly different
approach, the goal is always the same—to illustrate the potential of each
Sy Oliver & enamel in a series of conditions.
James Young
For opaque enamels For transparent and translucent

name and number

two layers
color over silver foil
over copper
color over gold foil

color over flux

name and number
color over opaque white

color over copper

one layer over copper

Color > Applied Surfaces > Enameling Process 

 Enameling Process

Washing Enamels
Glass is formed into large blocks from which it is broken into chunks, then
gravel, which is ground in a mortar and pestle where it shatters into both solid
grains and tiny flakes. The latter are not good for enamels because they trap air
in the mix and make the glass murky.
To separate the flakes, put a small amount of
enamel powder in a shallow dish—preferably one
with sloped walls like a custard cup. Add four to
five times as much water as powder and swirl the
dish gently. After a few seconds, pour off the cloudy
water. Repeat this process at least three times or
until the swirled water is no longer cloudy. In some localities it is wise to use
distilled water or to use tap water that has set uncovered overnight. This allows
chlorine gas to escape, avoiding possible color influences from the chlorine.

Terminology
Grit (Sieve) Counterenamel
Enamel powders are sorted by A layer of enamel applied to the
passing them through screens back side of a piece to offset the
of increasingly finer mesh. This difference in contraction between
is described by the number of glass and metal.
crossings of the Work that is
wires in a square domed or has
inch. Typically, edges is often
enamels range rigid enough that
from  mesh counterenamel
(table salt, coarse) may not be needed.
to  mesh
(flour, very fine). Stoning
Using a carborundum
Hardness stone to abrade
In enameling this word refers not enamels; typically
to physical strength, but melting done as a trickle
point. Soft enamels have a low of water flushes
melting point; enamels that fuse at particles away.
a higher temperatures are said to be
Warping
harder.
Large pieces that have no
corrugation or similar contouring
> Soft –º F are liable to warp as they cool. To
–º C prevent or at least minimize this, set
the work on a solid surface and trap
> Medium –º F it beneath a steel weight. To avoid
–º C thermal shock, keep the weight on
top of the kiln
> Hard –º F so it will be
warm when
–º C
used.

 Color > Applied Surfaces > Enameling Process

 Champlevé

Applications
It’s worth remembering that the early
inventors of what we now think of as
distinct approaches or techniques didn’t
set out by defining a process. Rather,
they were exploring possibilities for
interesting visual effects. There is room
for overlap and interpretation of the
techniques below, gathered and named
as a convenience, not a limitation.

Champlevé
Champlevé (shomp-le-VAY) comes from the French, meaning, literally,
“raised field.” This is perhaps the oldest form of enameling and was the
dominant technique from the age of the pharaohs through the European
Middle Ages. Early champlevé was made by pouring molten glass into
recesses in metal, a technique favored by the Celts in the third century .
Today metal is prepared with recesses that are filled with enamel powder
that is then fused in place. Recesses can be of any size and shape and may
be made by engraving, chasing, etching, embossing, laminating (overlay),
casting, chiseling, or in metal clay.

. Prepare recesses that are at least . . Counter-enamel (if necessary),

mm deep (.",  ga). It is ideal if applying a layer of flux or Klyr Fyr to
the walls are slightly undercut but the recesses to protect the metal from
this is not oxidation. Fire and cool.
essential.

counter -enamel

. Pack the recesses with clean enamels . Repeat as needed to fill the chambers,
I am not yet so lost in lexicography as to to a height above the surface of the unless you prefer the effect of leaving
metal. This will compensate for the fact the chambers with miniscus curves.
forget that words are daughters of earth, that enamel
powders take
and that things are the sons of heaven.
up less space
after fusing.
Dry, fire, and
cool.
Samuel Johnson
. Stone the surface to make the metal . To polish, either progress through finer
and glass flush. Either work under a abrasives and polishing compounds or
trickle of water at the sink, or dip both return the work to a hot kiln and pull it
work and stone into a basin of water out as soon as the
frequently during this process. Scrub enamel becomes
with a glass brush and dry completely. fluid. This is called
“flash firing” or
“fire polishing.”

Color > Applied Surfaces > Champlevé 


Basse-taille
Basse-taille, (Bas-TY),
from the French “low cut.”
We are all
familiar with
the effect
of looking
into a brook
to see the
shape and pattern of the creek
bed—dim and mysterious through
the watery filter. Similarly, we have
seen how the sloping depth of a
swimming pool is revealed by a color
change in the transparent water.
These effects are the essence of
basse-taille enameling.
In general the process is the
same as for champlevé, with a few
refinements. The floor of the recess is
often patterned or ornamented. This
can be part of the recess-making step
or a second process altogether. For
instance, recesses could be created
by piercing, then ornamented by
engraving.
Depending on the colors being
used, the depth of the recess and
the desired effect, layers of clear flux
might be used over a color to fill up
the recess. After all firing is complete,
stone and polish to a bright luster to
take full advantage of the effect.
 Color > Applied Surfaces > Cloisonné & Basse Taille
Cloisonné & Basse-Taille
Cloisonné
Cloisonné (kloy-zo-NAY) from French
cloison, “compartment, partitioned area.”
In champlevé and basse-taille, enamel is contained in miniature chambers
that have been carved out of thick metal. Seen this way, it is a small step
to fabricating these chambers by creating walls from wire. Cloisonné work
has been found from as long ago as the fourth century BC. As with every
technique, variations abound, but here is a basic sequence of steps.
. Prepare the metal with counterenamel on the back
and a layer of flux on the front. Dry, fire, and cool.
. Bend lengths of wire to create the various
compartments of the design. The wire is
usually rectangular in section (set vertically)
and made of fine silver or fine gold. If
necessary the wires can be lightly glued in
place with gum tragacanth.
. Dry and refire. As the flux melts, the wires will
sink into the gooey flux where they will be
securely anchored. Withdraw and cool.
. Fill the various chambers (cloisons) with
clean and dampened enamel, using a
watercolor brush or miniature spatula. Dry
and fire.
. Repack as necessary until the chambers are
filled or nearly filled.
. Stone the surface until it is flush and either
leave it matte, polish with abrasives, or flash
fire after careful cleaning.
Variations
• In addition to commercially prepared cloisonné wire, make your own wires
of varying thickness.
• For lines that change from broad to narrow, forge wires with planishing
hammers.
• Use transparent or opaque enamels—or a combination of both.
• Decorate the floor of the cloisons as in basse-taille.
• Allow the enamel to slump naturally by filling each space less than full. The
resulting surface has many concave facets that
increase the play of light. An additional variation
of this uses flattened twists of wire to form the
cloisons.
• The wires can be soldered in place rather than
fastened with flux.
• The initial layer can be white rather than the clear
flux. This will brighten colors, even opaques.
• Wires can be used to subdivide chambers made through other methods—
a combination of cloisonné and champlevé, for example.
 Plique-á-jour

Plique-á-jour
Plique-á-jour, derived from the French words for “applied walls” and “open to
the light.” One way to describe plique-á-jour is to imagine carefully grinding
away the base (or back) of a champlevé or cloisonné panel until light could
pass through the glass. The effect is like a stained glass window.

Method 
. Fabricate a lattice by soldering wires together.
. Set it onto a sheet of mica and pack the chambers with cleaned
transparent enamel. Moisten this slightly with gum tragacanth to
cement the result in place.
. Dry thoroughly and fire.
. Cool, repack, dry, and refire as needed to fill the openings.
. Stone and either flash fire or polish.

Method 
. Assemble the design with gold wires upon a thin copper base—at this
point it looks like cloisonné, and the process is the same.
. After all firing and polishing is complete, submerge the work in nitric
acid at a solution of one part acid to two parts water. Wear protective
clothing and use ventilation.
. Once the copper base has completely dissolved, remove the piece
from the acid solution, rinse, and dry.
. Stone and either flash polish or polish by abrasion.

Method 
Gaiety in objects, enjoyment in
their construction, in making
them work —this to me seems
very important.
Olivier Mourgue
. This method relies on the surface tension
of the glass or capillary action of the
openings to hold the gooey molten glass
in place. Create an openwork pattern
(usually by piercing) in which
no chamber has an opening larger
than ⁄" ( mm).
. Pack this with enamel powder mixed with
gum tragacanth as a binder. Fire as usual
but be careful to withdraw the work from the kiln as soon as the glass
fuses.
. Stone and either flash polish or polish by abrasion.

pierced metal

mica

Color > Applied Surfaces > Plique á Jour 


The one serious conviction that a
man should have is that nothing
is to be taken too seriously.
Samuel Butler
 Color > Applied Surfaces > Full Coat Enameling
Full Coat Enameling
Full Coat Enameling
In all the techniques described above,
both the enamel and metal components
are visible and rely on each other
for the final effect. In the European
Renaissance a technique became popular
in which the enamel covered the surface
completely. In this style, the metal
is to the enamelist what canvas is to
an oil painter. This was the dominant
approach to enameling from the th
through the th century. These styles
of enameling are sometimes collectively
called Limoges after the city in France
where this technique became popular
and reached a high level of skill.
Grisaille
From the French word for gray.
In this variation of Limoges, the metal piece is first fired with a smooth,
even layer of a dark color, usually black. Mix extremely fine white enamel
( mesh) with water, turpentine, and either oil of
lavender, or oil of clove. This makes what we might
call a silica-based paint. Apply this with a top-quality
brush, using thick layers for light areas and thinner
layers to create shades of gray. After thorough drying,
fire the piece to fuse the layers together.
Sifted
Sprinkle enamels onto prepared metal with a small sieve.
These three methods are only a few of many possibilities.
A. Sift and fire a first coat, then sift on and fire a second
layer of the same color.
B. Sift a second color over the base coat and fire it. The
effect will be different than in Method A.
C. After firing a first layer in place, use stencils to control
the location of additional layers.
• Use a piece of damp paper towel; this is especially good for irregular or
curved surfaces.
• Use tape to achieve straight lines. Allow the enamel to dry completely
before removing the tape. Spray the whole surface, including the top of
the tape, with gum tragacanth so the enamel will stick where it lands.
• If the stencil
is held above
the surface, the
outline will be
diffused.

Spatula
This basic technique resembles
painting in that a tool is used to
apply the color to a desired location.
Enamels are dampened with water
(which makes them easier to control)
or gum tragacanth (to hold the grains
in place). For some designs it is
helpful to use a wire as a temporary
wall to contain the enamel.
Lift this away and lay
the second color up to
the first, and
so on.
Full Coat & Sgraffito
Foils
As can be seen in the test panels, transparent, and opalescent enamels will
look quite different when fired on silver or gold. Of course the entire object
can be made of gold (especially if your name starts with Pharaoh), but a
more economical approach uses foils of fine metal to provide the effect. The
process is the same for silver and gold.
. After completing all metalwork, fire a layer of either flux or colored enamel.
Counterenamel if needed. Allow to cool.
. Cut a piece of foil to the desired shape with
small scissors, working through paper. The ideal
foil is around .–. mm thick (about .").
. If the foil is simply laid into place it is likely to
trap tiny air bubbles. These will cause the foil to
lift and can make the enamel frosty. To prevent
this, poke the foil with hundreds of tiny, almost
invisible holes. To make a tool for this purpose,
bind – sewing needles together with wire
and flood with lead solder.
. Lay the foil in place, using a small amount of gum tragacanth to glue it
down if needed.
. Sift a layer of transparent color or flux over the foil, allow it to dry, and fire
as usual.
Sgraffito
From Italian, meaning, “to scratch”.
In this expressive technique, sift a layer of fine mesh enamel over a
previously fired and cooled layer of flux or color. Spray the dusted layer with
a thin solution of gum tragacanth, then
drag a smooth rod (like the back end of a
paintbrush) through the enamel powder
to reveal the first layer. The process can be
repeated multiple times with additional
firing between layers.
An alternate way to create lines is to paint on an enameled surface with
glycerin or gum tragacanth thinned with water. Use a brush, pen, or stick
to draw. Add a few drops of ink to make the otherwise clear gum/glycerin
solutions visible. Dust the entire form with fine enamel powder, allow it to
dry, then pour off the loose
enamel. Glycerin is preferred
for complicated designs
because it remains wet longer.
Color > Applied Surfaces > Sgraffito 

SAFETY
Anodizing involves the use
of acids and electric current.
Working safely with either of
these requires considerably
more expertise than can be
presented here. This much
for sure: Always turn off
electric apparatus before
handling. Always ventilate
the area well and wear
protective clothing, gloves,
and goggles before handling
acid or caustic solutions.
Always.
Dyes
Because the anodized surface is porous,
it will absorb many kinds of colors,
including most dyes, inks, and stains.
To ensure color fastness, richness, and
control, dyes made specifically for
coloring aluminum are recommended.
These are generally sold as powders
to be mixed with water as needed.
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions,
paying special attention to the need for
chemically pure water. The dyes can be
mixed to achieve a new color (e.g. red
and blue may be combined to achieve
purple). A more popular approach is
to achieve mixes by overdyeing the
original hues. In this way the original
colors can be kept pure, leaving the
fullest palette available. Of course,
where production runs of a specific
color are required, mixing the desired
hue is a more reliable and efficient
solution.
 Color > Metallic Surfaces > Anodizing Aluminum
Anodizing Aluminum
Anodizing Aluminum
Anodizing is the process of using an electric current to create an oxide coating
on a metal. In the case of aluminum, the coating is tougher and less reactive
than the unoxidized metal. Because it is porous, this coating is susceptible to
dyes, allowing an infinite range of colors on the surface.
Equipment & Supplies
As with any process, there is almost no limit to the
maximum cost. People interested in experimenting
with anodizing on a small scale are generally more
interested in the minimum investment required.
You will need a rectifier or battery charger, a number
of stout plastic vessels, a stainless steel pot, several
immersible thermometers, an acid-proof apron,
gloves, goggles, and several chemicals. A small
experimenting setup can be assembled for –.
The Process
In its relatively brief history (the process was patented in ), anodizing has
matured to a complex and exact science. What follows is a brief summary; for
more details, visit your library or search the web.
To the casual observer, the process of anodizing aluminum is similar to
coloring Easter eggs. In both cases you dip, rinse, and dip again to manipulate
colors. The next page illustrates a top view of an anodizing setup for a jewelry
studio, as if you are looking down on a series of pots.
. Create the desired finish: steel wool for matte, and buffing or tumbling for a
shine. What you create here will remain after anodizing.
. Wash well to remove oils, either with soapy water or proprietary anodizing
prewash cleaner.
. Attach a stout aluminum wire securely to each piece. Fit is critical.
. Prepare a bath of – sulfuric acid to water. Always add acid to water.
Always wear rubber gloves, goggles, and a protective apron.
. Set cathodes, typically on opposite sides of the tank so they stick up out of
the acid. These can be lead or / aluminum, and should be about
four times larger than the work being anodized.
. Attach a battery charger, ideally a  volt,  amp model to the setup. The
negative pole connects to the lead cathode, and the positive lead connects
to the work. For several pieces, set an aluminum bar across the tank and
connect (firmly) to this.
. With the part submerged in the acid bath, turn on the rectifier. You’ll
see bubble form on both anode and the cathode. Be sure the metal parts
never touch. Anodizing will raise the temperature of the acid. It should not
exceed about ° F; cool between jobs as needed.
. Time will depend on size, temperature, and voltage. Allow - minutes.
. After rinsing, dip the part in dye—the longer the immersion, the deeper
the color. This might be a quick dip or a  minute bath.
. After rinsing, seal in hot water or (better) nickel acetate sealer.
 Anodizing Aluminum

To anodize, a piece of aluminum is attached to the positive pole of an electric

current, called the anode, and immersed in a solution of – sulfuric acid
(the electrolyte). When current is passed through the electrolyte, oxygen is
compelled to combine on the metal’s surface, creating clear, tough, porous
aluminum oxide.

Structure Racking
When aluminum combines with One of the keys to successful
oxygen, it forms a thin, transparent anodizing is the
coating called aluminum oxide unobstructed
(Al₂O₃). When this process is flow of
accelerated by electricity and electricity. This
performed in an acid bath, the requires clean
result is a thick layer that looks solid contact
like a microscopic between the
honeycomb. These power source and the workpiece.
pores or tubes allow Use titanium or an aluminum wire
the anodized layer to of a similar alloy
accept dyes. As a final to that being
step, the oxide layer is sealed, either anodized.
with hot water or a nickel salt.

Bleaching Process
Familiar jeweler’s The whole process should take about 1⁄2 hours but you will not be constantly
pickle (Sparex) can working during that time.
be used to bleach
out unwanted
colors. Reserve a container of pickle - min.  minute – min.  minute
for this purpose and keep it at room
temperature. Other acid solutions
can also be used, but they involve Degrease Rinse Caustic (lye) Rinse
more dangerous chemicals.

 minute,
Resists – min. each time - min.  minute
You can create special effects by
using resists such as lacquer, nail
Nitric bath Rinse (x ) Anodize Rinse
polish, rubber cement, asphaltum,
and tape. The process is as described
except that after the first color is
applied and the metal is rinsed, baking  minute,
- min.  minute
soda each time
the piece is stripped in a nitric
acid etch. It is then dyed, rinsed,
remasked, and restripped for Neuralize Rinse (x ) Dye Rinse
each additional effect. When the
process is complete, gently remove
the masking material with the
appropriate solvent and seal the  minute - min.
aluminum as usual.
Add’tl. dye Rinse Seal Rinse
Color > Metallic Surfaces > Anodizing Aluminum 

Can I use the same rectifier to
anodize reactive metals and
aluminum?
Not really. The two processes re-
quire different voltages. Aluminum
requires relatively low levels of elec-
tricity, like – volts. To anodize
titanium and niobium, you’ll need
variable direct current of – volts
and . to  amps.
This material is drawn from Studio
Preparation and Coloring Titanium,
by William Seeley, . Used with
permission and thanks. Sample
above by Ruthann Glazier.
 Color > Metallic Surfaces > Anodizing Reactive Metals
Anodizing Reactive Metals
Anodizing Reactive Metals
When titanium, niobium, or other met-
als are heated they form a stable oxide
film. The thickness of this film bends
light in predictable ways that allow us
to achieve consistent colors. Control
the thickness, and you control the
color. Colors are possible with heat, but
control comes through electricity—when
measured voltages are passed through a
sample in an electrolytic bath the result
is a repeatable pallete of brilliant colors.
Preparing the Metal
Anodizing does not cover finishing mistakes or shortcuts—if anything, the
brilliant colors accentuate scratches. Finish with standard sandpaper or tum-
bling, but anticipate a longer process. Natural oxidation films on these metals
is noticably tougher than other jewelry metals. Titanium, especially, requires
an acid etch to prepare the surface for best color values.
Bath Method
. Prepare the metal by sanding, sandblasting, chasing, or any other surface
technique associated with jewelry. Polished surfaces offer the brightest
colors, but if viewed obliquely they will appear dull and dark. For this
reason scratch finishes are the most common. Degrease and handle only by
the edges.
. Set up the equipment as shown, being certain that the power is OFF.
Make the electrolyte by dissolving a tablespoon of trisodium phosphate
(TSP) or Sparex in a quart of
water. This will be used at room
temperature. With a tight lid
to prevent evaporation, the
solution will last indefinitely. Do
not allow clips or leads to touch
the electrolyte (bath). Double-
check that the anode and cathode do not touch. Wear rubber gloves.
. Turn on the power supply and increase the voltage until the desired color is
achieved. It’s natural to see bubbles forming on the surface. Colors are not
apparent during the process; to check midway, turn the power off and lift
the workpiece out of the bath and dry the metal to reveal the actual color.
. The piece can be reimmersed for further coloring. Remember that changes
will occur only at higher voltages. If you pass the color you want, you’ll
have to abrade the surface and start over.
. To stop the process, turn off the power.

Safety Note
When using food containers for
studio chemicals, always mark
them—boldly and permanently—
so they will never end up in the
kitchen by accident.
Masking
To achieve lines between colors
and to create specific shapes, mask
selected areas between coloring
steps. Use
electrically
resistive
tape and
burnish the
edges with a fingernail to insure a
sharp line.
Anodizing Reactive Metals
Applicator Method (Anodic Painting)
. Prepare the metal by sanding, sandblasting, or polishing. Degrease and
handle only by the edges.
. Prepare the electrolyte as described in Step  above.
sided tape is handy.
+
. Connect the anode ( ) to the workpiece and secure it to the table. Double-
. A brush with a metal ferrule can be used as a cathode. With all power
disconnected, attach the negative lead to the ferrule, then cover it with
a nonconductive material, such as a rubber sleeve or several layers of
electricians’ tape.
. Be sure the machine is OFF and connect the lead from the applicator to the
-
cathode ( ). Wear rubber gloves.
. Dampen the tip of the applicator with eletrolyte solution and turn on the
power. When you touch the applicator to the metal the colors will start to
appear. If the reaction is too rapid, decrease the voltage. If it is too slow,
increase the voltage. The smaller the applicator, the lower the current
needed. Too high a current (amperage) will create localized heat and
subsequent etching of the metal, leaving brown spots. Always wear rubber
gloves and be careful that metal parts of the applicator don’t touch the
anode. This will cause a short circuit.
The liquid electrolyte is the carrier of the electric current. By keeping an
area dry you can prevent oxides from forming. Typical masking materials
include electrical tape, high quality masking tape or frisket, dilute
asphaltum, and fingernail
polish. When using
tape, burnish down the
edges. If electrolyte seeps
underneath the tape, the
edges of the colored areas
electrical tape will be uneven and fuzzy.
Equipment and Supplies
The electrical current that comes out of the wall needs to be controlled for
anodizing, so the trick is to reduce it to a managable level. In the process,
you’ll want to devise a way to see the voltage level and build in some safety
measures. To assemble components yourself, get a Variac with a full wave rec-
tifier and fuse or an autotransformer. Or, buy a unit designed for this purpose
that has all these parts built
into a compact unit. Besides
the anodizer, you’ll want a
sealable plastic container for
the electrolyte (e.g. Tupper-
ware), rubber gloves, mask-
ing tape, and paper towels.
Color > Metallic Surfaces > Anodizing Reactive Metals 
 Paint & Resins

Chemical Coatings
Though the idea of painting on metal seems foreign to traditional goldsmiths,
the concept is well-founded and has its own rich history.
• As long as  years ago the Greeks and Egyptians painted marble
statuary with encaustic, a mixture of pigments and wax.
• Armorers in the medieval period used paint to ornament armor and to
protect it against rust.
•  First recorded paint mill in America
•  D.R. Averill of Ohio patents “ready mixed paint.”
•  Henry Ford makes the Model T available “in any color as long as
it’s black.” This was because black varnish dried faster than other
colors, speeding up the production process.
• s Alkyd resins first used in paints. These were tough and dried faster
but did not yield a bright shine.
•  Aerosol spray can invented.
• s Acrylic paints developed; these led to two-part hardening
epoxy paints.

Colored Pencils
Pigments are mixed with wax to
create a large variety of drawing
tools, most of which offer
possibilities for metalsmiths willing
to experiment. Typically these will
require three steps:
. Prepare the metal with a base coat . Avoid the temptation to apply too
of paint, patina, or oxide.
. Apply the color.
. Seal with lacquer or a plastic
coating such as acrylic fixative.
Process
. Clean with a mild abrasive (pumice,
Scotch-Brite, sandblasting) to
expose bare metal and create a
slight tooth.
. Use a lamp or other mild heat source
much, especially when spraying.
Allow the first coat to dry completely
before applying the next coat.
. Apply paint either by spraying or
with an appropriate brush. If the
paint is too thick, thin it slightly
with lacquer thinner, mixing well.
to speed up drying but be careful
not to develop a temperature that
will melt the paint—usually around
º F (º C). Because it contains
wax, encaustic paint melts at lower
temperatures: º F (º C).

Resins
In this context resins are two-part thermosetting polymers that can be
colored with dyes. Effects can include a coating that is opaque, translucent,
opalescent, layered, matte, or shiny.

Additives
Fillers These are used to reduce cost and to add certain properties.
Examples are calcium carbonate, kaolin, talc, and mica.
Pasticizers These allow the resin to flow.
Stabilizers These prevent the plastic from breaking down, a result of
ultraviolet light or oxidation.
Colorants These allow the material to be colored throughout.

 Color > Applied Surfaces > Paint & Resins

Chapter 

Finishing
 Abrasive Materials

Overview
A polished appearance is the result of a perfectly flat surface. Under
magnification, the cross section of a scratched surface looks like a series
of ridges, and grooves. Light is reflected between the scratches like sound
being echoed in a mountain valley. A flat surface, on the other hand,
bounces all the light back, which we see as a bright shine. Good finishing
begins the moment you first handle metal. Store it carefully to avoid making
unnecessary scratches. Don’t scribe a line until you are sure of your plans.

When light hits an irregular surface, By contrast, when light reflects off a flat
it gets trapped in the valleys. surface, most of what hits bounces back.

Abrasives
We can loosely divide the long history of abrasives into three segments. For
a long time the field consisted of finding new rocks that were harder than
the materials to be abraded. Research consisted mostly of identifying new
sources, and refining the vehicle that carried the grit to the work—paper,
cloth, and leather. The second phase, about a century old, is driven by
synthetic abrasives such as aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, both
developed in the s. These and other compounds are much tougher than
natural abrasives. The third phase is in its infancy and focuses on control
of the size, shape, and distribution of particles. Somewhat surprisingly,
uniformity and lack of uniformity in size have a significant effect on the
results of abrasives. Recent
years have seen huge leaps in
those industries that directly Traditional sorting establishes only a maxi-
affect metalsmiths. Microsorted mum size (nothing larger than x.)
abrasives are available as papers,
on plastic sheets, and backed
with foam rubber. Experimentation
Micrograding sorts out both larger and
is recommended. smaller particles.

Types of Abrasives
Bobbing natural pumice removes scratches, creates a low shine.

Tripoli natural sandstone removes scratches, creates a low shine.

White Diamond synthetic removes scratches, leaves a good shine.

Blue rouge synthetic cuts light scratches, leaves a high shine.

Zam synthetic removes scratches, leaves a bright shine;

especially good on soft gemstones and
natural materials like wood, shell, etc.
 Finishing > Mechanical > Abrasive Materials
 Abrasive Materials

The Science
Progression from files to coarse papers to medium papers involves removing
metal. Rough tools leave scratches; finer abrasives make smaller scratches.
For centuries it was assumed that polishing compounds continued this
pattern, but early in the th century researchers discovered that this was
not true. Precious metals flow under the action of polishing compounds,
filling in the low spots with material from higher areas the way a footprint in
soft mud will erase itself. An aggressive compound applied with high pressure
at right angles to scratches can exaggerate this process to the point that high
spots are pushed over the low spots, trapping microscopic voids underneath.
Subsequent wear will reveal these and disclose an imperfect finish.

Filed surface before buffing. Rolled surface after

aggressive buffing.

Compounds
Time is a great teacher, Nowadays when we think of sand it’s in the form of a picturesque sloping
beach in a travel ad. Early metalsmiths would have been alive to the more
but unfortunately it kills
practical aspects of size and relative hardness. When a distinctive type of
all its pupils. sand was located it often took the name of the region and was shipped from
there and sold as a product. One example is tripoli, a decomposed sandstone
from Tripoli, Libya. In more recent times, natural abrasives have been
supplemented by human-made materials.
Hector Berlioz In both natural and manufactured abrasives, the
finer particles resemble flour and would fly away if
used in powder form. For this reason they are mixed
with a thickener such as wax or tallow and formed
into solid bars. These are used to coat the wheels
used in machine buffing.

Rouge
Rouge is ferric oxide that has been reduced to a fine powder. While red rouge
is still the most familiar member of the family, there are variations that work
better on selected metals.
name ingredient used on…

Red rouge ferric oxide gold, silver, brass, copper

Green rouge chrome oxide steel, stainless, brass, aluminum,

nickel, chrome

White rouge calcite alumina steel, stainless, zinc, brass

Black rouge silver

Gray rouge silver

Yellow rouge platinum, stainless steel

Finishing > Mechanical > Abrasive Materials 


It is often said, “The public does not ap-
preciate art!” Perhaps the public is dull, but
there is just a possibility that we are also
dull, and that if there were more motive,
wit, human philosophy, or other evidences
of interesting personality in our work the
call might be stronger.
Robert Henri
 Finishing > Mechanical > Scraping
Scraping
Scraping
It was Homer who
said, “Control thy
scraper and be your
own master.” Okay,
maybe he didn’t, but
we can be certain that somewhere in his hometown there were goldsmiths
who used scrapers. Oddly, these tools are rarely used today, perhaps because
of the availability of sandpapers and electronic grinding. Still, they have a lot
to offer. Any kid would know to whittle a stick to change its shape, but few
metalsmiths remember that a hardened steel knifeblade (Mohs ) can do a lot
of work on a silver object (Mohs ).
A traditional scraper is a rod with a triangular cross section, polished faces,
and a comfortable handle. Scrapers can be any size or shape—from a dental
tool to a hatchet; what makes them work is a crisp edge and a proper stroke.
Hollow Scrapers
A flat scraper has several planar surfaces—usually three. The
crispness of the edge created where two sides meet is what
makes the scraper sharp. This is different from the sharpness
of a knife, which depends on the thinness of the edge. In some
tools, the edges are flat, but the center of the blade has been
hollowed out to create a space for the shavings to collect.
These are most useful when scraping soft materials like wood,
plastic, bone, pewter, or aluminum.
Whittling
While it is not exactly the same as
scraping, this familiar-but-forgotten
technique is worth inserting here. Silver,
gold, copper and brass have a Mohs
Hardness of around –, while the
average knife blade comes in at about
. This means that knives and X-Acto
blades can be valuable tools at a jewelers
bench. Use a knife to shave off excess
solder, to shape a point for drawing, or
to create an interesting texture on wire.
 Sanding Sticks

Process
Advance from coarse to fine papers, taking care not to skip or abbreviate any
Grits step. As you switch grits, change the direction of your stroke. This will make
s very coarse it easier to tell when the marks of the previous abrasive have been worn out.
For a mirror finish, go to a  paper and from there to polishing papers.
s coarse Keep in mind that there is no universal “right” finish. You can stop at any
s medium point that complements the piece.
s fine
s very fine Sanding Sticks Sanding boards
Abrasive paper should be wrapped Start with three " x " pieces of
around a board or dowel to increase Plexiglas or Masonite and attach a
leverage. The cutting power of the full sheet of sandpaper with rubber
paper depends on the force behind cement or spray adhesive. By using
it. Polishing sticks can be made by both sides of each, you’ll have a
gluing leather or felt onto wood and sequence of six grits. Drill a hole
then saturating it with a polishing for hanging and mark each board
compound. plainly. Keep these close at hand for
leveling edges, truing the underside
of bezels, and other similar tasks.

Using Boards
Hang a collection of boards on the side of your bench
for easy access. To sand a flat plane or straight edge,
pull the full set onto your lap or benchtop and work
systematically through the sequence of grits. Clean the
boards periodically by holding them over the sweeps
tray and tapping them with a mallet.

Sources
Sanding sticks can be purchased, but handy strips are easy to come buy.
Lumberyards sell a knot-free pine called lathe, and paint stores regularly
give out stirring sticks that can make
excellent sanding sticks. Popsicle sticks,
tongue depressors, and rulers or sections of
yardsticks all offer possibilities. Attach the
sandpaper with masking tape, staples (on
the edge of the board), or spray adhesive.

Finishing > Mechanical > Sanding Boards & Sticks 

 Strops & Thrumming

Polishing Cloths
In bygone times jewelers made their own polishing cloths. The first step
would be to collect iron oxide (FeO₂) by scraping rust from steel. The fine
grains were washed and reground to make a red powder. This was mixed
with oil to make a paste, smeared onto a smoothed piece of silver or gold,
and rubbed aggressively with a bit of cloth. After a few uses this cloth would
become so loaded with compound that no additional oxide was needed.
Today most jewelers are content to buy
commercially produced compounds and
pretreated flannel cloths. Recent advances often
combine the cloth’s burnishing action with
chemical tarnish solvents and sulfide inhibitors.
In one motion these cloths soften and remove
tarnish while depositing a film that helps
prevent oxidation.

Thrumming
Thrumming or polishing small spaces with string is more effective than
you might think. Any sort of string, ribbon, or thong can be used. To make
a traditional device, cut about a dozen " lengths of medium
weight cotton or hemp string
(like you’d use to tie a package
for mailing). Double this with a
soldered ring in the middle and
wrap the hank near the top. Hang
this from a hook on the face of the
bench. To use it, take up a strand,
pull it taut, and stroke a piece of
tripoli or rouge along to charge it.
With the string pulled tight, slide
the jewelry back and forth along it
to cut or polish between prongs, in
small piercings, and inside links.

Stropping
This term is most familiar from nostalgic references to a thick leather strap
against which straight razors were stroked to refresh their cutting edges.
The concept of using abrasive-coated leather to achieve a high shine is as
useful to jewelers today as it was to barbers years ago. Glue a strip of leather
onto a piece of wood—rulers, tongue depressors, and popsicle sticks are all
useful sizes. Inexpensive sources of leather are old handbags and belts. Be
certain the glue reaches to the outer edges of the stick, allow to dry under
pressure, then trim with a knife. Rub polishing
compound into the leather, which will accept it
better if it is wet. Rub forcefully against metal to
achieve a bright shine. This method is especially
appropriate to polish prongs and bezels.

 Finishing > Mechanical > Strops & Thrumming

Machine Sanding

Power Sanders
Many styles of electrical sanding devices are available, each
with its strengths and weaknesses. Here are a few defining
characteristics to jump-start further investigation.

Belt Sanders
These machines have a continuous loop of abrasive
paper that is held under modest tension between at
least two wheels, one of which is driven by a motor.
The handheld version is especially useful for finishing
anvils and large stakes.

Band Sanders
This version has a " wide loop of sandpaper.

Disk Sanders
A steel or aluminum plate is connected to a motor so it
rotates counterclockwise. Sandpaper is glued onto the
plate and often comes with pressure sensitive adhesive
so application is an easy matter of peel-and-stick. Disk
sanders are often combined with a belt sander.

Angle Grinder
This compact, handheld tool is especially useful for
reaching into tight areas. It is often found attached to a
blacksmith or sculptor.

Orbital (Eccentric) Hand Sander

These compact units are portable versions of a disk sander
but with the important distinction of replacing a uniform
rotation with a wobbly erratic motion. This irregularity
makes it less likely to wear gouges in the surface.

Flex Shaft Machine

This can be used with a variety of sanding attachments.
In most cases the advantage of this tool is that it can
be moved around the work, but in some situations
it is helpful to use a jig to convert the flex shaft to a
miniature belt or disk sander.

Finishing > Mechanical > Machine Sanding 

 Machine Finishing

Rules for the Buffing Machine

!
> Pay attention! If your mind wanders, turn off the machine and take a break.
> Use a pinch, or breakaway, grip. Don’t entwine your fingers into the work.
> Wear goggles. Keep long hair and loose clothing tied back.
> Work only on the lower quarter of the wheel.

Buffing
Machine polishing is an extension of sanding. A tough, gritty material is
dragged forcefully across a surface and the high spots get broken off. In
sandpaper we see the grit (media), feel the paper (vehicle) and provide the
motion. In machine buffing, the abrasive particles are usually so fine they
don’t feel like much and the vehicle is a disk made of fabric. The motion is
provided not with elbow grease but by flipping a switch.

Buffing Wheels
The size, shape, and material of buffing wheels influence the effectiveness of
various compounds. Start here, but watch what is happening in front of you
and make adjustments as needed.
Fabric Felt
These wheels are made by stitching These wheels are made by
together a thick pile of sheets of compacting randomly oriented
woven fabric. Muslin is usually used, wool fibers. They are sold in several
but wool is preferred for coarser hardnesses and a dizzying variety of
polishing. Fabric wheels are most shapes. Because they are stiff, felt
rigid near a layer of stitching and wheels touch only at the tangent
quite floppy away from the stitching. point, which makes them ideal for
polishing selected areas. Because
of this crisp edge, keep the work
moving or you can quickly wear an
unsightly trough.

Speed Tapered Spindles

Most polishing machines have
two speeds. The slower,  rpm
(revolutions per minute) has the
advantage of reducing the friction
heat. The faster speed,  rpm,
exaggerates the effect of the abra-
sive particles against the metal,
increasing the ability of the buff to
remove metal.
Most jewelry buffing machines have
a threaded tapered spindle mounted
on the machine axle. These make it
quick and easy to switch from one
wheel to another. When buying,
make sure you get a right- or left-
handed spindle, depending on the
setup of your motor. Also, be sure to
match the diameter
of the axle.

 Finishing > Mechanical > Machine Finishing

Machine Buffing

Preparing and Maintaining Buffs

All wheels are sold naked (with no compound). Once they are charged
(loaded with abrasive), they should be used only for that compound. Mark
the wheels clearly with permanent markers or color-
code them with spray paint.
Before loading a muslin wheel, prepare the buff
by removing loose fibers. This is a messy, potentially
dangerous business that creates a cloud of lint. To
prepare a new wheel, put on goggles and a dust
mask, thread the wheel securely onto a tapered
spindle, turn on the buffing machine’s exhaust,
and start the motor. To release the first flock of
threads, hold a scrap of wood against the wheel as
it turns. When the flurry subsides, stop the motor
and let the buff come to a natural stop. Pull loose threads out with your
fingers and trim off stubborn threads with scissors. Turn the buffing motor
on again and repeat the first step, but this time use a fork to rake the wheel,
releasing more lint. Stop, trim as needed, and clean up the debris (which is a
fire hazard). The wheel is now ready to use. The same process is used for felt
wheels, but you can skip the fork.
With use, all wheels will become caked with compound and will need to
be cleaned. To rake out stiff compound, mount the buff on a machine and run
it against a tool that can reach between the layers
of fabric. Use a commercial rake, a fork, or a piece
of wood about a foot long with a few dozen nails
pounded through one end. If your buffs get stiff and
need raking more frequently than once a month, try
using less compound and a lighter pressure.

Scratchbrushes
These brass-bristled brushes will give a delicate shine to gold or sterling that
has been finished to a uniform matte with
sandpaper or pumice. Lubricate the scrubbing
action with soap and work in all directions.

Motorized Scratchbrush
Small rotary brushes of brass and stainless steel are available for flex shafts.
Run them at a slow speed and lubricate with soap. For occasional use this is
fine, but for frequent use or where larger work
is being done, it might be worthwhile to invest
in a fullsize unit. Use a standard  rpm, 1⁄4
horsepower motor, but reduce the speed by
putting a small wheel on the shaft of the motor
and a larger wheel on the arbor, aiming for
about  rpm. Rig up a water drip to keep the
wheel wet and position the unit to drain into a
sink or bucket.
Finishing > Mechanical > Buffing & Scratchbrushing 
 Sandblasting

Sandblasting
The concept is simple enough: Forced air
picks up loose grit and throws it against
a workpiece. If this happens in a closed
container the sand falls to the floor, where
it can be picked up and thrown again. The
process involves four parts: forced air, nozzle,
forced container, and media (grit).
air

> Air is usually supplied by a compressor, an electric motor that draws in

and captures atmospheric air. Commercial sandblasting units will specify
the volume of air needed (in cubic feet per minute, cfm) and the most
appropriate size storage tank (in gallons). The common-sense analysis is
that a big windstorm will pick up a lot of sand and push it far and fast while
a small breeze doesn’t make anything happen. More air means a more
aggressive result.
> Media are usually purchased for this purpose and fall into two basic
categories. One type shatters on impact, exposing sharp edges for a
microsecond. The other type is a tougher particle that more or less holds
its original shape through repeated impact. Most sandblasting media are
made of synthetic abrasives such as silicon carbide or aluminum oxide.
A milder abrasive of particular interest to jewelers is glass beads in the
form of small spheres. With a hardness equal to or less than silver and
gold alloys, glass beads create a matte surface but remove no material.
Technically this process is called beadblasting.
> The nozzle or gun uses a ventura to draw sand into the airstream. We all
know that when we blow across the top of a narrow-necked bottle a hollow
sound is produced. The air we’re blowing forward makes a detour into the
bottle, then comes back out the top. If the bottle was replaced by a tube,
the same effect would cause anything in the tube to be pulled upward.
> Sandblasting can happen in any container or in no container at all. It is
used to clean the outside of buildings, in which case the sand drops to the
ground, and is swept up later. For the control needed in jewelry (and to
prevent a Sahara-motif in the studio), the process is contained in a box that
allows viewing, handling, and easy recycling of the media. These boxes can
be built or purchased.

Gravity Sandblasting
In this elegantly simple and impressively effective process,
a grit mixed with water is dropped onto metal. Use a
commercial garnet media and a scrub bucket. Put several
pounds of grit in the bucket (at least " deep) and cover with
water. Hold your finger over the bottom of a large plastic
funnel while you scoop up the slurry. With the work over the
bucket and the funnel several feet above it, move your finger
to allow the abrasive to cascade over the piece. Repeat until
you get the desired effect. The grit can be used indefinitely.

 Finishing > Mechanical > Sandblasting

 Hand Burnishing

Burnishers
Though not widely used today, burnishing was a principal finishing technique
for untold generations of metalsmiths. It uses the malleability of metals to
literally push the metal around to achieve a flat surface.
Anything smooth and hard can be used as a burnisher. Traditionally,
smooth stones such as agate were used, but polished steel is more common
today. A popular
burnisher is the size of
a child’s finger. It has
a tapered point and is
often bent at the tip,
which has the benefit
of creating a convex and
concave surface. Smaller
tools can be made by
reshaping screwdrivers and flatware. A full-size handle is important to allow
adequate pressure.

Action
In order to achieve a good result, the surface must be prepared before
burnishing. If the tool is dragged across a cornrow surface, it will push the
lumps up higher and press the valleys deeper—probably the reverse of what
you want.

Burnishing a coarse surface only blunts Sand to nearly level first, then bur-
the crests and valleys of the surface. nish to bring out the final shine.

• File and sand the metal to make the surface uniform. Continue through a
fine enough grit that the metal has a glowing satin sheen.
• Burnishing is ideal for soft metals like fine silver, high-karat gold, sterling,
and copper. It is less suitable (but still possible) for brass, stainless steel,
steel, and nickel silver.
• Lubricate the burnisher with a drop of
oil or saliva and rub it either in circles
or perpendicular to the path of the last
The universe is full of magical
sanding.
• Start with light strokes, increasing
things patiently waiting for our pressure until the metal shines evenly.
• Burnish forcefully with rouge on either a
wits to grow sharper. cloth- or leather-coated polishing stick.

Eden Philpots

Finishing > Mechanical > Hand Burnishing 

 Tumbling

Tumbling
Tumbling has been used industrially for years to pulverize ore and, on a
smaller scale, by lapidaries to shine cut-off pieces of gem material. Since the
s it has seen increased use in the jewelry industry. Though the process
looks quite different from hand burnishing, machine tumbling is a variation
of the same technique. Instead of a single tool that is rubbed back and forth
over the surface, thousands of small bits of polished metal cascade onto a
piece repeatedly as both the work and tool rotate in a drum.

Equipment
> Rotary tumblers — The most
common and inexpensive
tumblers, these drums usually
rest on a pair of rollers, one of
which is driven by an electric
motor.

> Vibratory tumbler — An electric

motor is connected to a plastic
drum by an eccentric (off-center)
link that shakes the drum in a
complex, almost random motion.
These are a little more expensive
but work much faster than rotary
machines.

> Magnetic tumbler — In this type

the container remains stationary
but powerful magnets stir up the
steel shot and pound it against
the work in the container.

Media
In recent years a huge variety of tumbling media have been developed.
Many consist of abrasive particles in a plastic matrix, a sort of tumbling
version of sandpaper. Others add to the drum a combination of walnut
shells charged with powdered rouge, or similar combination of a natural
material with an abrasive. Specialty media can be fine-tuned for sequence,
duration, and volume. Usually this is more appropriate
for high volume industrial situations than for studio
artists. Steel shot in several shapes provides a versatile
all-purpose burnishing medium. The weight of the
individual pieces ensures a reasonable impact, while
the diverse shapes are likely to reach most areas.

 Finishing > Mechanical > Tumbling

Tumbling

Tumbling Solutions Maintenance

Machine burnishing requires a It is critical that shot be highly
lubricant to allow the media to polished. Because the burnishing
tumble freely over the work. At medium spends most of its life wet,
the very least a the threat of rust is always real. In
few drops of soap normal use, keep the shot immersed
should be mixed and tightly sealed. If the tumbler
into enough water will not be used for a few weeks,
to cover the shot. take these precautions:
Plain soap, however,
tends to create a Pour off all the
lot of froth (which water (a sieve is
makes a mess) and useful).
often contributes to
a gray patina instead
of a bright shine. Spread the shot on a towel, or
Proprietary solutions
(usually sold as concentrates to be
mixed with water) offer lubrication
and pH balancing that improves
the process. To make your own
tumbling solution: warm it with a hair dryer, lamp, or
 qt water in an oven until
 Tbs. “JOY” dishwashing soap completely dry.
1⁄2 tsp. glycerin

Combine, stir, and put in a tumbler

to cover the shot. Solutions will
become dirty and should be
changed with each new tumbling Store in a well-
cycle. sealed container.

Tips
• Steel shot has a way of getting lodged into small spaces—permanently. Tie a
bit of string through beads, piercings, and other likely trouble spots.
• Use a string to tie small parts together for easy retrieval.
• Delicate surface decoration can be erased by overburnishing. If this is an
issue and you are worried about forgetting to check the tumbler, use a
timer, available at hardware and kitchen supply stores.

Finishing > Mechanical > Tumbling 


My advice, in the midst of the seriousness,
is to keep an eye out for the tinker
shuffle, the flying of kites,
and kindred sources
of amusement.
Jerome Bruner
 Finishing > Applied > Depletion Gilding
Depletion Gilding
Depletion Gilding
The definition of gilding is “depositing a surface layer,” while depletion entails
taking away. This apparent contradiction is, in fact, an accurate description of
the process. Depletion gilding selectively removes one component of an alloy
(depletion) with the result that an object has a surface skin of pure metal
(gilding).
Pickles like Sparex leach copper oxides into solution. With sterling, for
instance, the first step is to convert the copper in the sterling to copper
oxide, which is done by heating the piece without flux. Cleaning the piece
in fresh pickle pulls minute amounts of copper into the solution. When the
heating step is repeated, oxygen penetrates a little deeper into the sterling,
linking with copper to make more copper oxide that will again leach out
in pickle. The process can be repeated five or six times with similar effects
each time. After that, the outer layer of fine silver is thick enough to prevent
oxygen from getting through to the alloy layer.
Alloys Alternate Pickles
Alloys suitable for depletion gilding: Most jewelers use Sparex, but
> Sterling historically these alternate fluxes
were used in depletion gilding. In
> K yellow gold each case, mix the chemicals with
> K yellow gold enough water to make a paste.
> Silver alloys with at least  A. Equal parts oxalic acid and salt.
silver B. Equal parts alum and salt, with
> Electrum ( Ag,  Cu) enough water to make a paste.
C.  potassium nitrate, 
alum,  salt.
 Electroplating

History of Electroplating
The process of using electric current to induce migration of a metal from
solution onto a prepared object was patented in England in  by G.
R. Elkington. Like Sheffield plate a century earlier, electroplating made it
possible for people of a lower economic class to decorate their tables with
silver objects. The process is still widely used today, not only in jewelry
manufacturing, but in auto parts and housewares.

Process
In electroplating, a clean metal object is submerged in a solution called
an electrolyte that is supersaturated with the metal to be plated. A
positive lead is attached to a sheet of metal that will supply the solution,
and the negative lead is attached to the object. When a low voltage
direct current is activiated, metal ions travel through the solution and
are deposited on the object.

Pen Plating Equipment Solutions

This relatively recent development Electroplating requires a transformer,
makes electroplating possible which converts household current
through a handheld cathode. It is to DC, and a rectifier, which allows
appropriate for only small scale specific control of the electricity. In
work, but recent years it has become possible
has the to buy small scale plating units that
advantage combine these two functions into a
of making compact and affordable unit.
it easy to Besides that, you’ll need a few
plate only beakers or plastic containers, goggles,
selected rubber gloves, copper
areas. wires with
alligator
clips, and the
appropriate
solutions.
A glance at a jewelry industry catalog
will illustrate the wide variety of
plating solutions available. These are
sold as ready-to-use liquids or as salts
that are dissolved in distilled water
according to specific proportions.
The chemistry of plating is precise
and demanding, and focuses on
these solutions. Because they
contain precious metals, they are
expensive, so a proper understanding
becomes especially
important. Keep
all solutions well
marked, tightly
capped (to prevent
evaporation), and
absolutely clean.

Sequence Summary
. Complete all soldering, polishing and assembly.
. Clean thoroughly with soap and water, then electroclean with a proprietary
solution. Rinse in water.
. Pre-plate with a nickel solution. Not required but recommended to get the
best shine in a gold plate. Rinse in water.
. Immerse in plating solution, using the manufacturer’s suggested settings.
Keep track of time, voltage, and temperature for future reference. Adjust as
needed to achieve the desired results.

Finishing > Applied > Electroplating 

 Gold Leaf

Gold Leaf
Gold leafing has more to do with adhesives than metalsmithing, but it’s such
a flexible and appealing technique that it deserves a page here. In summary:
a surface is prepared and painted with a varnish. When this is almost dry,
thin sheets of gold are pressed onto the sticky surface and rubbed smooth.
Sign makers and framing shops make up the largest users of gold leaf. For
instruction or supplies, you might try a local studio.

Leaf
Gold leaf is available in several
colors and weights. The color names
vary among suppliers but the size
designation seems to be universal.
Leaf that is intended for outdoor
applications like architectural
embellishment is often sold affixed
to paper so it is less likely to blow
away. Most leaf is K or K, and is
sold in " x " sheets separated by
paper. A book consists of  sheets.
Size
Traditional size is a refined varnish
made from tree sap. It is painted
on and allowed to dry just until
it becomes tacky, which could
be anywhere from – hours,
depending on the temperature,
humidity, the substrate and the
size. To test, touch the surface
lightly with your knuckle. When
pulled away, you’ll hear a click if
the size is ready. Recently a water
soluble acrylic quick size has been
developed for casual indoor use.

Nonprecious Leaf Preparation

Besides gold, silver, and platinum,
leaf is also available in copper and
imitation gold. Application is the
same as for gold leaf.
Gold leaf is thinner than any other material you’ve ever seen. Our usual
reference points—tissue paper, onion, skin, sheer silk—are clunky by
comparison. Though it is a solid material, gold leaf will do no more to fill in
surface irregularities than a layer of smoke. Prepare the surface so it is exactly
as you want it. Textures and scratches will not be covered up, and might in
fact show up more prominently because of the play of light. Sand, burnish,
etc. as needed.
If the material is porous (e.g., wood, plaster, bone), seal it first with a
coat of shellac, lacquer or paint. Traditionally this layer is red, which gives
added luster to the gold. The size should be used in an environment that is
not too humid, between –°F, as well as free of dust and drafts.

Application
When the size is ready, apply the leaf by any combination of these
techniques. If the work is small, roll it across a leaf to cover as much as
possible and gently press down loose areas with a dry brush. If the object
being covered is large, cut the spine of the book so each leaf clings to its
paper sheet. Place the leaf against the size, peel off the paper, and smooth
the leaf into place with a dry brush. To fill in small areas, gather a bit of
gold leaf (perhaps a half inch square) onto a dry brush and lay it into place.
Though not ideal, it is possible to paint a second layer of size onto an object
to address sections that were missed in the first application.

 Finishing > Applied > Gold Leaf


The pursuit of truth and beauty is
a sphere of activity in which we
are permitted to remain children
all our lives.
Albert Einstein
Tarnish Removal
Tarnish Prevention
Tarnish on silver results primarily from the action of oxygen and atmospheric
sulfides. Museums prevent tarnish by sealing metals in an environment that
contains no contaminants. A localized version of this is to cloak an object in
a tight-fitting skin that prevents exposure. This would typically be lacquer
(which reduces luster) or wax (which rubs off). These solutions have their
place, but offer little for objects that will be worn or used.
Hard coatings can crack away. Soft coatings can smear off.
Removal
The time-honored way to remove tarnish is by rubbing metal with a mild
abrasive or fine burnishing compound like rouge. While effective, this
approach has the disadvantages of tedious labor and eventual damage to the
object. Chemicals that remove tarnish do so by a chemical reaction. Several
proprietary solutions are available and you generally get better results with
the higher-priced name brands. Follow the manufacturer’s directions and
wash well in soapy water as a last step. Immersion cleaners should not be
used on objects with an intentional patina such as an antique finish. The dark
recesses are the same compound as tarnish and will be dissolved, leaving the
piece naked.
Electrostripping
In a reverse plating operation, tarnish can be motivated to leave a silver
object and travel to a stainless steel cathode. Use with a commercially
available electrolyte which should be refreshed with distilled water to renew
loss through evaporation. Attach the anode wire (+) to the tarnished object
and have a piece of stainless steel of roughly twice the surface area of the
piece being cleaned attached to the cathode. Usually a low current for a few
minutes is sufficient to pull tarnish off.
A nonelectric version of electrostripping can be done on a kitchen stove.
Line a stainless steel pot with aluminum foil and pour in a solution of about a
quart of water to 1⁄4 cup of baking soda (measurements can be approximate).
Add tarnished silver and warm, but do not
boil, the solution. Tarnish will migrate from
the silver to the aluminum foil, which is
then discarded. The time required
will depend on the thickness of
the tarnish layer—usually –
minutes.
Finishing > Tarnish Removal 
 Problem Solving

Problem The surface is wavy and the edges are rounded. The whole form lacks
precision, and even though it’s bright, the shine seems phony.
Reason Not enough sanding and too much machine buffing.
Solution This piece may be too far gone to save, depending on how thick the
metal was to start with. In the future, use files and sanding sticks to
refine the form because they allow precise control. Move to the buff-
ing machine only after the piece has been refined with  grit paper.

Problem A casting that doesn’t get shiny, even after extended buffing.
Reason Porosity, pure and simple. Uneven cooling has created microscopic
voids within the metal. These openings cannot be polished, and create
a surface that is like a mix of bright spots and black spots. To the naked
eye, we see a dull sheen instead of a bright shine.
Solution Avoid this by proper spruing, described on page . To try to repair a
porous casting, planish the surface with a polished ball been. Follow
this with heavy burnishing, then sand with a fine abrasive paper.

Problem A sterling piece shows a subtle brown mark, even after polishing.
Reason This is fire scale, a deposit of cuprous oxide inside the structure of the
metal. It was caused by overheating.
Solution To reduce firescale in the future, use ample flux, and heat only as hot
and for as long as absolutely necessary. To remove stain, either abrade
it away (sandpaper, sandblasting, or bright dip), or plate over it.

Problem I want to have polished areas adjacent to patinas or matte areas.

Reason This is not a problem, but it does present an engineering challenge.
Solution Plan the assembly to allow for parts to be assembled after polishing
and surface treatments. This will probably involve cold connections
like rivets, tabs, screws, etc.

 Finishing > Problem Solving

Chapter 

Casting
 Ingot & Charcoal Molds

Ingot Molds
Either buy a commercial ingot mold
or make your own from sheet steel
and square steel rod. Use small C-
clamps to hold the mold together.
File tiny air vents slanted upward
along the mold so the air inside the
mold can escape.

Process
. Lubricate the mold with soot, Vaseline, or mineral (baby) oil.
. Heat the mold until the lubricant starts to smoke. Set the mold into a pan
of sand or a cast-iron skillet to catch accidental spills.
. Heat the metal in a pouring crucible, adding flux a couple
of times. When making an alloy, start with the precious
metals, then add the base metals.
. Pour the metal through a reducing flame in a single even
Water Casting flow. Allow the red color to fade before removing the
You can pour metals directly into ingot from the mold. Quench in water.
water to create unusual shapes and
to reduce large pieces to smaller, Charcoal
easier to melt pieces. Use a deep METHOD ONE METHOD TWO
enough bucket to allow the pieces . If the surface of the block is . Carve a depression in a flat charcoal
to cool before thery hit the bottom. irregular, start by sanding it flat. block or blocks.
The size and shape of the pieces will . Carve a recess . Carve a sprue and funnel.
be affected by in a flat block of . Tie the blocks
the height of charcoal to the together with
the crucible thickness and binding wire.
above the shape of the . Pour molten
water and the desired piece. metal from a
speed of the . Melt the metal directly in the pouring crucible, or carve a melting
pour. mold cavity. Flux reservoir in the top of one of the
is not usually charcoal blocks and connect it to
needed because the sprue with a channel. When
of the purifying the metal is molten, grip the whole
atmosphere assembly in tongs and tip it so the
Casting Wire created by the charcoal. metal flows into the mold.
When you need a short piece of . When the metal is molten, . To prolong the
heavy wire, you can improvise an bring a second life of the mold,
ingot mold by drilling a hole in charcoal block sprinkle it with
a charcoal block. Use a pouring down on the water as soon
crucible or carve a melting recess in first with even as the casting is
the block and tilt to pour. The hole pressure. Work removed.
must be at while standing . For economy, flat-
least 1⁄8" in to avoid an accident that would backed objects can
diameter or give new meaning to the term use firebrick or a
it won’t fill. “lap dance.” The mold can usually plaster block for the reverse side of
provide three or four castings. the mold.

 Casting > Gravity Methods > Ingot & Charcoal Molds
 Plaster Molds

Plaster
Lost wax centrifugal casting is the dominant method in use today, but for
those not ready to make that commitment, here are several variations that
require nothing more than a jeweler’s torch, a crucible, and a box of plaster
from a hardware store.

Simple Flat-Backed Object

. On a piece of glass or Plexiglas, set four strips of wood into a rectangular
frame and anchor them with clay or wax.
. Mix plaster as directed on the package then pour the
thick slurry into the frame about an inch deep.
. Let the plaster harden for – minutes, then use a
ruler and a knife to cut lines that divide the slab into
blocks of convenient size, say " x ".
. Allow it to dry further, then slide the block off the glass and crack the
scribed lines over the edge of a table.
. Either set these blocks aside to dry for several days or put them in a slow
oven for several hours. The drying step is important—don’t rush it.
. Carve a negative of the intended shape into the flat
(glass) side of a block. Use a knife, carving tools,
or whatever tool gets the job done. Position the
thickest, plainest section close to one edge and carve
a channel from this to the top of the block. Enlarge
this to make a funnel shape.
. Place another block on top of the first, smooth sides together. Bind the
blocks together with wire or duct tape and set them into a dish of sand.
. Melt the metal in a pouring crucible and pour it into the mold. Allow the
metal to cool until the red disappears, then remove the casting. A mold like
this, without much detail, will last about a half dozen times for sterling.
Gold will wear the mold out more quickly and pewter more slowly because
of their respective high and low melting points.

Self-Evacuating Molds
Most casting involves a three-step process: Make mold, remove model, fill mold. This elegantly simple process
combines steps  and . Self-evacuating molds can also be used with sandcasting.
. Make a model from Styrofoam. A lightweight, less dense version is preferred; the green material
used by florists is a great choice.
. Create a sprue and funnel, also from Styrofoam, and glue them onto the model.
. Encase the model in plaster, either by dipping it or by mounting the model on a base, sealing
the joint around the bottom, and pouring the plaster over it. Use a box, milk carton or can to
contain the mold.
. Allow the mold to dry. This can take as long as a week and it is critical to the process. To speed it up,
especially if you are in a damp climate, set the mold on a stove, under a lamp, or on a coffee warmer.
. Melt aluminum, brass, bronze, or silver in a ceramic pouring crucible. For pewter use a cast-iron crucible.
. Pour the molten metal onto the Styrofoam in a smooth continuous stream. The hot metal vaporizes the plastic as it
simultaneously fills the cavity. Ventilation is needed to draw off the plastic fumes.
. Allow the metal to cool, then break away the mold with a hammer. Working on a newspaper will facilitate clean up.

Casting > Gravity Methods > Plaster Molds 

 Cuttlefish Molds

Cuttlefish
For centuries goldsmiths have used
cuttlefish skeletons as molds. This
technique provides rich texture and
immediate results at a low cost and with
very little equipment. A disadvantage of
the process is that it is limited in size and
thickness. Most cuttlefish are about "
wide and " long.

Freehand Carving . Rub the pieces on coarse sandpaper

or against each other (soft side
. Use two bones or cut one in half.
to soft side) in a
Remove the
circular motion to
pointy end.
make flat surfaces.
Work over a trash
can.

. Carve an indentation for the desired
form. Remember that the depth of
the cut equals the thickness of the
final piece. Position the cavity about
3⁄4" from the bigger end.
. Carve a sprue funnel in both sides.
Scratch vents upward to allow the
escape of gases from inside the
mold.

. If you want to emphasize the grain . Tie the mold

pattern, stroke the cuttlefish with halves together
a soft dry brush. The with binding
Access Video material between
the grain ridges is
wire or masking
tape.
Library soft and will quickly
on CD fall away.

. Set the mold into sand or pumice to . Melt the

hold it upright. metal in a
pouring ladle and
fill the mold in a
smooth pour.

 Casting > Gravity Methods > Cuttlefish

 Cuttlefish Molds

Using a Model
Note: The model must not have undercuts.
. Prepare flat-sided mold halves.
. Push stubby pieces of wood (dowel, pencil, match)
into one side, staying well away from the cavity
and sprue area.
. Lay a wood or metal model onto one half, then set
the other half in place and carefully press the two
sides together until they meet. To avoid breaking the
cuttlefish, distribute force with your hands.
. Open carefully, remove the model, and brush the mold
to show grain if desired. Carve a sprue and vents.
. Set the halves together using the pins for proper
alignment.
. Bind the halves together with tape or wire and pour the metal. The mold
can be used only once, but because the model can be used indefinitely, this
method lends itself to making multiples.

Three-Part Molds
. Cut off three bone pieces. . Rub B and C
together until
flush. Bind with
tape. Rub A along
the top edge of BC
until flush.

. Open BC, position alignment pins, . Press A down on the part of the
Be yourself, because
and set the model, into place as model that extends out of the
described above. Press B and C mold. Mark the
somebody has to, and
together location of the
and mold sections
you’re the closest.
secure with tape or
them with ink lines.
tape.
Jack Kent

. Open the mold and remove the . Put the mold back together, tie, and
model. Carve pour molten metal
a sprue and into the mold.
pouring
funnel.

Casting > Gravity Methods > Cuttlefish Molds 

 Sand Casting

Equipment
If you do a lot of sandcasting you’ll want to buy a manufactured mold frame,
but for occasional use, or to sample the process, homemade versions are
adequate. Here are the proper terms along with the relevant requirements for
each part.
> Cope and drag (also called mold
frame). These two parts are identical
except that one piece has pins
projecting from one side while the
other has sockets that receive the
pins. The frame should be at least
1⁄2" larger than the object all around.
If the frame is a lot bigger than the
piece, it requires extra sand and
bother. The interior walls should
be rough enough that sand can get
a grip. One version uses angle iron
tilted º, which puts the walls of
the frame at an angle. For most uses
it is helpful to have a cutaway gate
section.
> A sieve.
> A pounce ball (see below).
> Two smooth flat boards that are at
least a couple of inches larger than
the mold frame.
> A short length of wood for pounding down the sand.
> A couple of C-clamps or some other way to hold the mold parts together.

Pounce
Preparing Sand
A powder used to keep mold
sections from sticking together.
Talc, cornstarch, chalk dust or Almost any sand can be used, but bear in mind
graphite can be that the finer the sand, the better the detail on the
used. It is often resulting casting.
kept in a bag of
. Get a bucket of sand from the hardware store, or playground.
loosely woven
material like . Sift it through a coarse sieve several times to remove debris.
gauze or muslin
. Sift through screen or cheesecloth to remove large grains.
for dusting onto
molds. . Mix baby oil, glycerin, or motor oil into the sand
by repeated stirring. Avoid making the sand too
wet. If you goof, you’ll need to add dry sand, so
keep some aside just in case. To test for proper
consistency, squeeze a handful of sand into a ball.
You should be able to break the lump cleanly in
half without having it crumble to pieces.

 Casting > Gravity Methods > Sand Casting

 Sand Casting

Casting a Flat or Thin Object

. Set one half of the mold onto . Set the other mold frame on top
a flat surface and fill it with of the first. Dust the packed sand
prepared sand. Pack it down with pounce and lay the model
firmly with a block of wood and into position. If the model is not
scrape off the surplus (called flat, carve away a little sand, then
striking off ). press it halfway into the sand.
Sprinkle sand over the model and
pack it layer by
layer until the
second can is
Small Scale Mold Frames full. Strike off
as before and
Have a friend come over for lunch
carefully flip the
and see that you use two cans of
assembled mold
tuna. Cut the tops and bottoms
upside down.
off both cans and wash them well.
Follow the instructions at the
right; in step #, use a nail or a . Set the mold parts back together
. Carefully separate the cans and
golf tee to poke a hole through the and pour molten metal into the
remove the model with tweezers.
sand to the model. This will be the mold using
Clear away stray grains of sand
gate and sprue, the point where a pouring
with
the metal enters the mold. Pick crucible.
a soft
out enough sand to make a funnel,
brush.
tipping it upside down to clear out
any sand that falls into the sprue.

Two-Part Patterns Casting a Heavy Ingot

Patternmaking is a complex and . Sprinkle prepared sand into a pan that is " deeper than the ingot you
demanding art, and for generations intend to make.
has been among . Fill the pan half full and pack it firmly.
the most respected . Prepare a model of wood, plastic, or metal by coating it with pounce.
skills of the casting . Slide the model into the sand, leaving about an inch of sand below the
industry. To make a model.
simple two part . Add enough sand to cover the sides of the model and pack it hard. Create a
turned pattern funnel.
(as an example), . Carefully slide the model out, then pour molten metal into the mold.
glue two pieces of
fully cured wood
together with a
sheet of newsprint
between. Turn on
a lathe, separate the parts, and drill
holes and pins to realign the pieces.

Casting > Gravity Methods > Sand Casting 

 Lost Wax Process

Lost Wax Process

When the metalsmiths of ancient cultures first developed this technique they
made models of beeswax and coated them with layers of clay reinforced with
straw or linen. The dried assembly was set into an oven to harden the clay
and simultaneously burn away the wax. This left a cavity into which molten
metal was poured. The clay shell was broken away to retrieve the finished
casting. Because the mold is destroyed in the process, the technique is called
a waste mold casting. Most jewelry casting today uses a variation on the lost
wax method developed in ancient times. This page provides a summary of the
process, which is explained in more detail throughout this chapter.

. A model is made of wax or another . The model is mounted on a wax rod

completely combustible material. called a sprue.

. The sprue is mounted onto a base . A plaster like material called

and positioned within a steel investment is
cylinder called a mixed to a creamy
flask. consistency. Steps
are taken to ensure
that this mix is free
of air bubbles.

. The smooth investment is gently . The investment is dried and then

poured over the prepared model as burned out in a
it stands in the kiln. This cures the
center of the mold and removes
flask. all traces of the
model.

. While the mold is still hot from the . After brief cooling, the mold is
burnout, molten metal is poured or quenched in water. This breaks
forced into the the mold and
mold, where releases the
it assumes the casting.
shape of the
original model.

 Casting > Lost Wax > Process Overview


Homemade Lamp
Use a glass jar with a metal cap. A
piece of rope or shoelace can be
used for a wick. To
make the hole for the
wick, pound a nail
through the cap from
the inside. This makes
a sharp bur that will
grip the wick. Note
the small air hole.
Fuel
Commercial lamp fuel. Never use
gasoline, kerosene, or stove fuel.
Methyl alcohol; also called wood
alcohol, methanol, carbinol.
Equipment & Supplies
Flasks – Stainless steel cylinders are used to contain the mold. These need
to match rubber sprue bases, so many studios limit their flask selection to
two or three sizes. To improvise a flask, cut both ends off a steel can. Check
with a magnet because aluminum soda cans won’t work. Even steel cans
normally last for only a few uses.
Sprue base – Buy rubber bases matched to your flasks; most studios can get
along with fewer bases than flasks since they are only needed for about
half an hour in the process. For irregular flasks (like cans) press clay onto a
board or plastic lid.
Mixing bowl – Using a rubber dish makes it easy to clean. Allow the
investment to harden, then flex the bowl and the hardened investment
will pop off. Alternatives: cottage cheese or deli containers.
Vacuum pump – This is used to remove bubbles from investment. While
not essential for occasional casting, this device becomes important to
consistently guarantee smooth castings and efficient cleanup. First choice:
buy a small vacuum pump and mount it into a table. A smaller device
called an aspirator uses the flow of tap water to draw a vacuum. These are
available from suppliers of laboratory equipment.
Vibrator – This is an alternate way to remove bubbles. You can buy a small
box-shaped vibrator made for this use or jerry-rig a massage vibrator. Even
cheaper, make an off-centered tool for a hand drill or flex shaft and use it
to agitate the walls of the investment bowl.
Kiln – Any furnace that will safely reach º F (º C) will do. But the
best kiln will be well insulated and will have a reliable pyrometer and a
programming unit to control the rate and maximum temperature. New
units use lightweight insulation instead of bricks, but either will do the job.
Coils and switches burn out with use but they are easy to replace. Contact
the kiln manufacturer
with the model
number to be sure
you get the correct
replacement parts.
Tongs – For small-scale
work, kitchen tongs
can be substituted.
Gloves – Heat-resistant
gloves are a good
investment for
casting studios, but in
the meantime, work
gloves offer some
protection from heat.
Goggles – Sustained viewing of a torch flame is part of casting and can
damage eyesight. Wear dark goggles—sunglasses are not sufficient.
Quench bucket – A plastic scrub bucket or joint compound container will do.
It’s useful to have two so you can trade off and allow one to settle out. The
sludge is easier to discard when it is dry.
Casting > Lost Wax > Equipment 
 Hard Wax

Tools
You can make carving tools from
discarded dental tools, steel wire,
bike spokes, coat hangers, or old
silverware. Handles can be made
from a dowel or a chopstick. You can
also use a pin vise.

This nonclogging wax bur is used in

a flexible shaft. You can buy these
or make your own by soldering
brass or nickel silver pieces to a nail.
To shape the tool, run it against
sandpaper.

Coarse files (also called soft metal

files), rasps, and utility knives are
used to shape wax models.

Use coarse paper towel or fabric to

remove scratches.

Use a spiral blade fitted in a

standard sawframe to cut off
sections of wax.

Accidental Forms Stippling

Create interesting effects by pouring Uneven carved surfaces can be
melted wax onto made more uniform by stippling
water. Variations with a scribe, needle tool, or
include pouring beading punch. If you do this a lot,
wax onto ice, it might be worthwhile to make a
steel, wood, and tool by soldering or gluing several
concrete. large needles together.

 Casting > Lost Wax > Hard Wax

Hard Wax

Ring Forms
Wax tubes are a good starting point for ring carving. You can buy these or
make them by drilling blocks with a large spade bit (3⁄4" = size ). Cut off the
width you need for your ring and enlarge the size from here by one of these
methods:
• Use a cylinder bur on a flex shaft.
• Wrap sandpaper around a dowel or
mandrel.
• Use a mandrel with a blade attached.
• Warm a steel mandrel and slide the wax
on, twisting slightly to prevent seizing. Stop just short of the desired size
and smooth the interior with Scotch-Brite.

Building a Starting Block

For some forms, you can save
yourself time, effort, and expense
by welding chunks of wax
together. As an example, this ring
could be carved from a single
block, but it would waste
a lot of wax (and effort).
Instead, hold two blocks in a flame until both
surfaces are gooey. Press the parts together with
a sliding/twisting motion to force out air bubbles,
and allow the wax to cool.

Scraps Watch Your Weight

Collect scrap pieces and keep them
separate from metal, sawdust, and
other debris. Put the scraps into a
cardboard box and heat them slowly
in an oven or kiln until they melt.
Allow the block to cool slowly, then
tear away the box.
Because wax is lightweight,
inexpensive, and handled in large
blocks, it is easy to make models too
large. Final weight can be calculated
by multiplying the weight of the
wax by the specific gravity of the
metal to be used. To reduce the
weight of a
model, carve
out the inside
with chisel
points or a flex
shaft bur.

Casting > Lost Wax > Hard Wax 

 Soft Wax

Working with Modeling Waxes

> Store wax sheets in a cool place, between pieces
of paper, to keep them from sticking together.

> Before bending sheet wax, soften it by dipping it

in warm water or breathing on it.

> Cut sheet wax with a utility blade. Because wax

is transparent, a design drawn on paper can be
traced.

> Soft wax can be folded, twisted, stamped, pinched,

pierced, built up, or pressed to receive a texture.

> All kinds of wax can be used together.

> A biology or clay needle makes a handy and

inexpensive tool.

> To add wax to an area, heat a needle, touch a wax

wire to it, and allow the wax to slide down the
needle and drop off the end.

> When heating a needle, hold it so the flame

touches it at mid-length. This will preserve the tip
and keep the needle warm for a longer time.

I exist as I am,
Composition
Soft wax is made of a combination
that is enough. of natural and synthetic waxes.
Color is added at the discretion
of the manufacturer—there is no
universal system. Because soft
Walt Whitman wax is sold in sheets and wire (like
metal), beginners sometimes make
objects that could more easily be
fabricated than cast. Try to take
advantage of the textures, joints,
and forms unique to wax.
Smoothing Techniques
To smooth the surface, some people
run the model quickly through a
flame. A less risky method is to
warm a needle and pass it just above
the surface. You might like the
convenience of a battery-powered
hotwire pen. These were developed
for medical use as surgical tools
but are available for about
 from casting
equipment
suppliers.

 Casting > Lost Wax > Soft Wax

Soft Wax

Impressions
> Soften sheet wax in warm water or warm air (for instancce, by breathing on
it), then press it onto a textured surface.
> Place wax against a template and roll both pieces through the mill. Use this
as a starting point for further work.
> Soften the wax, trap it between layers of plastic wrap and roll the bundle
into a typewriter (Remember those?).
> Bite down hard.
> Step on it.
> Brush melted wax onto existing forms or
into impressions in clay. Use earthen clay,
not plasticene, which melts when hot wax is
applied. Never melt wax directly on a burner
because it can ignite. Use a double boiler,
which can be as simple as a small can of wax
set in a
large can of water. Brush thin layers of
wax to build up the proper thickness
for the piece. Use a cheap brush and be
prepared to throw it away.

Establishing a Ring Size Electric Wax Pen

Wrap tape around a wooden dowel
or short piece of PVC pipe to make
the correct size. To allow the wax
pattern to slip off easier, lubricate
the tape with Vaseline or oil. Make
a simple stand to hold the mandrel
and you’ll have both hands free for
modeling.
These tools are preferred by profes-
sional wax workers because of their
consistent temperature and ease
of use. They can be bought from
jewelry supply companies or you
can make one. Attach a light dim-
mer switch to a plug and connect
an inexpensive soldering iron. These
come with several tips, and you can
easily make your own.

Casting > Lost Wax > Soft Wax 

 Organic Models

Organic Models
Many organic objects (such as leaves, twigs, flower petals, and insects) will
burn out completely when encased in an investment mold. This means they
can be cast directly, often with very clear detail. Burnout usually takes longer
for organic materials than for wax and higher temperatures may also be
needed. Experimentation is required.

Process
Seal porous
materials
such as paper,
cardboard, or
popcorn by
spraying, or
painting with
lacquer, wax, or thinned white glue. Spray delicate models like flower petals,
or insect wings with several coats of hair spray, fixative, or paint to thicken
them. Reinforce thin sections by adding wax on the back.

Plastic Models Styrofoam

Most plastics will burn out
completely, so found objects like
these can be cast in accurate detail.
Plastics can be modified by heating
them and they can be combined
with wax. Glue pieces together with
white glue or sticky wax.
Styrofoam can be used to make
models. Hold pieces directly in the
flame to shape them or carve the
Styrofoam with a heated needle. The
fumes of burning plastic are nasty
and should be ventilated.

Hold a piece of
dense insulation
foam over a small
flame for interest-
ing effects.

Copyright
Is this another one of those cases where I need to be concerned about
copyright infringement? You betcha. You probably won’t go to jail for casting
a gumball machine charm for your Mom, but you are not allowed to make
multiples of someone else’s design. You wouldn’t want someone else copying
your work, and fair is fair.

 Casting > Lost Wax > Organic Models


Avoid constricted, pinched-neck
sprues. These will spray the metal,
causing it to chill and harden
prematurely.
Models should be centered in the
flask and oriented parallel to the
walls for smooth, efficient flow of
metal.
Spruing
Sprues and Spruing
Sprues hold a model in its correct position while making the mold, provide a
passageway for the escape of melting wax, and allow entry for molten metal.
Arrange sprues to supply sufficient metal to each section of the model.
Plan the location of sprues to avoid flowbacks and sharp curves.
Attach sprues where they will cause the least damage to the model’s
surface texture and where they can be easily removed.
Avoid spruing work dead level. Sprues should not enter at º angles.
Sprue to the thickest section of the model. The sprue itself should be the
thickest mass of the whole assembly.
Spruing WRONG RIGHT
Metal is expected to go Separate sprues are
through small passages to provided for each mass.
fill several larger areas.
This arrangement puts all
The metal is expected to the model downstream
flow back on itself. from the point of entry.
The sprue is attached By attaching to the
to a thin section. This thickest section, porosity
will cool first and stop can be avoided.
further entrance of
metal into the mold.
Attaching the sprues to
The location of the sprue
the edge of this ring will
will damage the pattern.
protect the surface pattern.
Porosity
As metal cools, it contracts, so additional metal is needed to fill a space that
was previously filled by molten metal. If no extra material is supplied at the
instant of contraction, the metal will crystallize with voids as it tries to fill the
cavity. If the sprue and button are the last area to cool, porosity will occur here
and no damage is done to the piece. To achieve this, set the thinnest (first
cooling) area of the model furthest from the sprue base. Attach the sprue to
the thickest area and make the sprue thicker than any part of the model.
Casting > Lost Wax > Spruing 

Safety Note
Investment is a plaster-based
material that has been made
heat resistant with the addition
of silica cristobalite. This fine
dust can cause permanent
damage to lungs, so always
wear a certified respirator when
mixing investment.
Timing
Investments have – minutes of
working time. If your pace is too
slow, the investment will harden
before it can coat the model. If
you work too quickly and the
investment is poured into the flask
too soon, water in the mix is free to
come out of solution and will travel
along the model. This will result
in raised streaks on the finished
casting. To avoid these problems,
time yourself as you invest and
adjust your pace accordingly.
 Casting > Lost Wax > Investing
Investing
Concept
The clay molds used in ancient
times have been replaced by
investment, a plaster-like material
that has additives that allow it to
stand up to high temperatures. The
idea is still the same—to cover the
model with a material that is creamy
enough to pick up surface details,
and hard enough to survive the
stress of inrushing molten metal.
Investment
In the last two decades, scientists and manufacturers have made significant
developments that make modern investments tougher, more flexible, and
less likely to separate in transit. Also, today’s investments shrink less and
can withstand faster ramping speeds. Contact manufacturers for specfic
suggestions on which product will best suit your specific needs. Platinum
and palladium white gold require special investments because of their high
melting temperatures.
Hard-Core Method
This is a time-tested method that is an alternative to vacuum investing. While
this method is not quite as good at removing bubbles, it’s possible to get very
clean castings if you follow these steps carefully.
. Mix investment . Paint investment onto the model
and vibrate the with a fine brush. Spread the
bowl to remove mixture
bubbles. slowly
to avoid
trapping
bubbles,
especially
in crevices.
. Sprinkle investment powder . Set a flask over the model and
onto the coated model to absorb pour in the investment. Keep
moisture and weight off the model by pouring
hasten the it down the
setting of this side of the
shell or core. flask. Be
sure to hold
onto the
base while
pouring.

Tips
To speed up the setting time of
investments, use warm water. To
extend the time, use cold water.
If your tap water contains
minerals, use distilled water.
If your vacuum is weak, or if you
live at a high altitude, add a drop
or two of liquid detergent to
the mixing water. This acts as a
surfactant, which helps to break
up bubbles.
Cristobalite (SiO₂) is mined in
Cristobal, Mexico.
Investing
Vacuum Method
For consistently good results, most
professional casters use vacuum
chambers to draw air (i.e., bubbles)
from investment. When more than
a few castings are being made, the
cost of a system are offset by the
time saved in removing blemishes
that might otherwise be left from
porous investment.
Process
. Mix the investment thoroughly
with your hand or a spatula. The
mixed investment should look
like sour
cream.
. Leave the vacuum at maximum
(–" of mercury) for about one
minute. The investment will swell
and bubble. When it spits and the
jar condenses,
turn off the
vacuum.
. Set the flask back onto the vacuum
table and repeat the debubbling
process. If the investment is
starting to thicken
(looks like pudding),
omit the second
vacuum operation.
. Set the bowl on a vacuum table, wet
the rim of a bell jar, and set it over
the investment. Turn on the motor
and direct vacuum
to the table. Press
down on the bell
jar to guarantee
that suction is
achieved.
. Pour the creamy investment down
the side of the flask. This way the
weight of the investment won’t
knock the
model off
the base.
. Remember that the investment will
swell in the flask during the vacuum
process. Allow for this by leaving
room at the top of the
flask or by attaching a
collar of rubber, plastic,
paper, or masking tape.
Casting > Lost Wax > Investing 
 Calculating the Charge

Determining How Much

Metal to Use
Guess, pray, ask a wiser person.

Attach the sprued model to a

wire and push it into a container
of water. A graduated cylinder is
handy but not necessary. Note
the raised level. Remove the
model and add metal to bring
the water back up to the marked
level.

Multiply the weight of the model

by the specific gravity of the
metal being used. Add about
a third more to allow for the
button.
example:
wax with sprues x specific gravity = total needed

 dwt x . (for sterling) = . dwt or 1⁄2 oz

Specific Gravities Wetting the Surface

aluminum . To help investment coat a wax
brass (–) . model, brush on a wetting agent.
Nu-Gold (–) . You can buy this, or make your own
K yellow gold . by mixing  hydrogen peroxide
K yellow gold . and  liquid soap. In a pinch,
K yellow gold . paint the model with alcohol, using
iron . a lamp wick as a brush.
lead .
nickel silver .
platinum .
fine silver .
sterling .

Plastics
The specific gravities of common
plastics range from . to .. To
calculate the metal needed for
a plastic model, add  to the
specific gravities listed, then
multiply as before.

 Casting > Lost Wax > Calculating the Charge


Ventilation
Wax fumes are not good for your
body. Plastics are worse. Keep
the kiln in a large room, near a
window, and in a cross draft. An
exhaust fan is recommended.
Tongs
Handle hot flasks with large tongs or
(for small flasks only) with household
jar lifters sold for canning.
Burnout
Burnout Goals
Burnout is usually done in a small The purpose of burnout is to:
electric kiln, though gas kilns can . Harden the mold.
also be used. Burnout is best done . Eliminate wax or other model
within  hours of investing. If material.
casting must wait, remoisten the . Heat the mold for compatibility
flask by soaking it in water for a few with the molten casting metal.
seconds before burnout. Recent de-
velopments in investment technol- Temperatures (approximate)
ogy have created a product that will ºF ºC
tolerate faster temperature changes   wax melts and drips out
than were possible a few years ago.   wax ignites
The progression and pace of burn-   woody materials ignite
out will vary depending on the size   plastics vaporize
  wax residues vaporize
and number of flasks in the kiln,   gypsum binder in invest-
the temperature of the kiln, and ment breaks down,
the preferences of the caster. As a releasing sulfur that will
rule of thumb, allow two and a half cause oxidation. Do not
hours for a typical burnout. go to this temperature.
Steaming the Flasks
The volume of fumes can be significantly reduced by melting out the wax at
temperatures around º F (º C). Set a shallow vessel such as a cake pan
on an electric hot plate and add about half an inch of water. Set a grille or
mesh on the pan and set the flasks, upside down
on the grille. Trap the steam by setting a large
bowl over the whole thing. Bring the water to a
boil then reduce the heat to simmer. Add water as
the level gets low. The wax will melt out and drop
into the water where it can be thrown away easily.
Especially with soft wax, it’s possible to evacuate
as much as  of the wax—this makes burnout
shorter and less smelly. Wax caught in this way cannot be used again.
Because this process saturates the flask with moisture, it is important
to dry the flasks in a warm kiln (around ° F, ° C) for two hours before
heating them to ° F (necessary to remove wax residue).
Kiln Position
Place flasks in a kiln with the sprue holes facing down. Prop them to allow
the wax to drip out.
lump of investment pieces of pumice steel mesh
Casting > Lost Wax > Burnout 
 Centrifugal Casting

Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force has been used
for centuries to develop quick and
reliable force in a small space. From
medical labs to yo-yo tournaments,
centrifugal force turns up all over
the place. In a casting studio,
this usually takes the form of a
commercially manufactured device,
though variations are possible.

Machine Supports Process

Casting machines must be solidly
mounted and surrounded by a
splash screen. Screw a washtub
to a workbench, or fill a garbage
can two-thirds full
of rocks. Position
bolts into a piece of
wood to insure their
proper location, then
set this on the rocks
and add cement. This
arrangement is stable, safe, and can
be moved around the shop. Another
alternative is to build a table to
contain the casting machine, which
saves valuable countertop space.
Casting machines differ slightly, but the process will be pretty close to the
one described here.
. Before burnout, test the machine
to ensure that the flask and
crucible fit, and that everything is
in working order.
. Put the charge of metal into the
crucible. A tidy way to achieve this
is to wrap the bits of metal in a
tissue. Place the hot flask in the
cradle of the casting machine.
. When burnout is complete, wind
the machine, typically three
rotations. Be sure your feet are well
planted and that you understand
the locking mechanism before you
begin. When complete, lock the
arm in
place.
. Heat the metal until it is molten,
adding flux a couple of times in the
process. Direct the torch flame onto
the lip of the crucible to prevent a
cooling effect as the metal passes
over this area.

. When the metal draws up into a smooth oval blob, plant your feet firmly and
grasp the arm of the casting machine (not a weight or attachment, but the
arm itself). Pull back slightly so the holding mechanism is released. Count
to three, then simultaneously
release the arm and lift the
torch a few inches. Though
dramatic action ensues, resist
the urge to scream and jump
away. It makes people nervous.

 Casting > Casting Methods > Centrifugal Casting


After burnout, set the hot flask
in place on a silicone rubber pad
and turn on the vacuum pump
to check the seal. If the pressure
gauge does not go into the s,
press down on the flask with
tongs. Melt metal in a pouring
crucible, add flux and pour into the
mouth of the flask with a smooth
even flow—imagine that it’s honey.
Cool and quench the flask.
Vacuum Casting
Vacuum Casting
Unlike centrifugal casting, which
pushes metal into a mold cavity,
this process pulls metal into the
mold, much the same way a vacuum
cleaner pulls dust bunnies to their
doom. The process is especially
preferred for large-scale operations,
where there is potential hazard and
loss in spinning heavy charges of
molten metal.
Equipment
You’ll need a vacuum pump that can produce a
vacuum equal to –" of mercury for vacuum-
assisted casting. Conveniently, this same pump
can be used to draw bubbles from investment
in the earlier moldmaking step. Jewelry supply
companies carry several models that are set up
to perform both tasks.
A pouring crucible. This can be as simple as a shallow ceramic
dish attached to a long handle, or as sophisticated as an electric
induction furnace. These units come in two varieties, both
of which use household electric current to melt metal in a
graphite crucible the size of a drinking glass. In one style, the
crucible lifts out, while in the other you lift the entire unit.
A silcone rubber pad. Though it looks like ordinary rubber, this
material can withstand high temperatures.
Because it is flexible, it will make a seal against
the inevitably irregular edge of the flask.
Process
. During the investing step, make sure there are air passages to facilitate
even distribution of the vacuum. This can be done by leaving a 1⁄4" recess at
the top of the flask, or by inserting drinking straws or wax rods along the
edge.
. Burnout as usual.
. Melt the metal in a crucible, adding flux once or twice.
. Set the hot flask, opening upward, on the silcone rubber pad.
. Turn on the vacuum pump and watch the gauge to be sure you are getting
suction. It is sometimes necessary to press down on the flask with tongs to
make a seal.
. Pour molten metal into the mouth of the sprue.
. After  seconds you can turn off the vacuum.
Casting > Casting Methods > Vacuum Casting 

Melting
Care in melting is important in
every kind of casting.
Use a flame that is hot enough
to be efficient but not so hot it
will burn the metal.
Use a fuel-rich reducing flame.
This is a bushy or feathery flame.
It should not make a hissing
sound.
When the metal is red and again
when it is molten, sprinkle on
borax, boric acid, powdered
charcoal, or a commercial flux.
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 Casting >Casting Methods > Steam Casting
Steam Casting
Steam Casting
This ingenious process uses the
heat of the molten metal to create
steam pressure that forces metal
into a mold cavity. It requires very
simple equipment and can yield
consistently fine results.
Surface Tension
The ingenious element of steam casting and sling casting is the way both
methods remove the need for a crucible. Instead, metal is melted directly
in the mouth of the sprue (a.k.a. the gate). Remember from school science
when you saw water drip through a cloth, while honey wouldn’t pass through
the same cloth? The reason is the surface tension of the liquid, and this
applies to molten metal too. For both these techniques, the trick is to make
the sprues small enough that the surface tension of the metal prevents it
from going in. This will be  gauge round wire, or strips that are no thicker
than  gauge (. mm) and no broader than 1⁄4" (. mm).
Process
. If the sprue base did not form a large enough
reservoir for melting, carve a funnel shape in the
top of the invested flask. Use a knife and work
over a wastebasket.
. After standard burnout, remove the hot flask and
set it on a heatproof surface (e.g., a brick) on a
sturdy table, preferrably no more than waist high.
. Melt the metal in the mouth of the flask with a
torch. Flux as usual.
. When the metal is molten, withdraw the torch as
you simultaneously clap the steam handle firmly
onto the flask. Hold it in this position until the
metal solidifies.
. Allow the button to lose all redness, then quench
in water. Avoid breathing the silica-laden steam.
Steam Casting Handle
Attach a jar lid to a comfortable handle. This
can be a length of dowel, a file handle, a
section of a tree branch or piece of wood. Use
a screw for strength, and epoxy to prevent
it from rotating. Line this with at least 1⁄4" of
newspaper or paper towels. Keep the tool in
a bucket of water as you prepare the casting.
When you’re ready, lift the handle and allow
excess water to drip off. The paper should be
completely saturated but not dripping.

(Sprue) Size Matters
Because this technique calls for
the metal to be melted in the
mouth of the flask, the sprues must
be small enough for the surface
tension of the metal to prevent
it from dripping into the mold
cavity prematurely. For silver, gold,
and brass, sprue with  gauge or
smaller wax sheet or wire. If the
model is large or thick and therefore
requires a lot of metal, compensate
by using many sprues. The carving
of the model, location of sprues,
and mixing of investment follow
the same basic method described
elsewhere.
Alternate Sprue Base
This technique works well for unusual
flasks, such as a coffee can bent into an
oval to accommodate a specific piece.
In a case like this, make a sprue base by
pressing clay onto a piece of Masonite or
an old tile. Shape
a mound that
will become the
melting area, and
press the can into
the clay to make
it watertight.
Sling Casting
Sling Casting
In this technique, molten metal is
forced into the mold cavity with
centrifugal force generated by
hand. The prepared flask is set into
the casting handle and swung in a
large arc. It involves just enough
risk to keep the process exciting.
Though perfectly safe, this is not
recommended for low-ceilinged
studios or for the timid.
Process
. Make a sling with a linkage about a foot
long. For small flasks, the pan can be a jar
lid. For a larger sling, fabricate a ring and
base from copper, brass, or steel sheet.
. Prepare the model with  gauge sprues. If
the sprue base did not form a large enough
reservoir for melting, carve a funnel shape
in the top of the invested flask. Use a knife
and work over a wastebasket.
. After burnout, set the hot flask into the
basket of the sling as it rests on a fireproof
surface. Melt the metal to be cast in the
funnel at the top of the flask. Flux as usual.
. When the metal is molten, pull the torch
away and swing the flask in large even
arcs. A steady motion is more important
than a fast or mighty swing. Start with
a pendulum-like back and forth motion,
then arc into four or five full rotations.
Giddy-up!
Sling Handle
Make your own sling handle
from a jar lid, welding rod, and
a file handle. Note how the
screw and washers at the end
of the handle alow the links
to rotate freely. It’s possible to
use steel chain instead of rigid
links, but the device is a bit
harder to control.
Casting > Casting Methods > Sling Casting 
 Implants & Stones

Implants
In most cases, castings are made and
completed, and only then are other
elements or gemstones added.
Usually… but not always.

Providing a Grip
When a model is made and pieces are set into it, they are held in place
by wax. Keep in mind that during burnout the wax will be removed. If
precautions are not taken, the small pieces may become loose and drop into
the mold cavity, ruining the casting. Investment has an adhesive quality and
will probably grip small pieces as long as sufficient surface area is available.
A slightly rough surface will hold better than a
smooth one. Each situation will require its own
solution. In some cases a design may be modified
to provide a “finger” of investment to grip the
implanted piece on each side and hold it in place.
Sometimes an extension can be soldered to a small
piece to lock it in position. This can later be sawn
off the finished casting.

Bezels Casting Stones in Place

Unless you have a delicate touch, it
can be difficult to accurately shape
bezels in wax. A neater job is likely
to result when a bezel is made of
thin metal strip. To make a subtle
transition between the bezel and
the work, set
the metal bezel
into the wax
and model the
area around
the bezel. Any
metals with a
melting point
above burnout
temperature (º F, º C) are
safe to use in this way.
Sometimes molten metal will
fuse solidly onto the bezel but
usually the oxides accumulated in
the flask during burnout prevent
a strong bond. Solder the bezel in
place immediately after pickling the
casting, before the perfect fit has a
chance to be distorted.
Some stones can withstand burnout
temperatures and the thermal shock
of inrushing molten metal so they
can be cast in place. This process
especially lends itself to irregular
gems and crystals that might be
difficult to set otherwise. Implanted
stones are handled as above except
that after casting the flask should be
air-cooled rather than quenched.
Remember that impurities may
cause even a heat-tolerant stone
to crack. Even though diamonds
can withstand high temperatures
for a short time (such as during
soldering) they will burn up at
prolonged heat. Better not risk
it. Gem materials that are likely
(but not guaranteed) to withstand
casting in place are:
> sapphire
> ruby
> tourmaline
> laboratory-grown gems

 Casting > Casting > Implants & Stones

 Double Metal Casting

Double Metal Casting

It’s possible to embed metal
components in a mold so that when
a casting is made, the two parts will
be joined together. The effect is
especially effective with metals of
contrasting colors.

Mechanical Connection Inlay

Wherever possible, arrange for a
mechanical grip between the parts.
Provide a way that the metal being
cast wraps around, penetrates, or in
some other physical way clutches
onto the embedded piece. Examples
of this would include hooks and
pegs soldered onto the back,
beveled edges, holes, and loops.
To inlay, saw the pieces out, and file
beveled edges to lock them in place.
Drip soft wax over the edges and
push it like putty over the piece. As
described above, provide a grip to
hold the piece into the mold during
burnout.

Internal Support Process

When a large piece of metal is
being used, its weight can cause the
sprue to bend over. Use a secondary
support to hold the model during
investing. Because this connects
outside the funnel area of the flask,
no metal will enter this cavity even
though it has burned out.
Making the Elements
Create parts by sawing, filing,
carving, or using any traditional
jewelrymaking techniques. If parts
are soldered together, use hard or
IT solder.
Cast and silver clay pieces can
also be used. Make the work in
the usual way, completing them
through the finishing stage. In the
case of castings, you might be able
to locate sprues so that they can be
left as pins. Either build in hooks or
solder them on after forming.
. Make one of the components first, either the
larger unit or the embellishment. It doesn’t matter
what metals are being used because the flask
temperature will never be above melting point of
silver, sterling, gold, copper, nickel silver, or brass.
Complete this through the fine sandpaper stage.
. If you are working in hard wax, warm a surface until
it is gooey, then press this firmly against the metal
unit. For soft wax, it might be best to construct the
form, then press it against the metal. Strategies will
vary from piece to piece.
. Model the wax to create the final form.
. Add sprues, more or less as usual. The location, size
and angles are the same as usual… what makes the
process unusual is the need to work around the
metal parts.
. Sprue, invest, and cast as usual. It’s sometimes
necessary to support the metal unit with additional,
non-supplying sprues.
Casting > Special Effects > Double Metal Casting 
 Cured Molds

Reusable Molds
In lost wax casting the investment
mold must be destroyed to retrieve
the finished casting. To make
multiples, a supplementary step is
needed to produce multiple wax
models. These are made by injecting
molten wax into a rubber mold that
will flex sufficiently to allow the
model to be removed.

Putty Alginate
A relatively new Alginate is a short-life mold material
product is a two- that might be familiar to people
part silicone-based who were fitted for braces. It is
material with the a water-soluble material made
consistency of Silly (delightfully enough) from seaweed.
Putty. The two component parts Mix with water to the consistency
are of different colors, so blending of mashed potatoes and press it
is foolproof. Pull onto the shape or texture you are
off equal parts duplicating. The mold will set up
and knead them relatively quickly (– minutes)
together until the and can be used right away. Alginate
color is uniform. molds will dry and contract within
Depending on the brand, the setup  hours. To extend the life, keep
time will be from  to  minutes. the mold in a dish of water for a day
Press the putty over an object, or or two.
texture and allow it to sit until a
fingernail poked into the rubber
fails to leave a mark.

Room Temperature Vulcanzing (RTV)

This relatively new development in moldmaking uses a two-part compound
that cures chemically without special equipment.
These molds are not quite as durable as vulcanized
rubber and can lose detail because of bubbles, but they
are simple and almost foolproof.
Mold frames can be bought or made, using a strip
of aluminum and glass or plastic sheet. A suitable
aluminum molding is available at most hardware
stores. To avoid wasting the mold compound, have
several sizes of frames on hand. When the model is in
position, hold the sheets in place with rubber bands.
The model and sprue can be of any nonporous (or sealed) material. Mix the
compound thoroughly according to the proportions given on the can. Allow
the mold to cure (usually  hours), and cut it open to remove the model.
See the section on cutting the mold for more details.

 Casting > Moldmaking > Cured Molds

 Vulcanized Molds

Vulcanized Molds
The state of the art for reliable, long-life molds consists of slabs of raw rubber
that are cured in a device called a vulcanizer. Because of the temperatures and
pressures involved, a model used in this process must be of a hard material.
Metal is usually used but wood or a hard plastic such as nylon or Delrin will
work. Wax models cannot be used in a vulcanizer.
. Cut pieces of rubber to a size that will fit snugly into an aluminum mold
frame. Leave the protective plastic film on the pieces until all the parts are
Vulcanizer ready. Use enough pieces so the mold is slightly overfilled.
This machine will maintain . Lay half the sheets into the mold form, removing
the temperature, typically ° the protective sheets as you go. Lay the model and
F (° C) and firm pressure four small locator pins into place.
needed to cure the rubber.
. Dust the surface lightly with talc, cornstarch, or a
commercial pounce.
. Lay the rest of the rubber slabs onto the stack,
again removing the protective sheets only as each
sheet is laid in place. The rubber must be very
clean to bond well.
. Capture the stack between thick aluminum plates
and set it into the vulcanizer.
. Turn on the heating element and screw the top
plate down to a firm but not hard contact. Curing
takes about  minutes per 1⁄4" of mold, or about an
hour and a half for an average piece.
. When the plate becomes too hot to touch (–
minutes depending on the machine), turn the screw
a little more, though still not as if you’re trying out
Mold Cutting for the Olympics.
Use a scalpel to slice into the mold. . After  minutes, turn the screw again, continuing
This is easier if the mold is peeled to increase pressure every  minutes until a small
apart as you work. To make a third rubber thread squirts out a hole in the mold frame.
hand, attach a . Turn off the heating element and allow the mold to
bottle opener or cool to room temperature while still under pressure.
similar hook to
the benchtop, or Two-Part Molds
grasp it in a vise.
One method is to bury the object in the mold and slice it open as in
traditional rubber molds. Alternately, press the model up to its parting line
in clay. Add a few craters around the model to help
Registration with registration. Add sprues and a funnel at this
As you cut the molds, leave irregular point or carve them later. Mix up an appropriate
notches that will force the two quantity of mold putty and press it over the model.
sides to align. Without being too brutal, make certain you’ve
Alternately, avoided making voids or pockets. Allow the mold to cure.
place three or Peel off the clay and repeat the process to make the other
four metal tabs half of the mold. No parting compound is needed to keep the
on one side. parts from sticking together. When the second piece has cured,
remove the model, align the mold halves, and inject wax.

Casting > Moldmaking > Vulcanized Molds 

 Molds & Hollow Castings

Plaster Mold
This traditional method has been used by sculptors for
centuries. Though it is not commonly used for jewelry
scale work, there is no reason why the method cannot be
used to advantage on a smaller scale.

. Make a model in clay, plasticene, or wax. This base is

made of wood and wire.
. Make a wall by pushing thin brass or aluminum shims
into the model. This will be the parting line, so avoid
undercuts as you determine its location.
. Drip plaster or investment onto the model, trying not
to trap air bubbles. Build up several layers, ending with
cloth strips pressed into the plaster.
. When the plaster is thoroughly dry, pry the mold pieces
apart and remove the clay or wax.
Using Cores
A core is a lump of mold material . After lubricating the mold with liquid soap, paint
(investment) that is anchored melted wax into it. The thickness of the wax will be the
within the mold where it creates thickness of the metal when you’re done.
a cavity or hollow in the finished . When the wax is hard, pull it out, and make repairs if
casting. needed. Add sprues, join the halves with a hot needle,
. With coarse files and/or knives, and work the seam to make it blend in. When investing,
carve a block of hardened start by filling the interior to make sure no air pockets
investment to the shape of the become trapped there. Burnout and cast as usual.
desired interior. This will be
smaller than the
final casting. Rubber Mold Method
. Cover this core
This technique is recommended for models with
with wax, either
intricate textures or many small undercuts. It will also
by painting on hot
work for a hard model, (such as shell or metal) where
wax or by dipping
shims can’t be attached.
the core into
melted wax to build up successive
. Attach the model to a stand or handle. Dust it lightly
layers.
with talcum powder or cornstarch.
. File and model the wax.
. Coat the model with an RTV or latex rubber mold Plug holes
. To anchor the core once the wax
compound by dipping the model repeatedly or by with wax
has burned out, drill holes into
brushing the compound on.
the core, and insert wires of the
. When the rubber has set, cover it with a layer of
metal to be cast.
plaster to add support. When this has cured, cut
These pins, called
through it with a sharp blade, pull the mold pieces
chaplets, can be
apart, and remove the model.
snipped off and
. Paint wax into mold halves—casting can be done
filed flush after
before or after the parts are joined together,
casting.
depending on the shapes involved.

 Casting > Moldmaking > Molds & Hollow Castings


Release Agents
Apply a very light coat after every
second or third injection.
> commercial silicone spray
> talc
> cornstarch
> cooking oil (PAM etc.)
Wax Injecting
Wax Injecting
Wax is viscous so it requires some
force other than gravity to coax it
into a rubber mold. Years ago this
was done with centrifugal force, but
now most jewelers use air pressure
to squirt molten wax forcefully into
a rubber mold.
Mold Release Mold Holding
Some wax patterns pop out of Even a properly made mold can yield
rubber molds easily but others seem poor results if it is held incorrectly
welded into place. Contributing during injection. If it is held too
factors: loosely, the parting line will be
pronounced; if too tightly, the mold
Type of wax: Some contain release
can be pinched in the center. To
agents.
distribute pressure, hold the mold
Injection temperature: Too hot
between two pieces of Plexiglas,
promotes sticking.
Masonite, aluminum, or thin
Purity: If the wax is reused too
plywood. To make this into a one-
much it is more likely to stick.
handed operation, use welding rod or
Shape of mold: Delicate complex
similar material to make tongs.
forms tend to grab the wax.
Surface of the mold interior:
Textures with microscopic
undercuts will clutch at the wax.
Air Pressure
A more sophisticated and safer injection machine uses air pressure to squirt
molten wax on demand. As in the unit above, a thick-walled steel vessel
contains an electric heating coil to melt the wax and keep it at a desired
temperature.
. Check the volume of wax in the pot and add more if necessary to ensure
that the container is at least half full.
. Turn on the heating element and allow sufficient time to insure that the
wax is uniformly melted— to  minutes is typical.
. Check the rim and lid to be sure there are no bits of debris that will disturb
the seal, then clamp the lid tightly onto the pot.
. Attach the hose from an air compressor (or use a hand
pump or canned air, depending on the model). The idea
is to fill the space between the wax and the lid with
pressurized air.
. Lubricate a mold with a thin layer of silicone spray
or talc and hold it between two flat plates. Press
firmly against the nozzle for a few seconds to fill the
mold. Experiment to determine the correct pressure,
temperature, and pace.
Casting > Moldmaking > Wax Injecting 
 Problem Solving

Problem The casting is covered with warts.

Reason There were air bubbles in the investment. Unfortu-
nately, these voids often lodge in details, where they
are difficult to cut away.
Solution Make the investment thicker next time, and extend
the vacuum time. For now, cut away the beads with
snips, a graver, or grind with a flex shaft bur.

Problem Incomplete casting. Ouch!

Reason If there is a large button, this means that the metal
wasn’t fully melted and didn’t get into the mold. If
only the top portion of the casting fills, this might
mean there simply wasn’t enough metal. If the edges
of the partial casting are round, it probably means the
metal encountered air trapped in the mold cavity. This
indicates that the mold wasn’t made hot enough to va-
porize wax residue. If the edges are sharp this indicates
that improper spruing prevented the metal from being
distributed throughout the mold.
Solution Learn from the mistake by thinking through exactly
what happened until you understand the logic of the
problem. Do better next time.

Problem Porosity.
Reason This area of the piece cooled a split second after the
thinner adjacent areas. As the metal cools it pulls itself
into a more compact structure, creating microscopic
spaces. Because there was no additional metal coming
into this region, the spaces were not filled.
Solution Sprue to the thickest part of the piece and make the
sprue thicker than the area to which it attaches. Read
more about this on page .

Problem When I quench the mold, not much happens. It’s tak-
ing me a long time to scrape the hard investment off
the casting.
Reason You are waiting too long between completing the cast-
ing and quenching. Usually about a minute is enough.
Solution This is not a problem, except for the increased chore
of removing investment. You can heat the casting with
a torch and quench it in water, but be careful not to
breathe the silica-laden vapors.

 Casting > Problem Solving

Chapter 

Stones &
Stonesetting
 Gem Information

Introduction
Lapidary, the art of working with gemstones, is a complex field of study all by
itself, and few metalsmiths can give it as much time as they would like. The
following pages make an attempt to provide some working knowledge for
those who deal with stones as a complementary aspect of their craft. It is not
complete, but will lay a foundation for further investigation.
There are over  minerals in the earth’s crust, and as you might
imagine, the information defies easy organization. Color and hardness, for
instance, don’t always work since a stone may occur in several shades and
kinds of crystals. Chemical and mineralogical divisions similarly confuse
rather than clarify the matter. This chapter contains an alphabetical list of
fifty popular stones with some information, history, or tips for each one.
Where possible, I have included folklore, including, in some cases, the
magical qualities ascribed to specific stones. No guarantees are offered, but
who knows…

Birthstones
Today the commercial jewelry industry has effectively blunted any charm
or seriousness concerning the relationship between earth materials and the
season of one’s birth. There was a time, however, when such relationships
played an important part in daily life.
The list below is borrowed from The Curious Lore of Precious Stones by
George Frederick Kunz (Dover ), a book that is recommended for further
investigation.

Birthstones Wedding Anniversary Tokens

January Garnet, sapphire  rose beryl, paper
February Amethyst, sapphire,  crystal, cotton
pearl  chrysoprase, leather
March Bloodstone, jasper  moonstone, silk
April Diamond, sapphire  carnelian, wood
 peridot, sugar
May Agate, emerald,
 coral, wool
chalcedony, carnelian
 opal, clay
June Emerald, agate, pearl,  citrine, willow
chalcedony, turquoise  turquoise, tin
Speak to the earth and July Ruby, carnelian, onyx,  garnet
sardonyx, turquoise  amethyst, linen
let it teach you. August Carnelian,moonstone,  agate
topaz, alexandrite  ivory, lace
September Sapphire, lapis lazuli,  topaz
coral  silver
Job  :  October Opal, aquamarine,  pearl
beryl  jade
November Topaz, pearl  ruby
December Turquoise, ruby,  sapphire
bloodstone  golden
 emerald
 diamond

 Stones > Gem Information

 Gem Information

Gem Cutting
Brilliant Cut Gems are cut by first using a
table diamond saw to slice a slab from
crown the rough lump of stone. The
girdle general shape is made by cutting off
corners; then abrasive wheels are
pavillion used to create the desired shape.
culet Wheels of progressively finer grit are
used, ending in a buffing operation.
To evaluate the quality of a cutting
upper girdle job, look for a regular symmetry on
facet
a faceted stone and a smooth and
Examples of poor cutting.
even curvature on a cab.
star facet
Gem Evaluation
> Color In many cases, such as agates, color is entirely a matter of
taste. In others, such as emerald, a deep color is a major
factor in value.
> Cut The planes or curves should be symmetrical, well polished,
and arranged to compliment the material.
standard > Hardness A gem that will not retain its polish is of limited value to
cabochon (cab) jewelers. In setting, it is important to know the hardness of
the material being used. Soft stones should be set in a way
that will protect them.
high cab (bullet) > Light Cat’s-eye and iridescence are examples of this.
> Luster Brightness of the shine—some stones have a lesser value
because they will not polish.
double cab (lentil) > Inclusions Some stones, such as rutilated quartz or moss agate, are
valued for their inclusions. In other stones, such as amethyst,
inclusions lower the value.
buff top
Mohs Scale of Hardness
Each material will scratch those with a lower number and will be scratched by
those with a higher number. The steps along the scale are not regular. For example,
rose cut # and # are close in hardness while #, diamond, is  times harder than #.
 talc Miscellaneous Hardnesses
marquise
 gypsum . fingernail, fine gold,
 calcite fine silver, lead
 fluorite  copper
baguette  apatite
 sterling
 orthoclase
. window glass
 quartz
tapered baguette  topaz . knife blade, file
 corundum  silicon carbide sandpaper
 diamond
octagon (emerald cut)

Stones > Gem Information 

 Gem Summary Chart

The Big Fifty Name Colors Cuts Hardness O/T Heat Sens.? Notes
Fifty popular gem materials agate many cab 7 o yes often banded
are briefly described in the alexandrite purple-blue facet 8-9 t changes color
following pages. They are amber yellow cab 2 both very organic
amethyst purple fac/cab 7 t yes
summarized below with
ametrine purple/yellow facet 7 t bi-color
particular thought to their
ammonite mixed browns cab 7 o yes fossilized shells
use in jewelry. In some
aquamarine light blue fac/cab 8 t very
cases these materials exhibit aventurine green-brown cab 7 o yes sparkles
wide differences from one carnelian red cab 7 o yes
specimen to another. chalcedony blue cab 7 o yes
chrome diopside green facet 51⁄2-6
chrysoberyl many cab 8 both
chrysocolla blue-green cab 6 o yes
chrysoprase light green cab 6 o yes
citrine yellow fac/cab 7 t yes
coral red, pink, black cab 3 o very organic
corundum many facet 9 t
cubic zirconia many facet 9 t recent synthetic
diamond clear facet 10 t
emerald green fac/cab 8 both yes cleaves easily
garnet many fac/cab 7 t yes
hematite black cab 6 o
iolite blue facet 7-71⁄2 t pleochroic
ivory white cab 2 o very organic
jade many cab 6 o yes greasy luster
jasper red-green cab 7 o
jet black cab 4 o very organic
labradorite blue-black cab 6 o very iridescent
lapis lazuli deep blue cab 6 o yes
malachite green cab 31⁄2-4 o very often banded
moissanite clear or green facet 91⁄2 t no 2nd hardest
moonstone many cab 6 t yes adularescent
onyx many cab 7 o yes
opal mixed cab 6 t very interior colors
pearl many natural 3 o very
peridot green fac/cab 7 t yes
quartz many fac/cab 7 both
rhodochrosite banded pink cab 4 t yes
ruby red fac/cab 9 both star or cat’s-eye
sapphire many fac/cab 9 both star or cat’s-eye
sardonyx brown cab 7 o yes
serpentine green cab 2-6 o dust has asbestos
sodalite blue cab 6 o
spinel many facet 8 t
tanzanite blue facet 61⁄2-7 t pleochroic
tiger’s-eye blue-brown cab 7 o yes silky interior
topaz yellow fac/cab 8 t yes cleaves easily
tourmaline green-pink fac/cab 7 t yes dichroic
turquoise blue cab 6 yes
zircon many facet 7 t cleaves easily

 Stones > Gem Summary Chart

Gem Information

AGATE (Ag it) Hardness: 

> A type of chalcedony; a cryptocrystalline quartz. This means the crystals are so
tiny they do not show up under normal magnification.
> The name comes from an ancient, now untraceable Sicilian river, Achates.
Red Protection from spiders and scorpions.
Green Relief from eye trouble.
Green with stripes A woman who drinks water in which such a ring has been
washed will never be sterile.
Gray Worn on the neck to prevent a stiff neck.
Moss agate Also called dendritic (Greek, dendron, “tree”); worn by a
farmer on the upper arm to insure a good harvest; placed on
right horn of oxen to protect them.

ALEXANDRITE (al x ZAN drite) Hardness: 1⁄2

> This natural stone is a type of chrysoberyl that shows a range of transparent
colors, from blue in daylight to reddish-yellow in artificial light.
> A synthetic stone, more widely available, is actually a treated corundum, H.
> The stone was named for Czar Alexander II who, according to legend, came of
legal age on the day the stone was discovered.

AMBER (AM bur) Hardness: –1⁄2

> This is not a stone but the naturally hardened resin of the amber pine, Pinus
succinifera.
> Transparent amber is – million years old. Opaque amber, called copal, is
 million years old (give or take an eon).
> The name comes from the Arabic anbar. The Greeks called it elektrum from the
Phoenician word for sun/golden. Because amber will hold a charge, this gave us
our word electric. Rub it on a sweater and it will hold enough static electricity to
lift hair or bits of paper.
> Amber will dissolve in acetone or nail polish remover. It will be quickly worn
down by mechanical buffing with compounds like tripoli.
> Some amber contains thousands of tiny air bubbles. This is called bone amber
and can be cleared by heating in mineral oil.
> Amber is easy to fake. To test a sample:
• brush it with methyl alcohol or ethyl acetate. Nonfossil resins (a.k.a.
plastics) will dissolve.
• Set a sample into brine: real amber will float but artificial amber will sink.
• Touch a sample with a hot needle. The smoke created will smell either like a
pine woods or a plastics factory.

Magical Uses
Amber dust mixed with honey or water was used to treat ears, eyes, stomach,
liver, and kidneys.
The smell of burning amber helps a woman in labor.
Holding an amber ball will keep you cool on a hot day. It was used to treat
fever victims.
Amber beads mitigate the effects of rheumatism, toothache, rickets, jaundice,
and goiters.
Stones > Gem Information 

Selected gem photos
courtesy of Rio Grande.
 Stones > Gem Information
Gem Information
AMETHYST (AM e thist) Hardness: 
> Amethyst is a form of quartz. The top grade is a deep purple and has no flaws or
inclusions.
> When heated to around ° F (° C) amethysts turn dark yellow or reddish-
brown and are called citrines. Because they are more richly colored than natural
citrines, they are more expensive.
> From the Greek for “preventing drunkenness,” the gem was believed to protect
from the effects of wine, especially if held under the tongue while drinking.
> The color can fade if the stone is left in strong sunlight for a long time.
> Tibetan monks believe the stone is sacred to Buddha and wear beads made from it.
AMETRINE (AM e treen) Hardness: 
> Unique bi-color quartz crystals of amethyst and citrine that grow together.
> These stones come from the Anahí Mine in Bolivia.
> Citrine is associated with the third chakra (self esteem) while amethyst is
connected to intuition and introspection. It follows that the stone signifies the
transition between corporeal and spiritual attributes.
AMMONITE (AM o nyt) Hardness: 
> An ammonite is a cephalopod (phylum Mollusca) that once swam in shallow
marine seas and became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period about 
million years ago (along with the dinosaurs). The closest living relative to the
ammonite is the chambered nautilus.
> Over the years, the bodies of these creatures that were buried under layers
of earth decomposed to create a void. These spaces were filled with minerals,
primarily quartz, to create the fossils we find today. These are split in two and
polished to reveal the spiral form, often glittering with crystals.
AQUAMARINE (AUKWA mareen) Hardness: 1⁄2–
> The name comes from the Latin beryllus aquamarinus, “beryl resembling
seawater.”
> It is traditionally a sailor’s talisman.
> This gem increased in popularity around  when heat treatment was
developed to turn pale blue-green stones into deeper blue shades.
AVENTURINE (a VENT chu reen) Hardness: 
> A fine-grained quartz with many flake inclusions, occurring in several colors,
mainly green, brown and gray.
> The characteristic sparkle of this stone is called aventurescence.
CARNELIAN (kar NEEL yan) Hardness: 1⁄2–
> The color of this red chalcedony is due to the presence of iron.
> The opaque variety is called sard. When it occurs in brown and white layers it is
called sardonyx.
> Carnelian was said to stop nosebleeds and to prevent blood rising to the head.
> It is a strong protection from the evil eye.
Gem Information

CHALCEDONY (kal SED nee) Hardness: 1⁄2–

> A cryptocrystalline quartz—that is, quartz with very tiny crystals. Carnelian,
onyx, agates and chrysoprase are all forms of chalcedony.
> In the world of jewelry, the word refers to a light blue, translucent stone. These
stones may be made by dyeing agates but the naturally occurring variety is
more desirable.

CHROME DIOPSIDE (krom dy OP syd) Hardness: 1⁄2–

> These translucent gems have a vivid green color.
> The primary source is Siberia, Russia.
> Though mined for decades, it is only recently that the gem is receiving
widespread attention.
> Chrome dioside is found mostly in small stones, which is okay since larger
stones appear dark owing to the richness of the color.
> Similar to tsavorite garnet, which is also a deep green color.

CHRYSOBERYL (KRIS o burl) Hardness: 1⁄2

> This stone occurs in both a transparent and a cloudy variety and can be yellow,
green, or brown. Clear stones are usually faceted while the cloudy specimens
are cut as cabochons.
> Chrysoberyl has one of the most attractive cat’s-eyes of all stones. This occurs as
a bright silvery line that travels across the curved surface of a polished gem as
it is moved. The effect is called “chatoyancy” from the French word chatoyer, “to
shimmer.”

CHRYSOCOLLA (kris o KOL La) Hardness: –

> A hydrous silicate formed by the decomposition of copper ore near the surface.
> From the Greek chrysos (gold) and kolla (glue). In ancient usage the term
included malachite. Both were used as a flux for soldering and fusing gold.
> Occurs in variable shades of blue and green and can resemble turquoise.
> Chrysocolla from the site of King Solomon’s Mines in Eilat, Israel is called Eilat
(Elat) stone.
> Because this is a copper-bearing ore it will be damaged by pickles that are
designed to attack copper oxides (e.g., Sparex).

CHRYSOPRASE (KRIS o prayz) Hardness: 1⁄2–

> A light green translucent chalcedony, the most valuable of the chalcedony
family.
> From the Greek words for “gold” and “leek,” referring to its golden-green color,
which is caused by nickel salts.

CITRINE (SI treen) Hardness: 

> This yellow quartz can be found naturally or made by heating amethyst (purple
quartz) to around º F (º C). Treated citrines have a deeper color and are
more expensive than natural stones.
> The yellow-brown gemis called “cairngorm” after the place of origin in Scotland.
> Dark reddish-brown quartz is called sang de boeuf, French for “ox blood”.

Stones > Gem Information 

 Gem Information

CORAL (KOR l) Hardness: 1⁄2

> This is not a stone in the usual sense but a rock-like material formed from the
underwater deposit of many tiny skeletons of invertebrate animals.
> From the Geek korallion, originally derived from the word for pebble.
> Coral can occur in many shades of reddish-pink, white and black: the black form
is called akabar.
> Coral was thought to stop bleeding, guard against poison, and protect dogs
from rabies.
> This is a soft material and should be treated gently. It will not tolerate harsh
cleansers, abrasion or heat.

CORUNDUM (kor UN dum) Hardness: 

> Until the Middle Ages corundum was called “hyacinth” and was thought to exist
only as a blue stone. When it was discovered that other colors of corundum
existed, the name sapphire was used for the blue variety.
> Corundums of other colors are usually identified by a color name, such as
yellow sapphire and green sapphire. Red corundum is called ruby.
> Besides blue, corundum occurs in yellow, green, reddish-yellow, pink, mauve,
brown, and black.

CUBIC ZIRCONIUM (KU bik zir KON iyum) Hardness: 1⁄2

> A transparent, singly refractive, man-made gem produced from the element
zirconium.
> It is available in many colors, as well as a bright white that resembles diamond.
Because of its fire and low cost, CZ has replaced  (synthetic garnet), spinel,
and stontium titanate as a diamond substitute.

DIAMOND (DI mund) Hardness: 

> From the Greek adamas, “unbreakable, indomitable”.
> Diamonds were believed to render all poisons harmless. Ironically, they were
also considered to be poisonous themselves. Benvenuto Cellini reports a
thwarted attempt on his life when an assassin attempted to put powdered
diamond in his food.
> Diamond powder was at one time considered to be medicinal. In ,
physicians administered gem powders, including diamond, to the ailing Pope
Clement VII. Didn’t work.
> Diamond has long been credited with powers in keeping with its unique
properties. It is said that diamonds will drive away madness, night spirits, and
evil dreams. Diamonds will promote virtue, generosity, and courage, and are
said to protect a house from lightning and other natural disasters.
> In ancient times diamonds were found only in India and were not highly
regarded because they could only be used in their natural octrahedral shape.
In  Louis de Berqueur developed a way to cut facets that revealed the
brilliance of the gem and led to increased popularity. By the European
Renaissance, noblemen and ladies were wearing the highly fashionable gem.
In subsequent waves of discovery, diamonds were mined in Brazil (s), and
South Africa (s).

 Stones > Gem Information

Gem Information

> Current production leaders, in order of the quantity of carats mined, are
Australia, Botswana, Congo, Namibia, Russia, South Africa, Angola, Canada, and
Brazil.
> Famous diamonds include the Hope Diamond, the Koh-i-Nor, the Great Mogul,
and the Star of Africa (Cullinan I).
> The largest sites of diamond cutting can be found in Belgium, India, Israel, South
Africa, and the United States.

EMERALD (EM e ruld) Hardness: 1⁄2–

> A bright green beryl, very valuable if free of inclusions and of strong color.
> Inclusions are called the jardin (garden) of the stone.
> Emeralds are notoriously brittle and require great care in setting. For this reason
faceted stones with a thick girdle are preferred.
> Do not clean emeralds in an ultrasonic machine. The solution may penetrate
the stone and cause it to shatter.
> Linked to fertility and the Earth Goddess, emerald is a birthstone of spring
(May).
> Sacred to the Goddess Venus, it is worn by women to ease childbirth.
> Emeralds are said to stifle an epileptic fit.
> The sight of an emerald is said to bring such terror to a viper or cobra that their
eyes leap out of their heads.
> This stone is said to protect the wearer from helplessness caused by fascination.
It was also used to treat diseases of the eye.

GARNET (GAR net) Hardness: 1⁄2–1⁄2

> From the Latin granum, “grain or pip,” which in turn came from the Phoenician
word for pomegranate, punica granatum.
> When worn on the body, garnets are said to prevent skin diseases.
> Garnet assures the wearer of love, faithfulness, and safety from wounds.
> When danger approaches, the stone loses its brilliance.
> Garnets will protect the wearer from evil and from terrifying dreams.
> For obvious reasons red garnets have been associated with blood. As recently as
 native soldiers in Kashmir fought the British with bullets made of garnet,
in the belief that these would find their way magically to their targets.
Types of garnets:
Pyrope: a deep red color. Its name in Greek means “fiery eye.”
Almadine: dark red with a tinge of mauve. The especially purple variety is
called rhodolite.
Spessartite: red-orange or orange-brown; shows internal wavy veil of fluid
contained in the stone; rare and expensive.
Grossular (Grossularite): speckled green stone resembling jade. Hessonite is a
subspecies.
Uvarovite: rare, intensely green stone.
Andradite: This contains iron; it is rarely cut.

Stones > Gem Information 

 Gem Information

HEMATITE (HE ma tite) Hardness: 1⁄2–1⁄2

> A lustrous black stone often cut with facets or carved with a warrior’s head.
> Though the stone is black, it will leave a red streak when scratched along a
rough surface. The stone appears to bleed and so takes its name from the Greek
word for blood, haima.
> Hematite (also spelled “haematite”) is the world’s most important iron ore.
> Powdered hematite is known as red ochre when used as a pigment and as
crocus when used as a polishing compound or abrasive.
> Hematite can form naturally as a cluster of thin plates and, in this
configuration, is known as alpine rose or iron rose.

IOLITE (EYE o lyt) Hardness: –1⁄2

> These gems show a deep blue with a hint of purple.
> Iolite is strongly dichroic, which means it shows different colors depending on
the angle of viewing.

IVORY (I vree) Hardness: 1⁄2

> Ivory comes from the tusks of elephants and is becoming increasingly rare as
the elephant approaches extinction. In parts of the world it is illegal to use
ivory.
> True ivory is made up of many translucent layers and has a soft sheen caused by
the partial penetration of light.
> Ivory can be identified by a characteristic grain pattern that becomes more
obvious with age.
> Other similar materials should be identified with an adjective, such as whale
ivory.

JADE (JAYD) Hardness: 

> The word refers to two distinct minerals not differentiated until . These are
properly called jadeite and nephrite.
> Because of its waxy luster, the Chinese called it wet stone, and believed it could
slake thirst.
> Jade occurs in white (muttonfat jade), yellow, lavender, earthy brown, and black
as well as the familiar greens.
> Spanish conquistadors found many objects of carved jade and, believing it to
ease kidney pains, called it piedra de ijada (loin stone). European doctors called
it palis nephriticus from the Greek nephros, kidney.
> Jade can be confused with californite, grossularite, sausserite, pectolite,
chrysoprase, and aventurine.
> This stone was believed to protect from lightning, to aid in battle, to bring rain,
to drive away beasts and evil spirits, and to aid in childbirth.

JASPER (JAS pur) Hardness: 1⁄2–

> From the Hebrew yashpeh and Assyrian yashpu; referred to in cuneiform
writings of   Originally the word referred to any green stone.
> Jasper occurs in many colors and patterns, including stripes and pictures. These
are really fossilized algae made when decomposed organic matter was replaced
by silicon oxide (i.e., jasper).
 Stones > Gem Information
Gem Information

> Green chalcedony with flecks of red jasper is called bloodstone or heliotrope.
> In ancient Egypt, red jasper was associated with the blood of Isis.
> Green jasper was associated with St. Peter by the early Christians.
> Said to drive away night spirits, to stanch bleeding, and to help during
pregnancy. Green jasper was used in rainmaking.

JET Hardness: –

> A dense black coal found in many places around the world; especially popular
during the reign of Queen Victoria, who wore jewelry of carved jet in her -
year mourning for her deceased husband. Most British jet came from the town
of Whitby.
> Burnt and powdered jet is said to drive away snakes and reptiles, and to heal
toothaches and headaches.
> Jet nullifies spells and charms.
> Traditionally Irish housewives burned jet during their husband’s absence to
ensure his safety.

LABRADORITE (LAB bra dor ite) Hardness: 

> This is a blue iridescent feldspar found off the coast of Labrador.
> A similar gem mined in Finland shows a wider range of colors and is called
spectrolite.
> Black moonstone is usually labradorite from Madagascar.

LAPIS LAZULI (LAP is LAZ u lee) Hardness: –

> From the Latin lapis, “stone” and Arabic lazuli, “blue”.
> Known for its deep blue color, sometimes found with flecks of gold-colored
pyrite or whitish-gray mottlings of calcite.
> Lapis is still being mined at the oldest mines in the world in Iraq. When mining
began there  years ago, the country was called Babylon. Think of that.
> Lapis was sent to Egypt as tribute. There it was carved to make cylinder seals
and ground to a powder for eye makeup.
> In Ur, kings sharpened their swords on lapis in the belief that it would make
weapons invincible.
> Sumerians believed that a wearer of lapis carried the presence of God with him.
> In ancient Egypt, the stone was symbolic of truth (Ma) and was worn by the
chief justice.
> from the Middle Ages through the th century, painters mixed oil with
powdered lapis to make the color we call ultramarine.
> The gem is believed to ease eye troubles, treat asthma, induce sleep, and relieve
anxiety.

MALACHITE (MAL a kite) Hardness: –

> A copper ore made up of deep and pale green stripes or concentric circles.
> Malachite powder was used in ancient times as eye makeup.
> It was commonly held to ease labor, protect infants and children, and soothe
their pain when they were cutting teeth.
> Because of its high copper content, malachite will be damaged by jeweler’s
pickle.
Stones > Gem Information 
 Gem Information

MOISSANITE (MOY zan yt) Hardness: 1⁄2

> This man-made gem traces its origins to the discovery of silcon carbide in
 by Henri Moissan. The fragments he found in a meteor in Arizona were
too small for practical use, proved that such a compound was possible. When
high temperature Industrial furnaces were developed it became possible to
manufacture silicon carbide, but it was not until research by CREE Company in
the s that a gem quality material was created. Since  Moissanite has
been manufactured and sold by Charles & Covard company.
> It is second in hardness only to diamond.
> Created in a near-colorless version and a pale green version.
> Moissanite is roughly - the cost of diamonds.

MOONSTONE Hardness: –1⁄2

> A feldspar of orthoclase with thin layers of albite. This yields a play of light
called adularescence as light is spread by the fine particles or layers. The effect
is a cool frosty glow that accounts for the name of this gem.
> Moonstone occurs in white, gray, pink, green, blue, chocolate, and an almost
clear variety that looks like a water droplet.
> When worn around the neck, moonstone is believed to protect against epilepsy
and sunstroke. It is used to treat headaches and nosebleeds.
> When hung on fruit trees it produces abundant crops and generally assists all
vegetation.

ONYX (ON ix) Hardness: 1⁄2–

> A chalcedony composed of black and white bands. In common usage the term
often refers to an agate dyed uniformly black.
> Onyx with brown and white bands is called sardonyx.
> When cut to show concentric circles, onyx forms an eye-like amulet that was
worn by the Sumerians, Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans to ward off evil.
> This stone was widely disfavored except when cut as a protective eye. It was
said to incite contention between friends, to give the wearer broken sleep and
terrifying dreams and, when worn on the neck, to cool the fires of love.
> The Arabic name for this stone, el jaza, means sadness.

OPAL (O pl) Hardness: 1⁄2–1⁄2

> From the Sanskrit upala, gem.
> A highly praised stone that shows a range of color flashes, usually including red,
blue, green, and violet.
> Opal is hydrated silicon dioxide. The play of colors is the result of water (–
by weight) trapped in the stone. Care should be taken that opals do not dry out.
A periodic coating of baby oil is recommended.
> Opals from Mexico and Brazil usually contain more water and are less stable
than Australian opals.
> During the Middle Ages. It was the custom that breakage during cutting had to
be paid for by the lapidary: since opals fracture easily, it is understandable that
some would consider them unlucky.

 Stones > Gem Information

Gem Information

Types of Opal:
> Fire: bright orange-red; translucent to transparent.
> Flame: as above when showing red.
> Flash: undivided flashes of a single color as the stone is rotated.
> Harlequin: a mosaic of iridescent color.
> Pinpoint: a multitude of tiny specks of many colors.
> Matrix: stone cut so as to leave the opal attached to the rock in which it
was formed. This is done to add strength to an otherwise dangerously thin
specimen while simultaneously getting the most from a vein of opal.
> Doublet: opal glued to a backing of obsidian or onyx to increase color play.
> Triplet: a doublet with rock crystal glued on top to increase luster and
strength.

PEARL (PURL) Hardness: 1⁄2–

> A lustrous deposit formed inside a living bivalve mollusk, often in response
to an irritation felt by the animal. Though many mollusks form such deposits,
most species do not make pearls with attractive surfaces.
> Pearls are formed in saltwater and freshwater clams. They are identified by their
place of origin, for instance, Mississippi River pearls.
> The largest source of pearls is Lake Biwa in Japan where extensive pearl farming
is done.
> Pearls sometimes grow attached to the shell of the animal, rather than in its
tissue. These are called blister pearls.
> Cultured or cultivated pearls are made inside a mollusk but have human help
to get started. A bit of tissue or a bead is inserted in the animal and allowed to
collect nacreous secretions for about four years.
> Imitation pearls are much less valuable. They are made by repeated dipping of a
plastic bead into a coating made of glue and ground sardine scales. When lightly
rubbed on the front of a tooth, the imitation pearl will feel smooth. Genuine
(Orient) and cultured pearls will feel slightly rough.
> Pearls are attributed to the goddess Venus as the symbol of innocence.
> Care should be taken that pearls are not subjected to sudden temperature
changes. Wash them in lukewarm soapy water and restring when the cord
becomes worn. Knots should be tied between pearls to keep them from rubbing
against one another.

PERIDOT (PER i doh) Hardness: 

> A transparent gem, sometimes called chrysolite, occurring as pale to deep
yellow-green.
> Peridot is associated with the astrological sign of Libra (September –October
) and is assigned to the sun.
> In ancient Hebrew writings this stone is linked with the Tribe of Simeon.
> Peridot is believed to cure liver disease and dropsy, to free the mind from
envious thoughts, and to dispel terrors of the night. For full magical power it
should be set in gold.

Stones > Gem Information 

 Gem Information

QUARTZ Hardness: 
> Quartz is the most common of all minerals and accounts for as much as  of
the volume of the earth’s crust. It occurs in two forms:
a) crystalline, a single crystal that is generally transparent and either clear
(rock crystal) or colored by minerals to be purple (amethyst), yellow
(citrine), or brown (smoky quartz).
b) chalcedony, a microcrystalline version that is usually translucent.
Examples include flint, onyx, aventurine, jasper, carnelian, agate, and
chrysoprase.

RHODOCHROSITE Hardness: 1⁄2–1⁄2

> A bright luminous pink gem often banded with lacy white stripes.
> Rhodochrosite is an ore of manganese; chemical formula MnCO₃.
> Found in many sites around the world with the best specimens coming from
Colorado.
> One way to test this stone is to expose it to acid. Because of its calcium content,
even a mild acid such as vinegar will usually cause a bubbling reaction.

RUBY Hardness: 
> A corundum that occurs as a transparent deep red stone and as an opaque
reddish-gray material. In this form it may exhibit a star (asterism) or a single-
line chatoyancy.
> When flawless, a ruby is more valuable than a diamond of equal weight.
> Synthetic rubies are produced for jewelry, watch bearings, and laser equipment.
> The largest fine quality star ruby known is called the Rosser Reeves Star Ruby. It
weighs . carats and can be seen at the Smithsonian Institution.
> Historically, ruby is associated with royalty and the power of life and death.
> Rubies were attributed the power to prevent loss of blood and to strengthen
the heart.

SAPPHIRE (SAF ire) Hardness: 

> This form of corundum can occur as blue, yellow, pink, brown, black, lilac, and
green, both as transparent and opaque, the latter sometimes showing a star
(asterism) or cat’s-eye (chatoyancy).
> Until the Middle Ages, sapphires were called hyacinths because of their pale
blue color. When it was realized that the mineral occurred in other colors,
the term sapphire was adopted for the blue variety while others use a color
description, e.g., yellow sapphire.
> Possibly from a Sanskrit reference meaning, “Dear to the planet Saturn.”
> Sapphires are traditionally connected with the eye and the sky and therefore
with vision and the ability to read the future.

SARDONYX (sar DON ix) Hardness: 1⁄2–

> A kind of chalcedony made brown by the presence of iron. Specifically, the name
refers to specimens that include bands of white.
> Sardonyx was a popular stone in ancient times and was credited with many

 Stones > Gem Information

Gem Information

powers. The stone was thought to make warriors victorious, protect against
poisonous snakes, make a suitor more appealing, neutralize the malevolent
influence of black onyx, increase intelligence, make the wearer fearless, and to
protect against witchcraft, sorcery, and incantation.

SERPENTINE (SURP en teen) Hardness: –

> An opaque green stone with mottled reddish-brown or milky patches. This,
along with its waxy appearance, makes it look like snakeskin, hence the name.
> Serpentine is common and occurs in many color and hardness variations. It is
used architecturally and to carve objects such as bowls and sculptures.
> This stone was believed to protect against snakebite and other poisons and was
thought to be most effective if kept in the natural, uncut state.
> Drinking medicine from a serpentine vessel was thought to increase the healing
power of the medicine.

SODALITE (SO da lite) Hardness: –

> A popular opaque stone most widely known for its blue color, which somewhat
resembles lapis lazuli. It also occurs in lavender, mauve, yellow-green, green,
and pink. Purple shades can fade in sunlight.
> White and grayish-white mottlings are often found in sodalite; in poor grade
material these will be obvious.
> The name of this mineral comes from its sodium content.

SPINEL (spin ELL) Hardness: 

> A transparent stone of red (the most valuable), pink, green, blue-green, and
purple.
> Synthetic spinel is produced in large quantities and is associated with
inexpensive jewelry in imitation of diamonds, aquamarine, sapphires, and other
gems. Air bubbles inside the stone often betray these synthetics.

TANZANITE Hardness: –

> This light violet to blue-colored gem is trichroic, which means it can show three
distinct colors depending on the angle of viewing.
> This stone, discovered in Tanzania in , is particularly sensitive to ultrasound
and should never be cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner.
> Tanzanite is similar to iolite, which is also pleochroic.
> Most samples are heat treated to achieve a dark blue.

TIGER’S EYE Hardness: 1⁄2–

> Blue, violet, and golden brown translucent stones showing a silky interior that
shimmers as the stone is rotated. It can sometimes be cut to show a cat’s-eye.
> The effect is the result of asbestos fibers that have been partially replaced by
quartz.
> When the fibers are coarse, the stone is called a hawk’s eye.

Stones > Gem Information 

 Gem Information

TOPAZ (TOW paz) Hardness: 

> A transparent stone usually of golden yellow but also occurring as pink, red,
blue, green, and colorless specimens. From Sanskrit tapas, to glow.
> Topaz cleaves easily and therefore requires care in cutting and setting.
> Some varieties can fade in sunlight.
> In ancient times the word topaz referred to several other stones; today it is
often mistakenly used for smoky quartz and citrine.
> Rubbing or gentle heating of topaz electrifies it, causing it to attract bits of
paper or hair.

TOURMALINE (TUR ma leen) Hardness: –1⁄2

> A transparent stone of many colors, most notably green, blue-green, and pink.
> Often several colors appear side by side. Crystals cut to reveal a pink semicircle
with a green rim are called watermelon tourmaline.
> The name comes from the Sanskrit turamali.
> Tourmaline is dichromatic; it shows a bright color from one direction but will
look almost black when seen from another. Like topaz, this stone will hold static
electricity when rubbed or gently heated.

TURQUOISE (TUR kwoyz) Hardness: –

> A blue or blue-green stone, usually opaque but occasionally translucent.
> From French pierre turquoise which means Turkish stone, a reference to its
popular use in Turkey. Arabs call it fayruz or firusaj, the lucky stone.
> Blue material will turn green as it absorbs oil from the skin. After polishing,
most turquoise is sealed with a plastic that soaks into the stone and closes the
pores. This is called stabilizing.
> Reconstituted material (bits of turquoise compressed with adhesive) is
sometimes used in cheap jewelry. To test a sample, lay a hot needle against the
stone — if it contains adhesive, the resulting smell of plastic will give it away.
> Some pieces of turquoise are cut so as to contain some of the rock in which they
were formed. This is called matrix turquoise. Some varieties show fine dark lines
running throughout the stone; this is called spiderweb turquoise.
> Turquoise is thought to protect the wearer from poison, bites of reptiles, and
diseases of the eye.
> Some people think these powers are in force only if the stone is received as a
gift. Giving turquoise is also said to improve its color.
> Since the thirteenth century this stone was held to give sure-footedness to a
horse. This explains why it is often found on bridles and harnesses.

ZIRCON (ZIR kon) Hardness: –1⁄2

> A transparent brittle stone occurring as brownish or green material, usually
heated to turn it pale yellow and blue. It can be found naturally colored as
orange-red (most valuable), purple, reddish-brown, and brownish-yellow.
> Because its brittleness makes it difficult to cut, stones of more than a couple of
carats are rarely seen.
> Zircon is said to drive away evil spirits and bad dreams, to banish grief and
melancholy, restore appetite, induce sleep, and protect against lightning.

 Stones > Gem Information

 Setting Tools

Stonesetting is better (and less
stressful) when you can see the
details clearly. Almost all set-
ting is done under magnifica-
tion nowadays.
Holding Tools
It’s hard to overestimate the importance of getting a good grip on a mounting
before setting a stone. If the object wiggles or slides away under pressure it
is impossible to properly move the metal that is intended to hold the gem in
place. The ideal arrangement
… holds the item (brooch, ring, etc.) securely.
… doesn’t mar the metal.
… can be released easily once the stone is set.
… allows full and comfortable access for the setter (i.e., you).

Shellac Stick
This traditional tool is also described in its connection to engraving but it
bears repeating here. A resinous material such as shellac is fixed to the top
Other Holding Devices of a wooden shaft about the size of a small flashlight. Warm the shellac and
press the mounting firmly into place. When it cools to room temperature the
• engraver’s block piece will be locked in place. To remove the piece, warm the shellac slightly,
• ring clamp and pry the work out. Bits of shellac that stick to the metal can be dissolved
• pin vise in alcohol. In place of shellac you can also use sealing wax or dopping wax.
• A clean piece of pine makes a Variations Include:
handy base. • pitch (harder to dissolve)
Drill holes for • hot glue (not as rigid as shellac, doesn’t dissolve)
earring posts • thermoplastic (Ditto, Protoplast, Friendly Plastic)
and pin backs. • epoxy (difficult to dissolve)

Pushing Tools Bezel Pushers Bezel Rockers

The face of a bezel pusher should
not be polished because this might
make it slip. To provide a little grip,
sand the face
of the tool
with medium-
grit paper.
These tools
will become
worn with use and should be
sanded periodically to restore their
shape. On soft or delicate materials
(shell, enamels, etc.) use a
plastic pusher made from
the handle section of a
toothbrush.
Bezel pushers are nothing more than
a short rod of steel or brass in a squat
handle.
They can be
purchased or
made—use a
graver handle
or a golf ball
and a large nail.
Punches
Some people prefer gentle taps of a
hammer to the force of a bezel pusher.
Use a short, hardened punch with a flat,
unpolished face.
A variation on this method is a
hammer handpiece. These mechanical
tools use either air pressure or a flex
shaft to make a punch move in and
out at high speeds. Most devices allow
control over the depth and speed of
the stroke. This method is especially
practical for professional setters.
To make a bezel rocker, saw this curving
T-shape from thick brass sheet. File the
edges smooth and mount it in a file
handle. To use it, hold the tool like a
pencil and rock it vertically at several
points around the stone. Turn the tool
face to horizontal
and swing back
and forth to
smooth the bezel.
Pliers
Setting prongs with pliers increases
leverage and control. For occasional use
any jewelry pliers will work but serious
setters will want to buy or modify pliers
so one jaw extends further
than the other. Cut a groove
in the shorter jaw to help
keep the prong straight as
it is being pressed onto the
stone. Parallel-jaw pliers are
preferred for this, especially
when setting stones over
 mm in diameter.
Stones > Setting Tools 

Prongs
Whether the mounting
is simple or complex, a
successful prong setting
must follow these
guidelines:
> Prongs must reach over the
stone’s girdle to hold it securely.
> Prongs must be located so the
stone cannot slip out in any
direction.
> The stone must be supported from
beneath.
> The prongs should not cover so
much of the stone that the result
is cumbersome.
> Prongs must not snag on fabric.
Wax Stone Lifter
Use a piece of beeswax of a
convenient size (typically about
the size of a grape) to handle gems
as you test size and shape. Rub it
between your palms to shape it into
a blunt cone. If the
wax is too sticky to
easily release the
stone, mix in some
charcoal or graphite
powder.
 Stones > Setting > Setting Tips
Setting Tips
Designing the Setting
As you select a setting for a particular design, consider these factors.
> How dominant should the gem be in the whole design?
> What are the special requirements of the stone? Is it brittle, soft, etc.
> How can the stone be gripped for maximum security?
> Which is the stone’s best side?
Typical Progression
It is impossible to give a rigid formula for the steps of stonesetting, but here
is a typical progression.
. Complete all soldering.
. Pickle and neutralize the piece by soaking it in a solution of baking soda
and water. File, sand, and buff to the desired finish. Wash and dry it well.
. Oxidize or patina, if desired. This includes bringing up the fine silver.
. Lay the stone into position and check to be certain it is level and seated.
Adjust the setting if necessary. Ideally the stone will snap into place.
. Push the bezel or prongs over the stone. Work your way around the stone,
taking several courses to achieve the setting.
. Use a pumice wheel to smooth irregularities. Do not use sandpaper, even
the finest grit.
. Burnish the bezel or prongs to polish and toughen the metal.
. Polish the bezel with a leather coated stick. For prongs, use a bristle brush
with a small amount of compound.
Finishing Scratch Removal
There are only two ways to goof when For the scratches, use a pumice wheel
finishing a setting—to quit too soon with a light, sweeping motion. Do
or to polish too long. Polished gems, not focus on a scratch but feather in
almost by definition, are smooth, the whole area. For reshaping, use a
shiny, and geometrically regular. Since small file with a fine cut (e.g. ). Avoid
the bezel or prongs are next to this, touching the stone. When the proper
anything less than precise finishing shape has been restored, switch to
looks exaggeratedly wrong. Use files, the pumice
pumice wheels, and burnishers (in that wheel. For
order) to shape and polish the metal a reflective
around a stone. surface, use
In the enthusiasm to remove all a polishing
scratches it is possible to remove too compound
much metal and weaken a setting. like White
Remember, the primary purpose of a Diamond or ZAM. For bezels use a
setting is to securely hold a gem. No leather-coated stick or a felt wheel.
one will pause to admire the shine on For prongs use a loose muslin or
an empty setting when the stone has bristle brush. Thrum with polishing
popped out. strings for hard-to-reach areas under
and around the stone.
 Basic Bezels

Basic Box Bezel

A bezel is a thin band of metal that surrounds a stone and is pressed over its
edge to hold it in place. It is probably the oldest and most widely used setting
in the world.
. Wrap bezel wire or a similar strip . File the ends to make a tight fit. Use
of metal around the stone; mark, as little solder as possible—solder
and cut. For small stones, bend the alloys are stiff and difficult to push
loop by eye and fit to the stone. For over a stone.
larger stones,
bend the metal
directly on the
stone.
. Check the fit. If the bezel is too small, . File or sand to the correct height.
stretch it on a tapered mandrel or by
planishing with
a steel hammer.
If it is too loose,
remove a piece
of bezel and
resolder.

. File or sand a knife edge around the . Rub the bezel on sandpaper to true
top of the bezel. and clean the bottom edge, then
Stop just before the recheck the fit. After soldering to
rim disappears. If a flat sheet, pickle, and check the
this is lost it’s easy joint. It is important that the bezel
to go too far. is attached all
the way around.

Access Video
Library . Where applicable, trim away excess
sheet, using a saw or scissors. To
. Solder the bezel into position on
the workpiece.
on CD avoid bending with the scissors, cut
on tangents.

Bezel Height Thin Medium Heavy

The taller the stone, – B&S. Economical – B&S. This is – B&S. Sometimes called a
the steeper the angle but more difficult to a good balance of collar, this thick bezel is doing more
at its base. For this solder, especially when ease and security; than holding the stone. It provides
used on a shallow stone it provides enough visual weight, either accentuating
reason, tall stones
and kept low, this weight metal to stand up to the stone or calling attention to
require a higher bezel will almost disappear. the metalwork, depending on the
moderate finishing.
to securely hold the Lends itself to cup treatment. These will usually require
stone. settings. hammer setting.
Stones > Setting > Basic Bezels 

Gallery
Gallery wire is a decorated strip of
wire used as molding or as a bezel.
It can be bought in many patterns.
The decorations shown here are
made by filing, stamping, drilling,
and engraving. Some patterns can
only be done when the strip of
metal is flat (such as stamping)
but most are easier after the bezel
has been made. It’s also possible
to prepare sheet by roll printing or
etching. Decorate a panel, then cut
it into strips for bezels.
 Stones > Setting > Fancy Bezels
Fancy Bezels
Step Bezel
The advantages of this kind of bezel are:
• It uses less material, saving cost, and
reducing weight.
• It can be faster to make than a box
bezel, depending on the type used.
• It allows light to show through the
stone and reveals the back of the gem.
Styles
Step bezel is available commercially in fine silver and K
gold. Some distributors also sell a fancy style called
gallery step bezel.
You can also create the step bezel by soldering two strips
together before bending the bezel around the stone.
To avoid an excess of solder, file the angle shown. A
variation on this is to use half-round or square wires to
provide the ledge.
An alternate method is to make a bezel that fits the stone,
then make a second ring (bearing) that fits snugly inside
the first. If a base is used on the bezel and the fit is
tight, this ring does not need to be soldered in place.
For faceted stones, file a bevel on the inner ring before
soldering the two pieces together.
You can also cut a bearing with flex shaft tools or gravers.
Make the bezel of heavy stock such as  or  gauge.
The corners of rectilinear stones will be subjected to a
lot of pressure in setting. To reduce this, cut away the
bearing under the corner (shaded) with a graver or flex
shaft bur.
Back to Back Multiples
If both stones are a When constructing bezels that sit
snug fit, slide the stones side by side, it is important not to
into an open ring and solder the walls together. If the
work both sides of the design allows, insert a wire between
setting simultaneously. the bezels as a spacer. If this isn’t
Press the assembly appropriate, fold over the touching
into a forming block or sections with pliers. Curl the metal
dapping die to curl two points at the upward again after soldering is
same time. complete.
or, Solder a wire at the
mid-depth of the setting
to hold the stones. Set
each stone in place using
conventional techniques.
 Fancy Bezels
Raised Bezels
For a Round or Oval Cabochon
. Make a bezel that has most of the
back open. You can do this by
soldering the bezel to a sheet and
then cutting out the interior space,
or by soldering a ring of square or
rectangular wire inside the bezel.
. Solder short lengths of wire or
tubing onto the underside of the
bezel at regular intervals.
Cut Down Setting
One repays a teacher badly if
. Make a collet (tube) with an inside
one always remains a pupil. diameter smaller than
the stone. A thick wall
is important.
Friedrich Nietzche
. Mark a line around the base and file
a bevel to this line.
. File away material between the
prongs. Solder the setting to the
piece; finish. Set the stone as
usual.
. Make a small conical section whose
larger diameter is the same as that
of the bezel, either by bending an
arc or by soldering a loop closed and
forming it in a dapping block.
. Rub the spacers on sandpaper to
make sure each one has a flat face.
Solder the cone onto the spacers,
then cut and file
them flush with
the bezel. For a
ring, cut the cone
to accommodate
the curve of a
finger.
. Use a setting bur or
graver to cut a seat for
the stone.
. Mark out prongs and cut the edges
lightly with a fine
sawblade
Stones > Setting > Fancy Bezels 

Tooled Edge
This setting is similar to the collar
bezel but uses chisel-shaped
punches to create a pattern on the
top edge of the bezel. Start with a
bezel made of thick metal, keeping
it a little bigger than usual so the
stone makes a loose fit. Grip the
work securely as described above
and push the bezel over the stone.
When the stone is securely held and
the bezel is pressed uniformly onto
the stone, hold the tool vertically
and move it around the bezel
with many light taps, creating the
pattern. The
punch should
have a rounded
corner so it
doesn’t chip
the stone.
 Stones > Setting > Tube & Thick Bezel Settings
Tube Setting & Thick Bezels
Tube Setting
Bezels for round stones under about  mm in diameter can often be made
most efficiently from tubing. The process will vary slightly depending on the
stone, the materials available, and the design of the piece being made. Here
are several tips that can be used in any combination that meets your needs.
If the tubing has a thick wall, cut a bearing with a
setting bur or a thin graver. In a pinch you can use a
standard drill bit of the proper size.
If the tube wall is too thin for this, draw down a piece
of the tube so it slides into the first piece to make a
bearing.
To set stones in a production situation, buy or make
a rod with a hemispherical depression on its end.
Mount this in a flex shaft, lubricate with light oil,
and press it over the tube while rotating at a slow to
medium speed.
When tube-setting diamonds, it’s possible to set
the stones into tubes then solder the setting into
position. In this case, mount the tube in a flex shaft,
and hold a bur against it to make the bearing. Press
the diamond into the seat and rotate the tube against
a burnisher or round-nose pliers to press the rim over
the stone. Hold a sawblade against the rotating tube
to cut it off, but be careful that the setting doesn’t
pop off and get lost.
Collar Settings
Construct a bezel as you would for a box bezel, but use a
thicker wall, for instance,  gauge for a stone under  mm
and  gauge for a larger one. Push the bezel wall over the
stone with a planishing punch. Use a chasing hammer with
repeated light taps.
• The object must be firmly anchored. Use a pitch pot,
engraver’s ball, shellac, or sealing wax on a board, or
grip the work in a vise. Support rings on a wooden
wedge or in a ring clamp.
• Lock the stone in place with four sharp blows evenly
spaced around the bezel. In successive courses around
the stone, raise the angle of the tool until it is vertical.
• Use a planishing punch around the bezel to smooth
away hammer marks. Define the shape with a file
or a pumice wheel–no sandpaper! Buff the collar either
by machine or with a polishing stick. The profile can
be rounded or have crisp angles. Up to this point, the
process is the same.
 Gypsy Settings

Gypsy Setting
The gypsy setting, also called a rubbed setting has a lot in common with a
bezel because a continuous rim of metal is pressed onto the stone to secure
it in place. Unlike a bezel, this setting uses metal from the body of a piece. It
is probably more common in cast than fabricated work, and certainly easier in
soft metals like high karat gold than in other, less malleable metals, but these
are observations, not rules.

Process (as shown for a ring)

. Make a ring shank large enough to accommodate the
stone’s diameter and if faceted, its height.

. Drill a hole about half the size of the stone’s

diameter.

. Enlarge the setting with a bur or graver to hold

the stone. When correct, the stone’s girdle should
be just below the surface. For a cabochon the
hole should have a flat, level floor. Use a graver or
cylinder bur to carve it out.

. File away a small bit of metal just around

the setting. This will create a tiny rim
that will be pushed over the stone.

. With the stone in place, set four “corners” with

a bezel pusher or a chasing hammer and a small
planishing tool. Check to see that the stone is
level and that there is a consistent rim to cover
the stone. If so, continue with the setting and
follow with a burnisher, pulling the metal up onto
the stone. It is important to secure the work well,
especially if you choose to use hammered punches
to push the metal onto the stone.

My play was a complete

Flat Objects
Depending on the shape of the
success. The audience object, it’s sometimes necessary
to create a bulge of metal that can
was a failure. then be pulled over the stone.
Roll a burnisher or dapping punch
concentrically around the setting
to press down a groove. As this
Ashleigh Brilliant forms, increase pressure, pushing
the metal onto the stone. Be patient
— this could take a while.

Stones > Setting > Gypsy Settings 

 Bezels: Problem Solving

Item The stone rocks back and forth in the bezel.

Cause Irregular edge; back of stone isn’t flat; bezel is not
fully pressed down.
Solution If possible, remove the stone, and shave away
bits of metal with a graver or bur until the stone
seats properly. If you can’t get the stone out,
hammer-set the bezel, starting at its highest lump of solder
point. Hold the tool nearly vertical.

Issue The bezel is puckered.

Cause Bezel was too high.
Solution Cut down the bezel or remove the stone and
insert a riser of sheet metal or wire. If neither of
these is possible, file the bezel to thin it and press
down again, perhaps with a hammer and punch.

Issue The bezel is worn away in one area making a

scalloped edge.
Cause Bezel was too thin, either from melting or over-
polishing.
Solution Use a graver or X-Acto to shave away tiny bits of
bezel to camouflage the dip.

Issue A scratch on the stone.

Cause Someone (no doubt when you had stepped out
for a minute) slipped with the bezel pusher and
left a skid mark.
Solution Polish out the scratch with a leather buff. Glue
leather onto a stick, dampen it with water and
rub in tin oxide or zinc oxide (Potters use these
for glazes).

Issue The stone somehow got larger. The bezel used to

fit, but now that the bezel is soldered down, the
stone won’t go in.
Cause Sometimes we make a bezel fit by forcing it onto
a stone. This tilts the walls inward and means the
top of the bezel is smaller than the base. Because
the stone has to go in through the top, this is a
problem.
Solution With a bezel pusher or something similar, gently
coax the bezel outward. It helps to use a little oil
or spit to lubricate the motion and, in extreme
cases, you can anneal after a first pass and repeat.

 Stones > Setting > Problem Solving

Turtle & Basket Settings

Basket Settings
. Bend two V-shapes of wire and prop them up
on the soldering block. Solder the points where
they contact each other. To make a six-prong
head, use three V-shapes.

. Make a ring to hold the prongs together.

This can go on the inside (subtle) or outside
(decorative). In either case, start by soldering
the ring closed so it can be made round and
stretched to the right size. The inside ring is
smaller than the stone’s diameter; the outside
ring is made to fit around the stone (as if it were
a bezel). When the size is right, solder this in
place, making sure it sits level.

. Attach the head to the workpiece, then pickle

and polish. Cut a bearing, trim the prongs to the
correct height, and set the stone as usual.

Variations
For irregular stones, emphasize the asymmetry with prongs of different sizes
and uneven spacing.
Ornament the prongs with piercing, filework, or overlay.
Decorate the back plate by piercing, roll printing, stamping, or overlay.
On thick metal, score the bend, bring the prong perpendicular, then reinforce
the scored area with solder.
Use a single piece to set two stones back to back.
Cut the base larger than the stone to create ornament around the gem.

Turtle Settings
This basic and versatile setting offers huge possibilities. In its simplest form
it is nothing more than a tracing of the stone with four tabs (legs) added
to become prongs. This shape is sawn out of sheet metal (add a head for a
pendant loop) and bent to clutch the stone.
The first two examples are sawn from sheet, the second is made of wire,
while the third example uses both. The shaded areas indicate the size of the
stone they are built to hold. Often the tips of the prongs are planished or
filed to make them more graceful.

Stones > Setting > Turtle & Basket Settings 

 Collet & Crown Settings

Crown Setting
The basic unit of this setting is a cone. These can be fabricated by bending
sheet, or with a bezel block, a steel tool that is a heavy plate with a series
of conical holes and corresponding tapered punches. Select a tube whose
diameter equals that at about mid-height of the desired cone and be sure it is
annealed. Set it into the die and strike the punch with a hammer.
. Fabricate a cone that will enclose the stone (see Appendix).
. After truing the cone on a mandrel, mark out prongs, first
from a top view and then on the sides. Locate the prongs
so most of the soldered joint will be cut away. Use dividers
to mark a line parallel to the base.
. With a saw, cut away the area between the prongs. To hold
for sawing, mount the cone on a dowel with sealing wax or
shellac, or hold it in pliers that have been specially shaped for
this. Use a round file or a bud-shaped bur to make the prongs
neat and even.
. Invert the head and repeat the last step, this time cutting away
the area between the prongs. This is not necessary for small
stones.
. If you’ve cut out areas from the bottom, make a ring to become
the base of the setting. Either use square wire or flatten
a ring made from round wire so it will make positive
contact with the base of the crown. In large settings,
saw off the lower section of the cone, and put it
carefully aside. After cutting decorative sections below
the prongs, solder the lower section back into place.
. Attach the crown to the workpiece, then pickle and file as
necessary to perfect the shape. Trim prongs to the correct
height, file to shape, and notch the prongs with a file or bur.
Setting proceeds as usual.

Collet
You must have the Devil in you
. Lay out an arc as described in the Appendix. For small
to succeed in any of the Arts. stones accuracy by eye is often sufficient.
. Bend the arc into a cone and close it with Hard solder.
. True up the cone on a small mandrel (often a scribe or
centerpunch). Set the cone across open vise jaws to
Voltaire stretch it.
. File a flat surface on the outside of the cone for each
prong. Keep the spacing even.
. Cut tapered prongs from - gauge sheet.
. Solder the prongs in place on the collet. Poke the prong
strips into the soldering block to hold them into position.
. Pickle, rinse, and check the fit. The stone should not rest
on the collet. If it does, the collet is too big or the angle of
the cone is too steep.
. Solder the collet to the piece, polish, and cut bearings in
each prong.

 Stones > Setting > Collet & Crown Settings


Pedestal Size
To check this, set the stone on the
the pedestal, then sight straight
down from directly above. No
metal should be visible peeking
out from under the stone. It is
also important that the pedestal
not be smaller than the stone.
When you move your head a few
inches in any direction, the
metal should show up.
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Pedestal-Prong Setting
Pedestal-Prong
This setting can be made with , , , or  prongs and can be used with cabs or
faceted stones. It is one of the few settings that looks good with asymmetrical
or different-sized prongs. In other words, it’s really versatile.
. Make a ring of – B&S sheet. The
outside diameter should equal the
diameter of the stone.
. Cut oversize lengths of square or
half-round wire for prongs. File a
point on each one.
. Pickle, rinse and check the prongs
for symmetry and strength. Make
corrections as needed, then trim off
the extra material.
File the bottom edge
and adjust the prong
height to make the
setting uniform.
Variations
One of the best things about this
setting is its versatility. Use it for
symetrical and irregular stone, for
delicate and large prongs, and for
any size gem.
Stones > Setting > Pedestal-Prong Settings
. For a faceted stone, file a bevel
around the inside edge
of this ring. For round
stones, you can use a
setting bur; for others
use a cylinder bur or a
needle file.
. Push the prong wires into a charcoal
block or soldering pad around the
pedestal and solder them into
position. An alternate approach is
to first melt a bit
of solder onto
each wire, then
manually hold
each wire into
position as the setting is heated.
. Attach to the body of the piece,
shape the prongs, and set the stone
with either a pusher or pliers.
Back to Back
In the construction
method described above,
a natural byproduct is a
setting with prongs on
both sides. Use this to
set matching stones back to back,
or cut the
setting in
half to make
two matching
parts.

 Rectangular Frames

Making a Square or Rectangular Frame

Many settings require a frame that is a perfect fit for the stone. Lack of
precision at this early stage will almost always make subsequent steps
difficult or impossible. The following method is a standard approach, whether
making a tiny setting or a large container. It seems long in the telling, but
after a few tries, you’ll see the logic of the steps.
. Cut off a piece of flattened wire or strip, a little
longer than two adjacent sides. File a notch with
a square file and bend the strip into an L shape.
After checking with a square to be sure the corner
is exactly °, solder the corner. Make two of these
shapes.
. Measure and cut the small side so its length will
equal the desired interior dimension of the box.
Repeat this with the other unit, then hold them
side by side to be certain they are equal.
. Slide the two L-shaped pieces together and mark
the place at which they make a frame that is
exactly the desired length. Place the solder outside
the joint
. After soldering, cut away the excess metal and file
the sides smooth.

Stress Reduction A Versatile Base

The corners of rectangular gems are
. Follow the directions above to make two
especially fragile. To avoid putting
identical frames.
stress on them, cut away the
. File away the corners of one of them,
highlighted portion of the bearing
handling the piece gently as it becomes
with a graver or bur.
more fragile.
. When each corner shows a V, use a small
file or a piece of folded sandpaper to
bevel the interior faces of each corner.
Tilt each side inward until the corners
touch. Solder these joints.
. Rub the resulting pyramid shape to clean
and refine its larger edge, then solder it
onto the other box.

Access Video There are several uses for this box:

Library
on CD
Attach wire to use Solder prongs File off corners,
the box as bezel. in corners for a one at a time, and
rectangular stone. replace with sheet.

 Stones > Setting > Rectangular Frames

 Rectangular Settings

For a Square or Rectangular Stone

. Make a rectangular frame of heavy . File bevels on the inside edges of this
square wire. The frame.
outside of the frame
should equal the
dimensions of the
stone.

. Make another frame, a little smaller . Cut a spacer block from sheet or wire.
than the first. It The size of this will be determined by
is not necessary the depth of the stone. Saw a groove
to file the inside in each spacer and solder
edges. it in place.
Use two or
four spacers.

. Keeping careful . The setting can be used as a bezel

alignment, solder in this form. Clean up, attach to the
the two frames body of the piece, and press the rim
together. over, starting with the corners.

Adding Prongs
. Cut strips from  gauge sheet, score a
groove down the center, bend, and file
the edges smooth.
. Solder the prongs into position, then
solder the head to the workpiece.
When setting, press the corners down
first.

Box Setting
. Use a sheet thicker than the height of the stone.
Mark the center and drill a small hole.

. Cut a bearing with a graver or bur so the girdle of

the stone is below the surface of the sheet.

. Carve four grooves with a round graver. The little

triangles this forms will become prongs.

. Cut away the metal around the hole with a flat

graver.

. Put the stone into place and use a blunt graver to

pry the corner pieces onto the stone. Shape each
prong with a cup bur or beading tool, or both.

Stones > Setting > Rectangular Settings 

 Channel Settings

Channel Setting Rectangular Stones

In this family of settings, a stone (or stones) is laid
into a trench and held as the rim is pressed over. This
setting requires very careful measuring and fitting.
Depending on the location of the mounting and the
toughness of the stone, it is sometimes possible to
simply cut a pair of parallel grooves and slide the
stone into place. Of course it is important that the
metal is rigid, that the grooves are uniform and level,
and that the pressure on the stone is sufficient to
grip the stone without crushing it. The grooves can
be cut with gravers, a Hart bur, or a needle file. Use
close magnification to ensure that the angles of the
cuts perfectly match the angles of the stone. After the
stone is slid into position, press up a small tab of metal
at either end of the setting to keep the stone from
slipping out.

Burnishing a Groove
As described in the gypsy setting,
it is sometimes helpful to create a
small rounded groove beside the
stone. This provides access for a
tool to gather material to be pushed
onto the gem.
Channel Setting Round Stones
. To prevent round stones from pivoting . Locate the center of each segment
on their culets during setting, each with a crosshair and drill a small hole
stone should have its own bearing. here. In a ring,
Lay out the stones by gluing them these should all
into position on a thin film of wax. be perpendicular
Mark to the surface.
the lines
between
each stone.

. Enlarge the holes with a bud bur, . Using gravers and burs, cut a channel
then cut a seat with a setting bur. The to a depth a little greater than the
stone should rest height of the crown. The walls of this
on the surface of cut should be vertical
the metal. and the groove
should be smooth
and polished.

. Angle a Hart bur into each hole to
undercut a notch for each stone. The
slowly rotating bur will undercut
a crescent-shaped groove into one
wall, then swing down to cut into the
opposite wall. Repeat this for each
hole.
. Tilt the stone into position and use
pliers to press the wall of the channel
onto the stones. Use small flat
punches to press the metal flat onto
the stones.

 Stones > Setting > Channel Settings


Pushing Tools
Though a single graver will do the
job, having three gravers with
different angles is better. Buy three
identical gravers—a # round
graver is a good choice—and grind
face angles at º, º and º. The
first tool is used to cut into the
metal, the middle tool levers the
metal onto the
stone, and the
last acts like a
bezel pusher
to seat the
prong securely
against the
stone. Because all three tools have
the same belly shape, each will drop
neatly into position when its turn
comes.
Pavé Settings
Pavé
In pavé, stones are set so close together that little metal can be seen. The
object is “paved” with stones.
. It is important to start with metal
that is thick enough to provide
a bearing from below as well as
prongs from above. Well-cut stones
with a thin, consistent girdle are
preferred for this technique.
. With a tapered bur, enlarge each
hole to be just as large as the stone.
At this point the stone should not
fit into the hole but should rest
with its girdle just flush with the
surface of the metal.
. Set the stones in place, using a thick . Use a twisting and rolling motion
film of beeswax to hold them if they
don’t snap tightly into place. Use
a round graver to pull up a bit of
metal that will become a prong.
. Locating stones accurately is
critical. Set them into plasticene
modeling clay or sticky wax and
take measurements from center to
center of each stone with dividers.
Transfer these measurements to the
metal. Drill holes half the diameter
of the stones.
. Use a graver or bur to cut a bearing
for each stone. Now the stone
should drop into the hole so that its
girdle is just below the surface.
with a polished beading tool to seat,
shape and burnish each prong.
Stones > Setting > Pavé Settings 
 Specialty Settings

Star Setting
This is an unusual and relatively easy way to set a cab. It is equally effective
for all shapes and works well for either large or small stones.
. Trace the stone on sheet metal . Solder a piece of sheet on the
and pierce out the footprint of the underside of the hole to make a floor.
stone. The fit must be snug, so cut This can cover the whole back, mimic
inside the line and file to size. the shape of the stone, or be pierced,
either in a pattern or to reveal most
of the stone. Finish the piece in
preparation for setting the stone.

Backing Sheets . Press the stone into place and draw . With a round graver, pull up fingers
a guideline in pencil about – mm of metal (stitches) to hold the stone
The back can be solid, but what
from the edge, depending on the in place. Set the tip of the graver on
fun is that? Cut away most of the
size and height of the stone. the pencil line and push in a straight
opening to reveal the back of the
line toward the stone, stopping about
stone, or pierce a pattern into the
a millimeter from the edge.
backing sheet.

. Use a liner, a small screwdriver, or

other convenient tool to press the
stitches against the stone.

Overlay Setting
. Trace a stone onto relatively thick sheet metal,
for instance,  or  gauge. Mark a line about
a millimeter inside this. Drill a hole, insert a
sawblade, and cut accurately to this line.
. File the sheet to match the slope of a stone.
The fit must be perfect, so you’ll want to check
it often as you work. Continue until the sheet
drops neatly into place when set over the stone.
. Mark and drill holes in the top sheet, and saw it
to its final shape.
. Locate this layer on the piece and drill one hole
into the base. Make the first rivet.
. Drill a second hole, rivet, and so on, until the
layers are attached. If necessary, burnish the
edge adjacent to the stone to make a tight fit.

 Stones > Setting > Specialty Settings

 Setting from Behind

Setting from Behind

There are times when, for technical or aesthetic reasons, a stone is best set
from the back. A standard bezel may be used — just build it from the back.
Another possibility is this frame-and-stitch method.

. Make a bezel to surround the . Make a collar to fit inside the

stone, slightly higher than usual. bezel. Square or rectangular wire
Solder onto a base sheet, then cut is preferred for this. A snug fit is
away most of the sheet. This is important.
where the stone will show.

. When the piece is polished and
cleaned, set the stone into place
and push the collar in against it
from the back.
. Cut small curls of metal (called
stitches) with a round graver to
lock the collar in place. You can
also hold the collar with screws
or rivets.

Foil
The principal mark of genius is not
perfection but originality.
This process uses gold or silver leaf to pack a stone into a
prepared recess. While not recommended for high stress
settings, there are jewels of the Indian Moguls that were
made hundreds of years ago and still look great today.

Arthur Koestler
. Carve a hole for the . Set the stone in
stone, then undercut place and lay a small
the edges slightly. roll of foil around it.
Pack this down into
the recess with any
convenient tool.
. Continue adding and
packing until the
stone is secure. Be
patient—this takes a
while.

Stones > Setting > Setting from Behind 

 Attaching Pearls & Beads

Pearls
Pearls are usually set by cementing them onto a post. To
make a positive grip, texture, or twist the post. Use epoxy
or pearl cement—not Super Glue or any of the other
cyanoacrylates.

Pearl Holding Jig Prongs

To secure pearls for drilling, grind Don’t put pearls
rounded depressions into the tips or soft stones in
of two popsicle sticks or tongue prongs without also
depressors and join them with cementing them;
a rubber band. Pinch the parts rotation will cause
together to grab onto the pearl scratches. Instead,
enough to hold it without a risk of mount pearls on posts.
marring the surface. Drill as slowly If half-drilled, the gem
as possible. must be glued onto the post. If
drilled through, use a head pin to
mechanically hold the pearl.

Drilling Beads
Pearls can be drilled with Because glue does not adhere well
conventional bits. Go slowly to to stones, it is better to set them
allow the pearl to mechanically. Many methods may
cool. When drilling be devised, from tying to the use of
through, put masking tiny screws and nuts.
tape on the bottom
to protect the nacre
from chipping.

 Stones > Setting > Attaching Pearls & Beads

Wire Wrapping

The Original Cold Connection

One of the first manual skills we learned was how to tie our shoes—at least
before the invention of Velcro. If we’d been using wire instead of laces, we
could all call ourselves tinkers. Bending a wire around on itself to make a
structure is both an ancient craft and a modern hobby. The definitions are
loose, but since the techniques are often used to hold stones, crystals and
organic charms, we’ll include it here. For projects and more details, see any of
the several books dedicated to wire wrapping.

Ornamenting Wires Practice

Plain round wires are usually used
for practice, and sometimes in final
work, but variations enlarge the
range and provide contrast.
Square
Square, twisted.
 wires twisted together
Wire wrapped with another wire
Use round copper or brass wire to
sketch a piece. Make a note of all
the dimensions and the sequence of
steps. Repeat until you can make the
piece with efficiency and confidence.
Wire is simple, but unforgiving. It’s
better to avoid incorrect bends and
unneces-
sary pliers
bites, and
practice is
the best
way to do
that.

Constructing the Skeleton

A frequently used approach is to create a central spine of several wires that
can be opened out to create prongs, curlicues, and spirals. Use this descrip-
tion of a setting for a cabochon to develop your own ideas.
. Bend a barbell . Wrap a wire
shape at least 1⁄2˝ around the verti-
taller than the cal axis; this will
chosen cabochon. become the two
Note location prongs at the top.
of the ends.

. Wrap another length of wire snugly . Complete another identical loop,

around the spine, form a loop slightly trim to length, and
wider than secure the end by
the stone, bending it around
then wrap the axis. Polish,
the wire add a jump ring at
around the the top and set the
axis again. stone by folding up
the loops.

Stones > Setting > Wire Wrapping 

 Stringing

String
Whatever string you use, be certain that it fills the bead hole or the resulting
strand will be sloppy and insecure. Ordinary sewing thread can be used, but
it is generally too thin for most beads. Likewise dental floss can be used, but
because it is flattened it isn’t the best choice. Beading cord is produced in
nylon threads in about a dozen sizes and many colors. These are often sold
on small cards in short lengths that have a needle permanently affixed to
one end. The traditional choice (and still probably the best) is silk cord. It
resists stretching and is sold in many bright colors and a wide range of sizes.
The thinnest cord is called #; sizes move up the alphabet through A, B, and
C as they get bigger. From F the series goes to FF and then FFF, which is the
thickest silk available.

Stringing Equipment
• Use tweezers to hold beads as you work. Protect against scratching soft
stones and glass with a couple of layers of nail polish on the tips.
• A needle tool is handy for guiding the location of knots and poking old bits
of string out of bead holes. A biology needle works well, or a sewing needle
can be taped to a pencil. Soften the point by sanding it.
• To hold the beads, use a piece
of flannel taped to a board or a
piece of stiff paper folded into
ridges. If you’re doing a lot of
stringing, buy a plastic bead tray.

Ending with a French Wire Bead Tips

This process is a little more involved
but yields a more finished look. A
French wire is a coil of extremely
fine wire (usually brass) that can
be purchased from a beading
supplier. Slide about a half inch
onto a threaded needle and move
it  or  inches onto the cord. Slide
on the first bead and tie a knot.
Repeat this for several beads, then
tie off the short thread, and cut it.
Dab on a little glue and continue
threading on a single strand. At the
other end, leave the last three beads
unknotted, slide the French wire
into position and thread the cord
back through the first bead where
you will tie a knot. Proceed through
the second and third beads, tying as
you go. Apply glue to the last couple
of knots of the strand.
 Stones > Stringing
After stringing, the cord is generally
tied off and attached to a hook of
some sort. These findings can be
bought ready-made or fabricated
at the bench. A
typical ending is a
small device called
a bead tip that
consists of a small
cup with an attached
finger. The knot of the
cord is settled into the
cup and the tip is bent
over to hide it as it clutches the
finding. An alternate method uses
a simple piece of tubing to crimp
onto the cord. This can be done
with round-nose
pliers or dull snips.
In either case, lay a
dab of glue or nail
polish on the knot.
Chapter 

Chains
& Clasps
 Chainmaking Basics

Making Jump Rings

Wrap a wire around a rod of the
chosen size keeping each coil tight
to the one before it. Some handy
mandrels are nails, dowels, wire,
and knitting needles. Slide the coil
off and cut it with a jeweler’s saw or
separating disk.

Assembly Sequence
. Make as many rings as you think . Thread a pair of closed rings onto
will be needed. Solder half the an open ring. Close
rings closed. it and solder the
joint. Pick soldering
is the most efficient
method.

. Connect two of the . Continue joining units

three-piece units of , , , etc. until
with a new ring and the chain is the desired
solder it. length. Pickle only
after the assembly is
complete.

Polishing Chains Cutting with a Separating Disk

Never polish chains on the buffing To cut rings made of thin wire with a
wheel! (Unless you have an separating disk, wrap tape over the
oversupply of fingers...) Instead, pull coil then cut through tape and wire
the chain taut, and rub it with steel at the same time. The tape
wool, Scotch-Brite, a scratchbrush, or holds the wires
a polishing cloth. Use wire or string at steady
each end to for the
allow access cutting
to the full disk.
length of
the chain.

Making Square Links Should this ring be soldered?

Wire wrapped around a square or Where possible, the answer is
rectangular mandrel is difficult to slide probably yes. Unsoldered jump rings
off. To provide clearance, cover the can look messy and weaken a chain. If
form with masking tape, then coil the you do not want to solder, the proper
wire around question is this: What ratio of wire-
the rod. Burn to-ring diameter do I need in order to
the tape provide sufficient strength? When you
away and won’t be soldering them, make jump
the wire will rings from work-hardened wire.
slide off.

 Chains > Chainmaking Basics


. Measure and cut a few sizes and
. Make a coil on each end using a
This is how I try to define design, as having
to do with how things fit — how things fit
the hand, how furniture fits the body, how
people fit in buildings, and how buildings
fit the landscape. Design, most of the time,
is about finding this sense of fit between
people, places, and things.
Akiko Busch
Unsoldered Chains
Egyptian Spiral
. Now, assuming you remember how
bend each one long that piece was (oops, maybe I
to shape, then should have written that down), cut
choose the off pieces of wire, and file the ends
one that fits to a taper. Bend each piece to make
your needs. a hairpin
shape.
. Bend the top of the loop over to
combination of fingers and pliers to prepare this link to accept the next
roll the spirals tight. one. Assemble the chain by sliding
each successive link through the
loop of the preceding link.
Figure  Chain
After winding a coil around a rod, pull
down four rings, and cut. Open the rings
in the middle as you would open a book.
Curl out each end and form a small loop
at each tip. Repeat. Hook these links
together, each one holding the link
ahead and behind.
Coil Link Chain
Start by deciding the number of rings
you want in each link (here, five). Wrap
wire to make a coil and pull down the
chosen number of rings, cut and repeat.
Use pliers to pull out and open the end
links. Connect the links, then make the
links symmetrical by carefully making
minor adjustments to each one.
Chains > Unsoldered Chains 
 Idiot’s Delight Chains

Some people think this chain got
its name because it’s so easy that
even an idiot can make it. Others
maintain that the name refers to
the mental degeneration caused
by trying to figure it out. Links
are usually left unsoldered and so
they should be work-hardened by
drawing the wire down or twisting it
before coiling.
Idiot’s Delight
. Make a batch of rings; . Feed an open ring . Feed a second open ring
open half and close the through four closed through the same four and
other half. Always open rings, then close it. close it. Shading indicates
by twisting sideways. two rings, side by side.
E E
E
A
C,D
B F
C,D
F F

. Flop two rings back and . Flop E and F to the left . Slip two closed rings (G
put a wire or paper clip and right. Flop C and D and H) on an open ring (I)
through them to serve forward and backward and feed (I) into the space
as a handle. to expose the lower held by the needle. Let the
The proportion of wire size to loop section of E and F. Slide needle drop out and close
size is important for a compact a needle through here the ring. Add a second link
chain. Larger loop proportions are as a place holder. (J) beside I and close it.
easier to assemble, but the pattern
they create is less dramatic. G
G
G,H
Wire Inside Diameter Links/
Size inch I,J H
H
 ⁄" . mm  . Continue as before,
. Let the chain droop to . Fold G and H out to
 ⁄" .  allow each link to fall expose the lower portion adding an open ring that
into place. When you of I and J. Slide the already has two closed
 1⁄8" .  lay it out the pattern needle through here. rings on it… and so on.
 ⁄" .  should emerge. This is a repeat of #.

Sequential Link

G, H

Follow – above. At this
point add two more rings
through G and H and close
them. These are marked
K and L.
Repeat the flopping
operation: K & L to either
side, G and H laid apart
to expose the bottom
section of K and L. Insert
a needle tool here to
mark the spot.
As above, add an open ring
that has two closed rings
on it. Double this joint by
adding a second ring in the
same place. Now add two
more (like K and L) and
continue.

 Chains >Idiot’s Delight Chains


Access Video
Library
on CD
Tips
> Grab the end of the wire with
pliers to pull each new loop snug
on the scribe.
> Try to keep the loops uniform in
size.
> Use wires of various metals for
color effects.
> You can make this chain with
three, four, five, or more loops.
In Step # make the number of
loops equal to the size chain you
want to make. More loops make
the chain larger, more intricate in
appearance, and hollow.
> To create a tapering chain, add
a loop periodically by simply
creating one as you weave. To
reduce the diameter, fold a loop
into the chain, and skip over it.
This chain will not be able to go
through a drawplate, but it can be
shaped by rolling it on a table.
Woven Chains
Woven Chain
. Start with a piece of wire about . Gather in the loops and wrap
two feet long. This chain works in them with the short
any size, but – B&S is typical. end as if you were
Bend an EKG-sort of squiggle so the tying a bundle.
height of each bump is no more Using pliers, pull
than 3⁄4" ( mm). The number of the loops into
humps (in this example, ) will a symmetrical
determine the arrangement. This
size of the chain. looks a bit like a
Any number flower (Okay, a scrawny, ugly
between  and  flower.)
is possible.
. Feed the long end . Slide the end back into the loop
through a loop (any it just came out of
loop), going from and out through the
inside the bunch adjacent loop. Put a
outward. scribe in the new loop
and pull it tight. Note
that if it were not for
the scribe, the loop
would be pulled through and would
disappear. That’s how you can tell
you’ve got it right.
. Continue until there is only about
. Repeat this process, folding new
an inch of wire left. The first step
loops upward (along the chain’s
in adding more wire is to make a
axis) as you go.
half stitch. That is, feed the wire
Pull each loop
back into the loop it is coming
tight on the scribe..
out of, but do not send it out the
You can proceed
neighboring loop. Feed the end of a
clockwise or
-foot length of wire into the loop
counterclockwise,
that would have received the next
but once you’ve
stitch. Twist the old and new ends
chosen a direction,
together and snip off excess wire.
stick with it.
Resume weaving, keeping the twist
inside the chain.
. To compress and elongate the . To make the chain flexible, anneal
weave, anneal the chain and pull it the drawn chain, and wrap it
gently through a drawplate. around a dowel held in a vise. Pull
back and forth vigorously. Anneal
and repeat
until the
chain is
pliable.
Chains > Woven Chains 
 Chain Mail

Chain Mail
Our word “mail” comes from the Middle English maille, which in turn comes
from the Latin macula meaning “mesh, net.” We usually associate mail with
protective garments worn by chivalrous knights, but strips of the same
construction can be worn as chains.
Mail appears to have been used by several cultures, and in particular is
associated with the Celts of the th century,  who probably passed it along
to the Romans. There are hundreds of patterns, with more being invented
still. Interested readers will find a wealth of resources on the Web, such as
www.chainmailconnection.com. Thanks to all those artists whose sites have
helped in this summary.

Four-to-One (each ring connects to four others)

. Start by making a considerable
quantity of jump rings. Work-
harden the wire before
making the rings.
. Close three-fourths of the rings
neatly and set them
aside. Take four closed
rings onto one open
ring. Close it neatly
and set it aside. Make
several of these five-
ring units.

. Lay out . Feed an open

the rings ring (colored)
symmetrically to connect the
like this: two units.

Horizontal Method . Continue . To double the width, make two

Some people prefer to assemble the in this way, bands as described above, and
mesh horizontally. Start by making a coupling five- lay them neatly side by side on
long series of double rings joined by ring units a flat surface. Feed in open rings
single ones. Lay out several strands together to (colored) to join the strands.
and hook them together with open make a chain. Continue in this way to make
rings. wider pieces.
This flat
strap can be
rolled into a
tube, where
another
open ring is
used to close
the seam.

 Chains > Chain Mail

 Chain Mail

Six-to-One
This denser mail follows a pattern similar to the Four-to-One, but in this style
each ring connects with six others. This is only one of the several ways to
assemble this chain.
. Start with seven A B . Fold the top links
A B
closed rings, linked down and the
into three pairs and C D third set (E,F) C D
one single, on the side-to-side.
E F
end. E F

. Lay the structure open like this, . Make several strands in this
then slide a three-ring unit onto manner, then attach them side
the center link. by side by adding a vertical row of
single rings, one above the other.

Wire-to-Ring Size
As a general rule, a proportion Add
of about  to  seems to give a these
workable mail. This means a  mm three
wire should be wrapped around a
 mm rod.

Making Rings Italian Pattern Store-Bought Rings

This is just one of the hundreds If the thrill has gone out of making a
of alternate patterns of mail. couple thousand rings, you can find
Historically most mail was made of them commercially available, for
steel, but it is possible to use metals instance at:
Start by coiling a tight spring of
of contrasting color, which enlarges
wire, then pull it evenly from both Chainmaille Fashions
the pattern options even further.
ends to create even spaces between  Norris Drive
each wrap. This will leave the rings Austin, TX 
open after cutting. --
www.chainmail.com

Thanks to John J. Palmer whose

drawings provided a template for these
illustrations. Used with permision.

Chains > Chain Mail 


Elongated
Round loops are the easiest to make,
to open, and to close. Whenever
possible, make round links. After
assembling a chain with soldered
links, catch a link on the tip of round-
nose pliers, and pull the handles to
stretch the loop. These can also be
twisted after
stretching by
using two pairs
of pliers.
 Chains > Cable Chains
Cable Chains
Cable
This is the chain we probably think of when we think of chains—it’s the chain
we made as kids by interlocking and gluing strips of construction paper.
Variations on this chain alone would make a book. Here are a few to get started.
> The proportion of wire to loop will make huge differences.
> Loops can be of different sizes, either in a sequence or distributed randomly.
> Loops can be of contrasting metals.
> Loops can be doubled up; the whole chain, alternating links, or randomly.
Hammering
 
. Count out half of the jump rings and solder them closed with hard solder.
Pickle, rinse, and dry, then planish on an anvil. Set these aside.
. Spread the remaining rings on an anvil and planish each ring to the desired
shape. Be careful to strike the ring evenly all around so the
ends remain close together.
. Use the method described earlier to assemble the chain,
joining two soldered rings with each open ring. Continue
until all the rings are used.
. Replanish as needed to camouflage the solder joints.
 
. Make a standard cable chain of round wire as described
earlier. Pickle, rinse, and dry the chain.
. Working over an edge of an anvil, planish each loop in
succession. You will need to strike a few blows then turn
the loop to expose a new section.
Prepared Wires
Cable chains can be made with wires that are other than round. These can
sometimes be bought, but all can be made. In most cases the irregularity
of benchmade material will be apparent. Just as a handmade chain looks
different from a chain made by a machine, wires made commercially look
different from stock you make yourself.
Banded Solder or fuse two or three wires side by side, then use these to
make the loops. Work in lengths of about " for convenience.
Ornamented Start with square or half-round wire and planish it to create a
facet. Decorate this by stamping, light filing, engraving, or roll
printing. Anneal the wire before making loops.
Composite Solder two or three wires of different character together. These
could contrast in shape, size, or color, for instance by trapping a
gold wire between silver wires.
Sheet Use strips cut from sheet to make the loops. These can be
uniform or irregular, plain or ornamented.

Why is it called curb chain?
Curb: to restrain; a strap or chain in
horse harnesses used to restrain the
animal.
Curb Chains
Curb
This style of chain has
become familiar in its
commercially made
versions, so we might
forget what an impressive and satisfying chain it is
to make. If you file and polish a large facet on each
link, a curb chain offers a lot of sparkle. Remember
to start with heavy gauge wire so the filing step
doesn’t weaken the chain.
. Start by making a conventional (basic) chain with round loops,
all well soldered. It’s possible to make this chain with almost any
loop/wire ratio but it usually looks best
with a tight chain.
. Examine the chain to see that each link
is well soldered and symmetrical. File off any lumps of solder.
Irregularities at this stage will be exaggerated in the next step.
. Grip the end links in a bench vise and twist the chain while
maintaining a firm backward pressure on it. Remove, anneal, and
return to the vise, reversing the ends. (The end that turns seems
to twist more and this will even
it out.) Remove the chain and
let it hang naturally. This should
reveal a symmetrical twist. For
heavy links, twist one link at a
time.
. Drip a little shellac on the edge of a board whose
thickness matches the width of the chain. Lay the
chain into the gooey shellac and be certain it is
straight. Allow the shellac to harden.
. File the exposed surface of the chain, then switch
to sanding sticks, progressing from coarse to a
polishing paper such as . Buff with a leather
stick or felt buff on a flex shaft.
. Warm the shellac, lift the chain out, and turn it over.
Position carefully, then allow the shellac to harden. File,
sand, and polish as before. Warm the shellac enough to
pull the chain free, then dissolve the remaining shellac
in alcohol. Rinse and polish with a rouge cloth.
Figaro
> This style alternates clusters of two, three,
four, or five links with an elongated link.
Chains > Curb Chains 

Terminology
The wealth of variations within the
loop-in-loop family makes it easy to
get confused when we start talking
about these chains. Here are a few
guidelines:
Single =  loop through  loop.
Double =  loop through  loops.
One way = new loops always added
along a single axis, for
instance, north/south.
Two way = new loops are added on
two axes, typically each
perpendicular to the
preceding one.
Pinched = any chain in which the
links are pinched at the
waist (e.g. Sailor's).
These terms can be combined to
describe all chains, such as, two-way
double.
 Chains > Basic Loop-in-Loop Chains
Basic Loop-in-Loop Chains
The Loop-in-Loop Family
Chains in this family share a common building block—links that are soldered
or fused closed before assembly. In most cases the links are made round
and shaped into long ovals before they are slid one into the next. Thanks to
Jean Stark, whose excellent book, Classical Loop-in-Loop Chains and Their
Derivatives provided a lot of this information, used with permission.
Basic Loop-in-Loop
This ancient chain is popular for its versatile beauty. It takes a while to make,
but the procedure is simple. Unlike other members of the family, almost any
combination of wire size and loop diameter will look attractive.
. Wrap wire around a rod and cut the
rings, typically with small scissors. In
the basic chain almost any wire-to-loop
proportion will look good, but the effect
can be quite different. For this reason,
it’s a good idea to make a sample before
cutting out too many rings.
. Bend each loop so the ends come
together to make a tight joint. Fuse or
solder the rings closed, ideally with an
invisible joint. If you use solder, keep
the chips as small as possible. Roll a
sheet of solder through the mill until
the rollers cannot be brought any closer
together. Cut this very thin sheet into
tiny pieces and use only one on each
joint. A biology needle makes a good
solder pick.
. With round-nose pliers, pull each ring
into a long oval. Try to avoid stretching
the rings; the goal is to achieve uniform
size. To maintain a uniform size, some
people mark their pliers, either with ink
or by filing a small groove.
 Basic Loop-in-Loop Chains

. To start the chain, bend a loop so

that the two ends (which we’ll
call wickets) face each other. Add
a twist of wire to make a handle.

. To weave, bend the tops of the

lower loop up and feed a new
loop through both wickets. Bend
the ends of this new loop up a
little to hold it in place.

. New loops are added this way,

always going through the lowest
loop possible. It is often necessary
to straighten or enlarge loops
with a scribe or similar sharp tool
as the assembly progresses.

. When assembly is complete,

press each link down onto a
tapered point to make the form
symmetrical. Rotate and press
each link down four times.

. To compress and lengthen the

chain, pull lightly through a
round drawplate. A wooden or
plastic drawplate is sufficient for
this step. Anneal the chain before
drawing.
Diameter of mandrel

I hear and I forget. Suggested Sizes

Finished diameter

It’s a good idea to make an inch or

Wire Size (B&S)

I see and I remember.

Links per inch

two of sample chain to confirm the

I do and I understand. size of wire and loop that will best
meet your needs. Here are some
points of reference:
Chinese proverb
22 10 mm 5 mm 13
24 7 mm 4 mm 18
26 6 mm 31⁄2 mm 20
28 5 mm 3 mm 24

Chains > Basic Loop-in-Loop Chains 

 Double Loop-in-Loop Chains

Double Loop-in-Loop, Single Direction

This ancient chain
is perhaps the most
used and best loved
variation in this
chain family. Links and assembly are similar to the basic chain except that each
new link is inserted through the last two loops rather than just one. The result
in most cases is a compact, square chain.

. Make loops as described previously. . Slide one link through

Proportion is important in this another, then catch both
style, so make a test before you get on a twist of wire. This
too far along. handle will make it easier
Stretch the to hold the chain as you
links and pinch get started.
one end to
make it narrow.

. Insert the third link under the . In most cases, (depending on the
midsection of both of the first loops. proportion of the loops) you’ll need
Continue in to open each loop after it has been
this way, always inserted. That is, each loop first
adding each needs to be narrow enough to go
new link under through a loop, then open enough
the preceding that the next link can go through it.
two links. For this reason you’ll want a sharp,
polished scribe close at hand as
you weave this chain. The assembly
process goes a little slower, but
a pleasant by-product is that the
chain usually requires only slight
working to become smooth and
uniform.

. When weaving is complete,

anneal the chain and lay it out
straight on a board or wooden
tabletop. Tap lightly with a
rawhide or plastic mallet.

 Chains > Double Loop-in-Loop Chains

 Double Loop-in-Loop Chains

Two-Way Double Loop-in-Loop

This chain uses
the same links
as the one on
the preceeding
page but in this case each new loop is added perpendicular to the one before.
If the odd-numbered links (, , , etc.) are running north-south, the even-
numbered links run east-west. This chain is equally successful whether you
make it single (going through last loop only) or double (going through the last
two loops).

. Make links as described earlier. . Lay two links at right angles and
solder them together.
Some people like to
solder a short piece
of wire onto these to
serve as a temporary
handle.

. Bend up the lower link and insert
a new loop through it.
. Turn the chain ° and bend up
the other link. Notice that it is
now the lower link—this is the
one you always want. Insert a
link, bend it up and reshape it
as needed so it will be ready to
accept a new link when its turn
comes.

. Continue in this way. You will . Like the other double chain, this
see that you are a weave requires a lot of shaping
weaving two basic as it goes together. The result of
loop-in-loop chains this is that the chain is usually
(page ) one smooth and uniform as it comes
inside the other. together. When complete,
anneal and either tap lightly on a
wooden surface or pull through a
drawplate.

Variations
Not only can you use two colors of metal, but you can do it in two ways. If
each link alternates you’ll end up with a square chain in which adjacent sides
ahave a different color. If you add two of each color in sequence, (e.g.,  gold,
 silver, etc.) the resulting chain shows a spiral of colors along its length.

Instead of two, start with three or four links. The assembly is as described,
and again in these cases you have the option of a single or double weave.
Links for these chains need to be quite long and thin—make a test to
determine the best starting loop dimensions.

Chains > Double Loop-in-Loop Chains 

 Sailor’s Chains

Sailor’s Chain
Apparently this chain takes its name from the common use of a chain like this
used to secure anchors to ships.

. Make loops as for any loop-in- . Fold each loop over a round-nose
loop chain: wrap, cut, fuse/solder, pliers to make a U-shape.
and stretch.

. Catch the loop on two scribes

that are held at a right angle and
pinch it at the waist. This can be
done in the middle of the loop
but the chain is more dramatic if
one pair of wickets is larger than
the other—in other words, pinch
slightly to one side of the center.
Repeat on all the loops.

. Open the loops so the larger

wickets are separated. Planish
both ends. Anneal all the links.

. Reclose the links (like closing a

book) so the hammered sections
lay side by side again. Reshape
each link and make them uniform
by pressing each one down on a
pair of scribes, marked with the
appropriate diameter.

. Assemble the chain by feeding

When we live in awareness, we
one loop into another. Open,
can see miracles everywhere. twist, and re-form as needed.

Thich Nhat Hann

 Chains > Sailor’s Chains

Fold-Over Chains

Fold-Over Loop-in-Loop Chain

This variation on the loop-in-loop construction was developed by Jean Stark
and is included here with her kind permission.

Making Links
A. Make a quantity of round loops
and fuse or solder the ends
together. This is the same starting
point for all loop-in-loop chains.
Stretch each loop with round-
nose pliers to make a long oval,
then pinch one end. Holding
the loop vertically, use a small
hot torch flame to convert the
bottom area to a solid ball.
B. An alternate way to make the
basic loop is to cut a quantity of
identical lengths of the chosen
wire. Bend each wire to the ends
lay side by side. Make a quantity
of small shot, starting with
identical chips of metal. Solder or
fuse the shot onto the end points
of the wires, then shape each link
with pliers.

. Planish the wicket end with a . Bend each link by folding it over a
polished hammer face. dowel or round-nose plier jaws.

. To assemble the chain, feed each link into the next,

and press the ball down. This must be tight
enough that the links can’t come apart but
not so tight that the movement binds up.

Chains > Fold-Over Chains 

 Loop-in-Loop Mesh

Loop-in-Loop Mesh
This elegant strap can be used as a bracelet, necklace, or component. Just
having a piece to carry around in your pocket will make you feel better. In
most cases you’ll want to use fine gauge wire to capture the delicacy of the
mesh (– B&S).

. Make a basic loop-in-loop chain as described earlier.

Any size loop will work as long as there is some
room in the weave. For this example, make four
chains equal to the intended length of the mesh.

. After assembling the four chains, shape each link

by pressing it onto a scribe point in each of its four
orientations. The goal is to create open, uniform links.

. Lay the chains side by side and run a bit of wire

through at one end to hold them together. Measure
the width of the mesh and add enough to allow a loop
to form at each end. Make a sample link, then work
backwards to determine the mandrel needed to make
these loops. Make the same number of loops as there
are links in each chain. Fuse, stretch, pickle, and rinse.
Press the legs together leaving a “normal” loop on one
end and a much smaller node on the other.

Variations . Starting at one end of the mesh, feed the narrower

> The long loops and short loops can
be made of contrasting metals.
> The same concept
can be used to join
beads, tubes, and
other elements. In fact,
anything with a hole
through it can be
joined in this way.
For further and more detailed
instructions on this family of chains, see
Loop-in-Loop Chains and Their Derivatives,
by Jean Stark (Brynmorgen Press, ).
end through all the chains then bend up the ends of
the long loop. Feed the next loop through these as
well as the next loops in the chain. Notice that the
long loops add width to the mesh. This process can
be used to join two, three, four, or more chains.
Alternate Method
Jean Stark (who knows a lot about chains) makes mesh differently, though the
end result is the same. She starts by soldering together a first link. This has four
small loops (“dog bones”) side by side with a long
loop laid down the center axis. Fold up the small
loops and add a small loop through each. Fold
up the ends of the long loop and add another
long loop here. In this process the chains are
made and joined into mesh simultaneously. This
method, unlike the process above, allows for a
double version.

 Chains > Loop-in-Loop Mesh

 Mesh from Coils

Mesh from Coils

This strap lends itself to
a bracelet or watch band.

. Wrap round wire around a rod to . Using the same mandrel and wire,
create a neat coil. The length will make another dozen coils, this time
be about half the wrapping in the
width of the strap. opposite direction.
Make at least a
dozen identical
coils.

. Pull each coil lengthwise to open . Slide a right-handed coil into a

the spiral. The space between left-handed coil and insert a wire
each wrap should be uniform and through the tunnel created by the
a little larger than the wire being overlap. Repeat to construct the
used. Insert the edge of a piece of band.
sheet into a space and screw the
coil along it to make the openings
uniform.

. Measure the length of the chain . Solder each straight wire to a coil
that resulted from your initial coils at each end to hold it in place. Snip,
(two dozen in this example). From file, sand and polish to complete
this you can calculate how many the chain.
more coils will be needed. Make
these and continue building the
strap.

Chains > Mesh from Coils 

 Pantera Chains

Pantera Chain
The building block of this chain
is a long flat loop, typically
made from half-round or
flattened wire. Use whichever of
these methods appeals to you—the result should be the same.

A. Wrap half-round wire around B. Wrap half-round wire around a
a dowel, cut off jump rings, and strip of copper or brass to form
solder each one a flat coil.
closed. Stretch Cut off links
each loop to with a saw
elongate it, or separating
pressing with disk. Separate
pliers to make it out three-
flat. Count out fifths, close the joints on these , and
two-fifths of these and saw them solder them.
open at the soldered seam.

C. Cut identical lengths of half-round . Bend a length of coat hanger wire
wire and bend these by eye to to make an inverted “L ”. This will
create flat oval loops. Solder the support three links during the next
ends together on three-fifths of step. To establish proper spacing,
these. file three notches in
the wire such that
the space between
them is the same
as the width of the
half-round wire used
to make each link.

. Slide three links onto the rack and insert a fluxed round wire so it spans all
three. Solder it in place. Repeat for enough links to equal about half the
desired length of chain.

. Solder another piece of round wire
across the other end of the -ring
link. For this step, lean the loop
against a piece of firebrick or similar
support—this will allow the wire to
settle naturally into position.
. Use the open loops to connect two
links. Close the gaps and solder.
Continue in this way until the
chain is completed.

 Chains > Pantera Chains

Terminals

Terminals
There are literally thousands of ways to create ending elements for chains and
cords. Here are a few suggestions to get you started.

This is about as simple Solder a length of Wrap wire around a

as they come: solder tube onto a jump ring, mandrel that is slightly
one ring into another, then solder or smaller than the cord
then attach that to glue the cord (to allow for spring
the chain. For elegant into the tube. back). Solder
simplicity, it’s Use unusual the coils
hard to beat. proportions together as you
solder a ring
to create an
into position
interesting
acrosss the top
terminal. of the coil.

You’ll be able to devise Tubing can be This ending is

dozens of variations ornamented with fabricated from wire,
on this style—a length engraving, file work, first by attaching two
of tubing, capped and mixed metals, and pieces to form an X.
fitted with other techniques to These were then bent
a ring. In make fancy down to make
this case, terminals. a cage, and
saw a jump secured with
ring in half two jump rings.
to make an
interesting
hoop.

This classic terminal Cut a sheet of thin Make a cone from

starts with a length metal into the form sheet metal and solder
of tubing and a wire above. File the edges a jump ring onto the
that makes a snug fit and bend over a nail tip. As shown, this can
into it. Solder them or similar tool. Close be embellished, for
together, then file to the sides, solder them instance, with shot of
create a smooth taper. together, and attach a contrasting metal.
Anneal and bend the the cord or chain.
length into a graceful
curve.

Chains > Terminals 


All the really good ideas I ever
had came to me while
I was milking a cow.
Grant Wood
 Catches & Clasps > Assorted Clasps
Assorted Clasps
Introduction to Clasps
A wide range of clasps are available commercially but there are some cases
where a custom-made clasp is needed to properly finish a necklace or
bracelet. The following pages illustrate a few of the hundreds of possibilities,
each of which can be modified for your specific needs. Rather than copy
directly, examine these examples to learn how they work. Once you
understand the logic of the mechanism and the relationships of the parts, it
will be easy to adjust the design.
A successful clasp will:
> be secure.
> inspire confidence.
> be easy to understand and operate.
> contribute to the design, visually and conceptually.
> be easy to adjust and repair.
Toggle Clasps
This classic clasp combines simplicity, versatility and
practicality. It’s easy to make, relatively easy to use,
and very secure. The concept lends itself to all sorts of
embellishments.
Toggles consist of two parts, and while they can be x
almost any size, the relationship between the parts is
important. Both the Ring and the Bar need to be free to
pivot, so both have a small loop. The diameter of the Ring
(x) is slightly smaller than the distance from the center
of the Bar to either end. The Bar-plus-small-loop must be
able to pass easily through the Ring.
x+
Magnetic Clasps
Magnets have been around for centuries but they were not viable for jewelry
fastenings until recently, when it became possible to make a strong magnet
that was both tiny and affordable. This is called a
Neodymium-Iron-Boron supermagnet, or neodymium
or NIB for short. These can be purchased through
scientific supply companies.
For best results, design a clasp that includes parts that
align themselves and construct them in such a way that the
magnets can be set into place like a stone. Magnets cannot
withstand the heat of soldering.
Be Careful
At larger-than-jewelry sizes, two of these powerful magnets can slam together
with a force similar to a squeeze with pliers, so keep your fingers out of the way.
When they collide, they can shoot off splinters, so safety goggles are a must.
Also, remember that magnets will damage videotapes, computer disks and credit
cards. Pregnant women should also limit exposure to magnets.
 Barrel Clasps

Barrel Clasp
. Make two tubes that fit together. Cut two equal lengths of
the larger diameter and solder a cap onto each. Drill a hole in
the center of each cap. Cut a length equal to about two-thirds
of the length of the clasp. This will become the threaded rod.

. The smaller tube needs to be centered onto the end of

one piece of the larger tube. On a small piece of sheet, use
dividers or a template to mark a centerpoint and scribe a
circle slightly larger than the outer tube. Drill a hole in the
center that is the same size as the smaller tube. Insert this
and solder it to the sheet, then cut around it on the scribed
line to make a cap for the larger tube.

. Wrap annealed wire around a piece of the smaller diameter tube.

Stretch the coil so the spaces between wires are the same size as the
wire. Cut off two sections, one that is about three-fourths of
a loop and one that is about one and a half turns. Slide the
longer coil into the larger tube and solder it into position.
Solder the smaller length onto the smaller (inner) tube.
. Screw the parts together. If the screw mechanism is stiff, mix tripoli shavings with oil
to make a slurry. Spread this on the threads and work the mechanism to loosen it.
. Make two eyelets to attach the clasp to a chain. Draw a bead
on the end of two lengths of wire, feed each through the
clasp units and form a loop. Solder them closed.

J-Clasp
In this versatile necklace clasp a piston slides into a sleeve, rotates, and is pushed
outward to lock into the hook section of the slot. Though shown in a simple version,
this clasp can be embellished.

. Make or buy a length of tube and a . Drill a hole at what will

rod that fits smoothly into it. Cap the be the end of a J-shaped
outer tube and attach a loop. This can loop and saw to this. File
be fixed the edges to make them
or free to smooth and parallel.
rotate.

. Solder a wire (same size as the slot)
on the tip of the rod at a right angle.
Attach a loop to the opposite end of
the rod.
. Make a spring from thin, hard-drawn
brass wire, a little smaller than the
inside diameter of the tube. Curl out
one end of the
spring to hold
it in place and
force it all the way into the tube. The
spring pushes the tongue outward, and
locks the peg into the end of the slot.

Catches & Clasps > Barrel Clasps 

 Lentil Clasp

Lentil Clasp
This rotational catch can be used on bracelets but is most appropriate for
necklaces. When closed, the clasp makes a lentil-shaped lozenge. A variation
with full hemispheres makes a ball catch. The interior locking mechanism can
take several shapes but the location of the loops will be the same in all cases,
engineered so the pull of gravity on the necklace keeps the clasp closed.

. Cut out two identical disks and dap . With a divider, scribe a circle onto
them to achieve the same depth. sheet metal (e.g.,  B&S) equal to
Rub on sandpaper to flatten the the diameter of the disks. Be certain
edge. the center point is clear.

. Cut out the key shape—a triangle, . Trace the key shape onto sheet
square, or keyhole—making certain ( B&S). Saw it out, cutting a bit
it is centered on the disk. outside the lines.
The disk should
File until the key make a tight fit
makes a perfect in the opening.
fit in the keyhole.

. Cut out a circle that can rotate
inside the key hole. Solder this to
the center of the key. Alternatively,
cut off a short
section from large
gauge round wire.
. Scribe a circle around the key
There ain’t any answer. There with dividers. Use a graver to raise
stitches up to the scribed circles on
ain’t going to be any answer. both sheets. These
There never has been an answer.
barbs will keep the
domes in position
That’s the answer. during soldering.
. Solder the raised key onto a piece of
sheet. Pickle, rinse, and test the fit
into the keyhole. File as needed to
make a snug fit. Drill a hole through
the center of the key. This allows air
to escape during soldering and also
helps in transferring the location of
the key from one side of the sheet
to the other.
. Solder the domes onto the sheets.
Pickle, rinse, and cut off excess.
Mark the location of the key and
keyhole with a permanent marker.
This will make
it easier to get
them apart later.

. Lock the pieces together and file,
then sand the domes to create a
Gertrude Stein smooth, symmetrical lozenge or
sphere.
. Mark the proper location for
jump rings, separate the halves,
and attach a ring to each side. File
a crescent-shaped notch into the
rings to make
a strong and
attractive joint.

 Catches & Clasps > Lentil Clasps

Specialty Clasps

Spring Plunger Clasp

. You will need a short length of tubing and a wire
that fits snugly inside it. Cap the tube and attach a
loop to connect to the chain. Make a tiny spring by
tightly wrapping hard-drawn  B&S brass wire.

. File a taper, solder it onto the tube, and bend it into

a curl. Be sure that the end of the curl is tucked
under.

. Solder a bit of sheet on the wire and file it to make a

smooth, round cap on the plunger.

. After polishing, bend the curl to the side, then

slide the spring, and plunger into place. Bend the
wire back to hold them. Add a drop of light oil to
lubricate the moving parts.

To clasp, push the rectangular tab straight in; the plunger will slide into
the tube, then spring back. To unclasp, just pull the tab straight out.

Tension Spring Clasp

For pins, barrettes, earrings, etc.
. Solder a bar of  or  gauge sheet onto the back of
the piece. File a groove on the top edge.
. Solder a tube in the center of this piece, resting in
the groove.
. Solder heavy square wire onto the top File off the
back edge of the tube. After soldering, file darker section
this into a rounded shape. after soldering.
. Cut another piece of sheet as wide as the
bar in Step . This piece should be half as thick as that
and slightly longer. Solder pins on the sides of this
piece.
. Saw two lines in from the top edge, centered and the
same distance apart as the length of the tube in Step .
. Bend up the center tab and cut away about  mm of
the side flaps.
. File a groove into the shortened ends.
. Solder a piece of the same tube used before across the
short tabs. Saw out the center section of the tube.
. Harden the pins by twisting them, then file and polish
a bullet-shaped point on the end. After polishing,
assemble with a pin as you would for a
hinge. This will require pushing down on
the spring unit (the piece with pins). Adjust
the center tab by bending with pliers to
create the correct amount of tension.

Catches & Clasps > Specialty Clasps 

 Basic Box Catches

Basics
> In all these clasps it is important to measure carefully. Make the receiving side
first, then make the tongue oversized and file it to achieve a perfect fit.
> The tongue should slide snugly into its bay, with no sloppiness side to side.
> The tongue is usually about  gauge. After folding and checking the fit, planish
the fold to harden it.
> The inside of the snag must be crisp in order to catch not good
the leading edge of the tongue. Don’t use too
much solder here.
It is a common mistake to think good
> The amount of squeeze needed for release should be
that a thicker sheet means a
slight. Make the tongue as long as possible;  mm
stronger clasp. If anything, the
is typical. Too short a tongue requires more push this snag is
reverse is true. – gauge is
to release and is therefore more likely to break. too long
typical.
The release distance is also determined by the length
of the snag. It should be just long enough to catch this snag is
too short
the tongue and nothing more.

. Make a rectangular frame, typically . Saw off most of one of the short
from  or  gauge sides to make the
metal. It is important opening for the
that the corners are tongue.
square and the sides
perfectly parallel.

. Cut a strip of metal for the tongue, . Solder a trigger onto the tongue. To
twice as long as the box and quite center, set dividers by eye to mid-
thin. Cut slightly oversize and file to width, then scribe a line from both
make a perfect fit into the box (easiest sides.
to do now
because
the box is
still open).

. Solder on the . Scribe a shallow line across the

second deck, closing tongue,
the box. Leave it making
long enough to sure it is
make a space for the perpendicular
loop. Polish all parts. to the edge.

. Fold the tongue, planish the fold . Test the fit, filing as needed to make
lightly, then the parts slide together and click.
pry the Cut the trigger to its final length
tongue up and file or saw a few notches for a
with a blade. fingernail grip.

 Catches & Clasps >Basic Box Catches

 Box Catch Variations

Tube Box Catch

. Make a jump ring slightly larger
than the inside diameter of a tube.
File it so all edges are square and
crisp, such that it fits snugly into
the tube. Solder
into place.
. Solder a wire into a second length
of tube—this will become the
tongue. Planish the wire so it is
thin in the midsection where it
will bend. This will create the
springiness.

. Planish the wire so it is thin in the
midsection where it will bend. File
a notch and a “ramp” that leads up
to it. Bend the tongue, cinch with
pliers, then reopen and adjust as
needed.
. At least one end of this catch
should be free to rotate; otherwise
there will be tension on the tongue
as the catch rotates
during wear.

Safety Catches Unusual Shapes

Any of these styles may be given a The area into
safety mechanism by adding a ball which the
and loop. tongue fits
must be a
tight fit, and
will almost always
be rectangular.
The overall shape
of the catch can be something
else; just create the bay you need
internally.

In one style, the trigger fits into a
slot in the box. An alternative is to
position the trigger outside the box.
The advantage of this style is that
the location of the hole can wait
until the clasp is completed. Paint
the tongue and slide it into place.
Pull it back out, then drill at the end
of the trail left in the paint.
This shortcut clasp is made by
drilling a hole, piercing a U-shaped
line, and soldering a peg into the
drilled hole. Lift the tongue while
soldering.

Catches & Clasps > Box Catch Variations 


Attached Chain
Use a short length of
chain to safely attach
a removable hinge
pin to a jewelry piece.
Keep the chain just
long enough to allow
the pin to slide out—too much risks
snagging. The chain can be handmade
or commercial, as best suits the piece.
Providing a Base
When the bracelet has many
strands, build the clasp in a
bent piece of sheet metal.
This will provide stability,
better solder contact, and
alignment.
 Catches & Clasps > Hinge-Based Catches
Hinge-Based Catches
Hinges as Clasps
This family of hinges, most often used on bracelets, consists of a standard
hinge with three or five knuckles, usually made of tubing with an inside
diameter of about – mm. The clasp is undone by pulling the hinge pin
out, either all the way, or enough to clear all but one knuckle. To prevent
the pin from being lost, it is attached in some way.
When the bracelet has several strands, build the clasps in two pieces of
scored and folded sheet metal. This will provide support, solid soldering
contact, and alignment.
When attaching the pin with a chain, see that it is long enough to allow
the pin to be removed, but only that. Excess chain is distracting and likely
to catch on clothing.
Folded Tab
. Make a three-part hinge.
. Select half-round wire with a diameter equal to the inside
diameter of the tube. Fold it in half, flat sides inward, so
that one arm equals the length of the hinge and the other
is a little shorter. Solder a cap or bezel onto the longer end.
. Saw off the top section of one of the outer tubes so that all
that remains is a small tab.
. After all finishing is complete, insert the hinge pin and fold
the tab over at a right angle. This will prevent the pin from
coming out
Applied Tab
Follow the steps above, but in this case, use a round wire that
fits neatly into the hinge. File away about a third for a portion
equal to two of the knuckles. Cut a notch in the top section of
hinge to position a small length of square wire. As a final step,
insert the pin and solder the cross-brace in place. This will
make it impossible for the pin to come out.
Friction with Pin
. Make a three-part hinge, using tubes that are at least . mm
inside diameter.
. Select a small gauge round wire that will fit into the tube
when doubled over. Fold a section in half and snip to a
length just a bit shorter than the hinge. Solder a cap or bezel
onto the two ends.
. Drill a small hole through the top knuckle, and prepare a bit
of wire that makes a snug fit.
. Insert the pin through the hinge, then slide the short wire
into place so it rests between the legs of the hinge pin.
Solder it in place.
. Adjust the bowing shape of the pin so that it makes a friction
fit inside the tube.
Chapter 

Findings &
Mechanisms
 Pendant Bails

Design Considerations
The bail is the point of connection between a pendant and the cord or
chain on which it hangs. Besides being critical to the proper function of
the pendant, bails are an opportunity to enhance the design. Consider
the location, shape and scale of the bail from the very
beginning.
Ideally, the point of contact for a bail is directly above
the center of gravity of a pendant. While this is rarely
possible, try to be as close to this as possible. To remember
this, just visualize what happens when a pendant hangs
from the center of the back.

Bail
Bail, from Old Norse beygla,
meaning “hook” or “ring”. A
semicircular handle of a pail,
kettle, or cannon.

Fold-Down Bail
. Draw a bead on both ends of a length of wire;
hammer them flat and drill a hole in each end.
. Saw out a piece of sheet with a tongue extending
on one side. File this shaft to a round cross
section.
. Form the wire into a loop and rivet it onto
the prepared sheet. Bend the loop to one side to
do this.
. Make a U-shaped joint and solder it to the piece.
. Drill a hole through the joint and sheet and
secure them with a pin.

 Findings > Pendant Bails

Earring Findings

General Information
• Some people can wear only gold or stainless wires, but most people can
wear sterling.
•  gauge wire is usually a comfortable thickness.
• Work harden wires by twisting them.
• Standard length of posts is  mm (3⁄8").

Making Friction Backs

. Cut a strip of  gauge sterling ( gauge gold) about
 mm long.
. Strike a sharp punch in the center to form a funnel-
like depression. Drill a hole in the center, equal to
the diameter of the ear post.
. Make a grip by filing notches. Polish.
. Bend the wings up with round nose pliers, making
sure they curl at least three-quarters of a circle.
Adjust the gap between the wings to create tension
on the post.
. Make a groove about – millimeters from the end
of the post by pinching with round-nose pliers. This
groove will stop the nut from sliding off the end of
the post.

Omega Clips French Loop

These elegant The hook in a gravity-held
earring earring should be about
findings have  mm (") long. Small
become the lengths of rubber tubing
standard are sold as guards to be
for upscale worn with this kind of
earrings. earring.
They replace a friction nut with a
spring-tension loop that folds down
against the back of the lobe to hold Clips for Non-Pierced Ears
the earring in place. Omega clips Like Omega clips, these can be
can be bought ready to attach or purchased or made in the studio. In
made from scratch. Do not snap the this design the center finger presses
loop into place until all soldering down on the vertical wall to create
is complete so the wire remains the tension that snaps the flap
springy. down. Adjust by bending the parts
to create a comfortable fit.
And what would we
call this letter of the
Greek alphabet?

Findings > Earring Findings 


There’s process and there’s product. If
you’re too concerned about product, it
can get in the way of process.
Mike Myers
 Findings > Pin Findings
Pin Findings
Pin Findings
Locate pin mechanisms above the
central axis to prevent brooches
from tipping forward.
If a pin is too sharp, it will pierce
threads and damage fabric. A
smooth, bullet-shaped point will
find its way between threads. File
the proper rounded shape, burnish
it to toughen, then polish the pin
with rouge.
Pinstems
Pinstems should be made of a tough
metal like low karat gold, nickel silver
or stainless steel. Many designs are
possible, and each will include a stop
that keeps the pin in tension as it fits
into the catch.
Harden after
soldering by
twisting the wire.
Pin Holders
Bend the pinholder over a piece of
sheet to get the correct fit. After
soldering, saw off the curve, and drill
holes for the hinge pin.
The end of the pin should not
extend beyond the catch. Position
the catch with the opening
downward.
At rest, the pinstem should be
slightly above the catch. This will
create a tension that will help keep
the pin closed. A similar tension
is created by including a stop that
holds the stem off the brooch at a
slight angle.
tension
 
Pin Catches
Pin catches also come in hundreds of
styles, and like pinstems, they can be
bought or made. Use
a tough metal and
engineer a catch that
is easy to open on
purpose but that will
avoid coming open by
accident.
A Simple Pin
Solder a loop of wire onto the back of
a piece, attached at both ends. Snip
the wire so one part is larger than the
other. Twist the wire to harden it. Curl a
spring with round-nose pliers, then file,
sand, and burnish the point. Planish the
tip of the short piece and curl it into a
shepherd’s crook. Adjust the gap so the
pin stem clicks into place.
Pin Findings

Telescoping Pin Catch

This catch is held closed by the friction of a small pin against the end of the
larger tube. To open, rotate the small tube until the pin engages the slot. A
short peg keeps the smaller tube from coming all the way out.
. Make telescoping tubing. The pinstem must fit
inside the smaller tube.

. Solder a strip of sheet onto the larger tube to lift it off

the piece. Cut a slot in the larger tube with a saw. The
pinstem must fit here.

. Solder a thin wire at a right angle to the end of the smaller

tube. It is easiest to start with at least an inch of wire, then
cut off the excess after soldering.

. Slide the tubes together and, with the small pin tight against
the end, saw the other end off flush. Slide the tubes
open and file about 1⁄2 mm more off the end of the file flush
smaller diameter tube.

. With the tubes in the open position, solder a knob on the

end of the smaller tube. The knob can be made from sheet,
bead, or bezel.

. File a sloping edge to allow the inner tube to rotate.

The friction of the small pin against this edge file the
will keep the catch closed. shaded
areas

Hinge-Style Pin Joint

. Bend a strip of sheet to make a short length
of angle.
. Solder two small pieces of tube into this,
allowing gravity to insure their alignment.
. Solder a length of wire onto another small
piece of the same tube. File a groove to locate
the wire, and allow – mm to extend past
the end. This handle makes it easy to twist
the wire without damaging it. Snip when the
pinstem is hardened.
. After all soldering and finishing, assemble
the finding with a temporary hinge pin. Snip
the pinstem to length, remove to shape the
tip, then set with a permanent hinge pin.
Note that the vertical wall of the angle piece This provides tension
provides the stop that creates tension. on the pinstem.

Findings > Pin Findings 


Looped Hook
An alternative to Step # is to bend
the wire up, then back down again to
make a finger of metal that can then
be bent over to make the hook. This
allows the wire to continue on to
make a decoration.
 Mechanisms > Fibula
Fibula
Fibula
The fibula is the outer, smaller bone in your lower leg. The term also refers to
an ancient form of pin clasp, a granddaddy of the modern saftey pin. These
toga accessories were commonplace in ancient Greece and Rome, and took a
characteristic shape that, some say, resembles the leg bone. In contemporary
usage, a fibula is a pin in which the pin mechanism is not only apparent, but
generally an imporant part of the design. In most cases, the tension of the
spring is integral to the structure, for instance, through a forged stem.
Classic Celtic Fibula
Variations are limitless, but here’s a shape that has been found in many
excavations in northern Europe.
. Cut a hatchet shape from heavy stock, . Forge the blade to a broad, sloping and
e.g.,  or  gauge. elegant shape. Forge the stem into
a long taper, first working in square
cross-section, then planishing to make
it round.
. Ornament the blade area, if desired, . With round-nose pliers, bend the edge
with chasing, engraving, etching, of the blade over to become the catch.
keum-boo, etc. Wrap the stem once around the pliers
to make a springy loop. Adjust the
length and polish the tip. At rest the
pinstem should
be - mm away
from the catch.
Long Spring Fibula (with thanks to Philip Fike)
. Start with a round wire—a foot at . Bend the wire along the axis of the
least. Wrap the wire mandrel about a half inch, and wrap
around a metal rod again, this time going around the rod
at least three times, in the reverse
keeping the loops direction from
symmetrical and the first set.
neat. Make the same
number of wraps.
. Swing the second coil to the opposite . In a traditional fibula the end of the
side of the first set, rotating it in the wire is bent up °, planished to
process so it is flipped °. Slide flatten and bent over to make a crook.
the mandrel The pinstem
through the is bent
whole structure slightly to
and reshape as allow room
needed. for fabric.
 Buckles & Links

Cuff Links
Cuff links are worn on French cuffs, which double over to have a button
hole on each flap. The link is forced through the holes, usually by making it
narrow, then expanded to lock it in place. Commercial links often contain a
small spring hidden inside the rotating bar—do not expose this piece to heat
or pickle or the springiness will be lost.

This rigid style lends Round ends to

itself to casting. allow for full
articulation.

The length of the

This cuff link can be
chain should be
double-ended.
about  mm (1⁄2").

Belt Buckles
Ladies belts are often worn for appearance, but mens’ belts generally have a job
to do, so choose a metal and thickness that is up to the task. Most buckles are
slightly wider than the leather or webbing of the belt. To avoid a frustrating hunt
later, get the belt first and design around it.

Tongue Style Prong Style Military Style

The tongue is centered on a bar that This style This style,
is typically at the end of the buckle. provides usually seen on
The area beside the free end of the the largest webbed belts,
tongue can be used for pattern. In this surface for cinches the
style the belt has a slot that wraps embellishment and is probably belt by friction
around the bar. the one most commonly used for between a
handmade buckles. textured rod and the back of the
> Keep the prong and belt bracket as frame. Because there are no holes, the
far apart as possible. size is fully adjustable.
> The pin should be short and only
slightly angled.
> The space between the bracket
and the buckle needs to admit two
thicknesses of the belt.
> A bar that is free to pivot will make
the buckle more comfortable.
Bar recedes into
Bar pinches trench to release
belt here. the belt.

The belt is fixed to this

side of the buckle.

This tube assembly

permits flexibility.

Mechanisms > Buckles & Links 

 Hinges

Hingemaking Tips
> If the material is too thin to take the stress
of a hinge, solder bearers either inside or
out. This is especially important for round or
oval containers.

> Prepare a seat (trough) in which the

knuckles, or hinge sections, will lie. Care in
this step is important. A straight round file
is better than a tapered one. A joint file is
made for this. Make a scraper from a ground-
off drill bit and slide it to scrape away tiny
shavings for a perfect fit.

> Measure and cut the knuckles, keeping the

ends square. If only three knuckles are used,
the single piece goes on the lid and may be
slightly longer than the other two.

> Flux the groove and lay the knuckles into

position. Some jewelers slide the knuckles
Cutting Broach onto a snug-fitting oiled steel pin (nail,
binding wire, etc.) to guarantee that they
Even in well-made hinges the knuck-
stay in a straight line. Tie with binding wire
les can be slightly out of alignment.
if necessary. Place small pieces of solder so
This will result in a small amount of
they touch both the knuckles and the box.
play or sloppiness in the hinge. Cor-
rect this with a gradually tapered,
five-sided steel rod called a broach.
These are sold in sets of a dozen in a
> Heat only until the solder flows, then quickly
remove the torch. Quench in water. Remove
progression of sizes.
the binding wire and steel pin, then pickle.
With the hinge together, insert
After polishing and washing, slide a tight-
the broach, and gently roll it in your
fitting pin into place to test the fit. When
fingers to scrape away bits of metal
everything works, polish the parts and slide
inside the hinge. Pull it out and
a new hinge pin into place, riveting the ends
wipe it off often as work progresses.
slightly to prevent it from coming out.
When contact is made with each
knuckle, the lid will hold itself open.
File a wire to a similar taper and tap
it lightly into place.
> It is frustrating to make a hinge and then
discover the knuckles are weak because
the tube seams were not soldered before
starting. Be certain the tube is properly
closed. Either use a commercial extruded
tubing or double-check that the seam is well
soldered before you cut the knuckles.

 Mechanisms > Hinges

 Basic Hinge
. Prepare the object (in this example
a rectangular box) by completing all
soldering. Sand to a fine grit and pickle
the work. Make sure the parts fit
together well—it will be more difficult
to adjust this after the hinge is in place.
Some people find it helpful to glue the
parts together for sanding.
. Secure the parts with glue or tape and
convert the angled opening to a rounded
one (e.g., change a “V” into a “U”). A
tapered needle file can do the job, but
a parallel round file is much better. An
alternative is to find a steel rod (nail) with
the same diameter as the hinge tube. Cut
the end off square, mount this in a pin
vise, and use it to scrape the groove.
A. If you don’t have a jig, drill a hole in
your benchpin that is precisely at a right
Clamp a block of angle. Mark the length on tape with a
wood against the pin pen, and use this to both cut and file the
and drill at the point ends square.
where they touch.
. Gently heat the unit until the flux
becomes crusty, then concentrate
heat on one side. Bring this up to
temperature, easing off as the solder
starts to soften. Pull the heat away the
instant the solder flows. Repeat on the
other side. If you are not certain that the
solder has flowed, resist the temptation
to give it just another second. Resist!
. Separate the parts and file an angle
along the two edges that will take the
hinge. Each of these is a ° angle, which
creates a ° angle when the top is set
onto the box.
. Clean the tube with Scotch-Brite to
remove any finger oils and tarnish.
Measure the length of the hinge and
divide this into three or five parts. Set
a tube cutting jig to this dimension
and saw off the knuckles with a small
sawblade. Inspect for burs, and remove
them with careful filing.
Yes No
. Burn off any residual glue from Step #
and tie the box and lid together with
binding wire. Prop it so the hinge groove
is conveniently angled, apply a small
amount of flux, and set the knuckles in
place. Lay a tiny bit of hard or medium
solder against
each knuckle
and allow the
flux to dry.
. Quench in water, remove the binding
wire, and separate the parts. If they
stick, gently wiggle them—sometimes
there is a phantom join that easily comes
apart. Clean up in pickle, and if part of
the design, solder on a closure. Repickle,
then finish the box with sanding,
brassbrushing, patinas, etc. Insert a
tight-fitting hinge pin and secure it as
shown elsewhere.
Mechanisms > Hinges > Basic Hinge 
 Cradle Hinge
Cradle Hinge
This style is especially good for round or oval boxes because the cradle provides
increased contact between the parts. In addition, this hinge automatically creates a
stop to prevent the lid from flopping too far open.
. Prepare a trough by filing and
scraping.
. Cut a piece of the outer tube a bit
longer than you think the
hinge will be. Cut a slot along
the axis of this tube.
. Cut the entire length on a line that is
one-third away from the first slot. The
lid will come away from the base.
. Measure and cut hinge knuckles using
a jig if available. This example shows
three knuckles
but any number
may be used. An
odd number is
customary.
. Set the box and lid together and mark
the location of the first knuckle with
file notches on the opposite cradle.
small notches
 Mechanisms > Hinges > Cradle Hinge
. Buy or make two tubes that telescope
together. Remember that soldered
tubing can be drawn like wire, so
it’s pretty easy to get a good fit
by drawing the tube through a
drawplate.
. Set this tube in position with the
sawn slot located as shown, where
the box and lid come together. Solder
both sides.
. Make another cut, this time removing
one-third of the tube. The result is a
pair of cradles that are parallel, well-
attached to both parts, and that fit
the knuckles perfectly.
. Set a knuckle into the cradle and
solder it into place. Visually line this
up with the center of the box.
. Using the notches as guides, solder
the other knuckles into their cradles.
Check the placement. If it is incorrect,
reheat and slide the knuckles as
needed. Don’t try to correct by
grinding … it never works. Pickle,
polish, and set the hinge.
Silversmith’s Hinge

Silversmith’s Hinge with Tubing

. Lay out and . With the pieces held
cut tabs. To be together, mark, and
effective, the fit file a groove in both
must be exact. sections.

. With the two pieces separated, solder . File a bevel on the underside of each
a length of tubing into each groove. cove in both pieces.
After soldering, Be careful not to
cut away the file away the top
extra bits of tube edge, which would
with a saw. ruin the accuracy
achieved in Step .

. Solder square wire along one side in . Solder the section with the stop to the
front of the tubing to make a stop for piece. Drill a
the lid. Higher hole in the side
and/or closer will of the object to
limit the swing. allow the pin to
enter.

Silversmith’s Hinge with Sheet

. Make knuckle units from heavy sheet . To make the third knuckle of this unit,
(– gauge). Cut a strip and bend temporarily
it around another piece of the same solder a piece of
gauge. Squeeze with strip in place and
parallel-jaw pliers or squeeze it in the
bend it in a vise. same way.

. Use a similar trick to make the other . Solder this unit onto the top of the
half of the hinge, this one having four container as shown. When soldering is
knuckles. Solder two complete, cut away the sheet between
units temporarily to a the knuckles.
brace to hold them the
correct distance apart
(i.e., one thickness
again).

. The first unit must overhang its
edge to reach into the four-knuckle
unit. To keep the top of the finished
hinge flush, file a notch equal to the
thickness of the sheet.
Solder this unit to the
lid. After trimming
away excess, it will
look like this.
. Put the two units together and drill
a hole through the whole assembly.
Solder the top to the container,
setting the pin either before or after
soldering, depending on accessibility.
In this example, the
lid is attached (box
is upside down)
before the bottom is
soldered into place.

Mechanisms > Hinges > Silversmith’s Hinge 

 Stand-Off Hinge

Stand-Off Hinge
It’s not that these hinges are especially rude that gives them their
name, but rather that they lift up and away as they open. In the
small scale of a jeweler, standoff hinges bring unexpected drama and
novelty. This example is conservative, but the concept lends itself to
unusual proportions and embellishments.

. Make a box just like any other. . Solder a length of tubing

Attach two arms to the base, across the two arms.
projecting outward from the
box.

. Saw out a section of tubing . Solder a wire onto the lid,

from the center, generally
dividing the tube into thirds.
eyeballing its relationship
to the other arms. In most
designs, you’ll be able to
adjust this later. Solder a piece
of the same tubing (larger
than the gap) onto the end
of this
wire.

. After pickling and rinsing, . Bend the arms with pliers to

We can’t all and some of us don’t.
That’s all there is to it.
Eeyore (A. A. Milne)
position the tubes of both
parts in alignment and slide
a rod through the hinge. You
might need to trim one or
several of the knuckles to
make
things fit
together.
make the parts work together.
When the fit is right, some
designs will benefit from the
addition of strengthening
supports.

 Mechanisms > Hinges > Stand-Off Hinge

Interior Hinges

Interior, or Hidden Hinges

These hinges are related to the stand-off hinges described on the preceding
page, but in this case the mechanism is behind the door or inside the box.
You’ve seen them before—they’re common on auto hoods, gas cap doors, and
kitchen cabinets. This description uses a box as an example, but the hinge can
be used in jewelry, hollowware, and other applications.

. Make a box using any technique. Sketch a side

view of the box to visualize how the hinge will
work. Draw on tracing paper and pivot the lid
open to see how it works.

. Drill a hole through the sides of the box and slide

a length of tubing all the way through. File as
needed to provide a snug fit.

. Cut two pieces of the tube, each a little longer

than a third of the total hinge. Slide them onto a
wire for alignment, and solder them into place. If
the box walls are thin, provide additional bracing
for these knuckles.

. Cut a piece of the same tubing larger than the gap

between the two parts inside the box and solder it
to a piece of sheet. Your sketch will provide some
guidance, but this can be a guess at this point.

. Temporarily assemble the parts and move the

hinge to test its operation. Carefully observe how
the swing works and bend the arm as needed
to create clearance. Use epoxy or super glue to
temporarily attach the lid onto the arm.

. Mark the location of the arm on the inside of the

lid, and cut a template of metal or stiff cardboard
to capture the angle of the arm. Separate the parts
and clean off all traces of glue.

. Flow a little solder onto the end of the arm, then

prop it in position, using the template to check
the angle. When it is accurate, solder the arm in
place, again adding a brace if needed. Pickle, rinse
and dry.

. Test the action and make whatever adjustments

are required to have the lid fall neatly into
position. When all the parts work, permanently
set the hinge with a tight-fitting pin. File, sand
and burnish it flush on the outside of the box.

Mechanisms > Hinges > Interior Hinges 

 Spring Hinges

Coil Spring
The spring is provided by a coil of hard-
drawn wire. Depending on the weight of
the lid and the fineness of the piece, this Tube handle to
grip the spring
can be gold, sterling, brass, nickel silver,
during loading.
or steel. The steel may be salvaged from a
pen spring.
Make the hinge in the usual way but
leave a space that will be occupied by
the spring. This can be accomplished by
cutting away one of the knuckles but it
will be neater if you plan ahead and leave
a space when measuring the knuckles. The lid will
To assemble the hinge, load the snap open.
spring position
spring into position before inserting the at rest.
hinge pin. This can be a tricky operation
and is easier with two people. The tails
of the coil must protrude to make this
spring position
spring work. Depending on where you put at rest
The lid will
these you can make the lid spring open snap closed.
or snap closed. To camouflage the spring,
make the knuckles from coiled wire.

A Compression Spring Leaf Springs

Everything has beauty,
but not everyone sees it.
Confucius
This is best used where only a small
push is needed. It is common on
the covers of pocket watches, for
instance. This spring is not in the
hinge at all. Somewhere near the
hinge is a piece of metal that is
pushed down when the lid is closed.
When the clasp is released the little
tab pushes upward.
A leaf spring is nothing more than a
flat bar of springy material—think of
a diving board. These can be used in
multiples (look under a truck), but
for jewelers they are usually nothing
more than a toughened piece of
metal bent so that it presses against
a moving part.

 Mechanisms > Hinges > Spring Hinges

Hinge Pin Spring

Spring Pin
This mechanism is as clever as it is rewarding to make. The idea is that a
normal hinge pin is replaced by a spring, which is loaded so that it is always
under tension, either keeping a box closed or allowing it to spring open when
a catch is released. The mechanism is virtually invisible, which adds to the
appeal. The mechanism does not lend itself to short or slender hinges.

. Make a hinge that is conventional . After polishing, slide a tight-

in every way except that it has
an even number of knuckles. This
means that one end knuckle will
be on the base and the other on
the lid.
fitting tube through the hinge to
serve as the hinge pin, leaving it
short by at least  mm on each
end. This will provide strength
and smooth operation. Skip this
step if the hinge is small.

. You will need several strips of flat
springy metal. Watch mainsprings
are best, but in a pinch, hard-
drawn brass, or nickel silver can
be flattened out and used. Cut
two or three pieces about an inch
longer than the hinge. Slide these
through and lock them with a pair
of wedges, tapped into place.
. With pliers, grip the extending
spring pieces and give them a
twist. Lock in place with similar
wedges and check the action.
If slack, give another twist.
Depending on the direction of the
twist, the spring will pull the lid
open or closed. When correct, tap
another wedge firmly into place,
and trim off the excess.

File wedges
from wire.

Mechanisms > Closures > Hinge Pin Spring 

 Friction Catches

Friction Catches
These are far and away the most common type of clasp, and technically the
term covers everything from a cork in a bottle to Tupperware. Friction catches
use the natural elasticity of a material to allow parts to rub against each other
without breaking. In metals, it is important to remember to keep the parts
thin enough to move, rather than wear away under pressure.

Interior Bezels
A bezel is a thin vertical wall,
familiar to jewelers from its use in
stonesetting. In the case of a box,
it can be full or partial and can be
attached to either the base or the
lid. To tighten a loose bezel, pull it
out by rubbing with a burnisher.

Purse Snap Partial Bezels

This versatile and ingenious clasp
starts with two spheres, each
attached to a stem. Bend the wires
so the two balls rub against each
other as the container closes. This
is relatively easy to make because
you can solder
the stems into
place casually
and bend the
arms later to
create tension.
Round the top edge of the bezel so
it doesn’t snag as the box is closed.
Bezels can be soldered just inside
the edge or they can lie against the
entire height of the wall. In the
latter case it is possible to pre-polish
the bezel and force it into place with
a tight-fitting bottom piece.
Pre-polish
this piece.

Post
We can think of these as really This variation uses three posts and
small partial bezels. On lids that lift has the benefit of aligning the lid as
off, there will need to be at least it closes. Friction is provided mostly
three posts (the more, the better). by the edges of the posts rubbing
In a hinged box, it together.
is typical to have
a single thin post
directly opposite the
hinge. Because of
the angle of opening
this will need to be
kept short.

 Mechanisms > Closures > Friction Catches

 Spring Catches

Spring Catches
These catches get high marks for security, elegance, and function. There are
as many variations as there are objects to open and close—the goal of these
examples is to describe the concept and typical assembly process.

Integrated Spring
Catches in this family have a springy bit of metal that snags onto a lid.
. Make a crisp right angle bend in the . Attach a trigger.
end of a wire. File to shape, and be Pressing this will
certain the internal angle is crisp. release the catch.

. Solder or bend a lip on the inside of . Bend the spring so it snaps into
the lid. the box under tension. This might
take a few minutes of careful
measurement
Lip
and adjusting.

An Important Detail Separate Spring

In all spring catches, file the leading
edge of the hook to a smooth,
curving slope. This will allow the
hook to retract as the box is closed,
just like a doorlatch slides out of
the way when you close a door.
These catches use steel or work-hardened nickel silver to make the spring. They
typically have better tension and a more fluid movement.
. Devise a system that will allow the spring
mechanism to be attached without the use
of heat. Solder a tube or bracket into the
box, or locate holes for rivets. Drill a hole or
slot for the trigger.

. Create a lip and a hook-and-trigger piece, as

above. These are typically made of the same
metal as the box.

. Slide the latching mechanism into place. Test the action

and make adjustments as needed.
YES NO
Spring Spring bumps
moves out against lip.
of the way.

Mechanisms > Closures > Spring Catches 

 Threaded Catches

Partial Thread
This example uses a cylinder-shaped jar, but by observing the process you’ll
see that it can be modified for hundreds of applications. In this case the
thread is on the container but it could just as easily be on the lid.

. This top view of the container shows . Scribe delicate guidelines around
equal divisions. The two threads the container to locate the threads.
must be carefully positioned directly
opposite each other.

. Bend a piece of wire to match the
curvature of the container. Square
or half-round wire is preferred
because its flat surface will make a
solid contact for soldering.
. Locate these pieces along the guides
and solder them into place. Steel
or nickel clips might help in this
process.

. Solder a pair of small projections . If the closure is stiff even after

on the inside of the lid, again pickling, mix some abrasive grit
making certain that they are directly with oil to make a paste, and coat
opposite each the thread. Open and close the
other. The height unit until any
should equate irregularities
with the center have been
of the thread. ground away.
To make the grit,
set a piece of
sandpaper into
a can and burn
away the paper
with a torch.
 Mechanisms > Closures > Threaded Catches
Threaded Catches

Full Thread
This traditional thread can be use to make a barrel clasp, a stopper for a bottle, or a
removable element. The materials and tolerance will depend on the object, but the
process is the same.
. Make a rod or tube . Wrap a wire around a rod that is slightly
that will become the smaller than the shaft (to compensate
shaft of the threaded for springback).
unit. The direction of the
wrapping will determine
space
for the direction of the
thread screwing/unscrewing
motion.

. Slide the coil off and pull it so the spaces
are equal to the thickness of the wire.
. File the inside of this coil to make it flat
and force it onto the neck tubing. When
you are sure the spaces have remained
even, solder it in
place.

. With another piece of the same wire,
wrap a second coil inside the threads.
File this while in position to achieve a
flat outer surface.
file here
. Make a tube to fit snugly onto this
coil, then unscrew it gently and slide
the coil into the outer tube. Solder it
into position. If the fit is too snug, use
a slurry of abrasive powder and oil to
refine the fit.

Bayonet
This catch takes its name from the mechanism that is also used to secure blades to
rifle barrels. A variation for necklaces and bracelets is described on page .
. Create a lip on the inside of a box, and . Cut a slot (or two, or three)
a cylinder that fits symmetrically into the lip.
smoothly into it.

. Mark the locations of the slots on . The gap between the lid and the pin
the internal sleeve and solder pins in must equal the thickness of the lip to
place. For small scale, drill holes to make a snug fit.
locate the pins during soldering.
equal to
thickness
of the rim

Mechanisms > Closures > Threaded Catches 

 Trick Catches

Zippo Tension Hinge

I don’t know if there is a proper name for this mechanism, but we’ll all
recognize it as the devise that makes a cigarette lighter snap closed. The force
of the snap is determined by the strength of the spring and the scale of the
cam on the center hinge.
. Make a durable three-knuckle hinge. . Solder a bar of metal onto the center
knuckle such that, with the lid closed,
it falls at the eight position on a clock
face.

. Solder a short length of tube directly
below the center hinge.
. Cut a short piece of steel, stainless
steel, or hardened nickel silver and file
a point on one end.
Force this into the tube
so it locks in place.

Keylock Mechanism
This archetypal devise contains the seeds of padlocks, deadbolts, and scores
of similar mechanisms. This example uses a lever, but substitute a key and
you see where you’re headed.
. Create a lip on .Devise a spring and
the lid. hook. In this case, a
piece of steel is bent
and drilled.

. Cut out a cam that will press the . This box has a strip of ornamentation
spring away from the lip. Drill, then that will hide the trigger. Most of the
saw to create a square hole. strip is soldered
to the box, but
one piece is kept
separate. Solder
a piece of square
wire onto the back.

. Rivet the cam onto the square . Pressing down on the ornament
pin so that when pushes the cam
the ornament is against the spring,
horizontal, the moving it off the lip
spring reaches the and releasing the lid.
lip.

 Mechanisms > Closures > Trick Catches

Appendix
 Health & Safety

Common Sense Resources

Common sense is your best protec-
tion. Even safe procedures can be
dangerous if abused. Remember
that accidents don’t happen only to
the other guy. If you feel uncertain
about a tool, get help. If you feel ill
or dizzy, stop doing what you’re do-
ing. If illness persists, contact your
state hospital system, Department
of Occupational Safety.
While most of the informa-
tion in this book can apply to
metalsmithing on any scale, keep
in mind that it is written primar-
ily for work in jewelry studios. It is
not intended as a resource for large
commercial studios or industry,
where other safety requirements
may very well exist. For help in this
area, contact your state’s Office for
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) or the in-
dustrial safety division of your state
labor department.
The National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health (NIOSH) is
a vast organization that offers a wide
range of services and suggestions.
From their website (www.cdc.gov/
niosh), you can download or order
the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical
Hazards (NPG), a thorough refer-
ence for conscientious workers.
Here’s a tip: You’ll be downloading
dozens of small files—start with
“pgdstart.htm” to find your way
around.
You’ll also find there a list of
publications, safety alerts, and in-
formation on how you can query a
specific problem. NIOSH can also be
reached by phone at --
and by fax at --.

Firt-Aid Kit
Ever notice how the importance of something changes according to need? At
this moment a Band-Aid might be unnecessary and therefore far from your
mind, but when you really need one, well, that’s not the time to go to the
store. Here are some suggestions for supplies any jeweler will want someday.
Take this list along to the drugstore or discount store the next time you go—it
will feel good to have this taken care of. Besides, think how much it will shock
your Mom.

> antiseptic spray or hydrogen peroxide (to prevent infection)

> asprin
> Band-Aids of various sizes, including fingertip shapes
> burn ointment
> earplugs
> eyewash
> liquid bandage
> styptic pencil
> tweezers (reserved for splinters and other medical chores)

 Appendix > Health & Safety


Replacement Air
It’s true: the universe abhors a
vacuum. When you pull air out
of your studio, the universe finds
some new air to take its place. If you
supply this, the task of pulling out
the old air is much easier. In other
words, before you try to draw fumes
away, start by supplying fresh air
from across the room.
Ventilation
Ventilation
As used in this book, ventilation refers to a powered movement of air.
Opening a window is a pleasant thing to do on a sunny day, but it does not
constitute ventilation. The size of your studio and the type and volume of
fumes being produced will determine the scale of the blowers needed.
Push versus Pull
It is helpful to understand that a pushing movement of air is about  times
more powerful than a pulling motion. If a given volume of air can move a
cotton ball from " away, that same volume of air as a vacuum will need
to be only one inch from the ball
to have the same effect. Whenever
possible, push fumes away—
sometimes a small fan is enough to
clear the air.
Respirators
Respirators filter air before it enters your system. They are generally
considered less effective than active ventilation since they can be a little
uncomfortable and are therefore too often set aside. A worthwhile respirator
will have a canister or cartridge filter to chemically remove impurities. It will
cost at least .
• Look for the NIOSH seal of approval.
• Choose a filter made for the danger to which
you are exposed.
• Your mask must make a tight and comfortable
fit.
• Change filters as needed. The filter is saturated
when you notice odors entering the mask or
have difficulty pulling in air.
• If you have trouble breathing or have a history
of respiratory illness, consult your doctor.
Vent Hoods Vent Tables
In a small shop, a vented stove A much better form of ventilation
hood may be adequate. You’ll find uses a vacuum system working at
these at lumberyards or kitchen the level of the bench top. These
remodeling pick up fumes before they have a
companies, chance to rise to the height of the
where they operator’s face.
might have
used or
scratched units
at a reduced
price.
Appendix > Health & Safety > Ventilation 
 Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI)

Repetitive Strain Injuries

Repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) are a collection of problems centered in the
arm, wrist, and fingers. As muscles tighten they can become starved for
oxygen and overladen with acidic waste products that are normally carried
away by the bloodstream. It appears that some people are more prone to
RSIs than others. The impact of the activity does not appear to play a major
role in the disease—typists and diamond setters are just as likely to suffer as
bricklayers and blacksmiths.

Symptoms
> tenderness and pain in your hands and arms.
> tingling or numbness in your fingers.
> loss of ability to grip objects securely.
> sudden locking up of your fingers, hands, or arms.

Causes
> repetitive actions, especially actions that are awkward and constricted.
> tension and stress.
> poor posture.

Picture a bench jeweler in the weeks before Christmas and you have a
snapshot of the problems—stress, fatigue, and repetition.

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS)

This injury is named for a gap in the
bones of the wrist that provides
a passage for the median nerve,
the central conduit for touch and
muscle actions in the hand. Strain
causes swelling of membranes and
tendons in this region, which in
turn, causes pain and numbness.
Other specific forms of RSI are
bursitis (shoulder), epicondylitis
(tennis elbow), tendonitis, and
tenosynovitis (trigger finger).

Carpal
Tunnel
Median
Nerve

 Appendix > Health & Safety > Repetitive Strain Injuries

> While sitting down, put your palm
on your knee. Lift and hold each
finger for a count of ; repeat for
both hands.
RSI Exercises
Prevention
In many instances, small adjustments can have meaningful benefits. Here are
a few examples of simple modifications you can make yourself.
• wrap punches to make them fatter in the shank.
• wear bicycle gloves when hammering.
• use a padded bicycle handgrip on your sawframe and file handles.
• place rubber pads in front of buffing machines and other places where
you stand for extended times.
Beyond a doubt, it is easier to prevent RSIs than to correct a problem once it
appears. You don’t need expensive equipment or exotic drugs, but something
a bit more challenging—the discipline to quit working periodically and relax.
Think of your nerves like a garden hose. Hyperextending or hyperflexing
your wrists puts a kink in the hose. Try to avoid these stressful postures.
When you can’t avoid them, take frequent short breaks to restore blood flow.
> While sitting on the edge of a > Hold your
chair, straighten your spine, hands at your
and hold your hands out to the sides and shake
side with your palms facing up. them gently
Imagine trying to grasp a ball and repeatedly
between your shoulder blades. for  seconds.
Time it—it’s
longer than
you might
think.
> While standing, reach your hand > Put your hands on a table or desk
over your head and down your and spread your fingers wide
back to touch your spine. Set while you count to . Relax for a
your other hand on the elbow count of  and repeat.
of the first (which will be above
your head)
and gently
push it back
and down.
Repeat for
the other
arm.
Appendix > Health & Safety > RSI Exercises 
 Studio Chemicals

Compound Effect Precaution

Acetone Headache, drowsiness, skin irritation. One Adequate ventilation
of the least toxic solvents.

Acetylene Mild narcotic (intoxicant) in small doses. Use caution. Check equipment regularly
Large doses can cut off oxygen. for leaks. Have professionally repaired if
found.

Ammonia Irritant to eyes, caustic to lungs. Serious Use diluted with soap and water.
when in strong solution.

Aqua Regia Most caustic of all acids Mix carefully, with strong ventilation.
 part nitric acid Keep in glass, not tightly stoppered. Do
 parts hydrochloric acid not store in a small space. To dispose,
return to distributor.

Asbestos Made up of fibers the body cannot Avoid it. Avoid it. Avoid it. Avoid it. Use
dissolve. A carcinogen whose effects take substitutes.
– years to develop.

Benzene Intoxication, coma, respiratory failure. Use alternative solvent. Avoid it!

Cadmium Affects the brain, nervous system, lungs, Avoid if possible; use very good
(solder ingredient) kidneys. ventilation.

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons Dissolves fatty layer of skin. Causes liver Avoid if possible; ventilate, wear neoprene
(epoxy solvent) and kidney damage. rubber gloves.

Copper Compounds Oxides can irritate lungs, intestines, eyes Ventilate when heating. Wear gloves when
and skin. handling a lot, like when raising.

Cyanides Mists inhaled or falling on skin are Ventilate well, wear protective clothing.
(used in plating) poisonous. No nude plating.

Fluorides Can form hydrofluoric acid in the lungs. Ventilate. Avoid breathing the fumes.

Lead Damages brain, central nervous system, Avoid if possible. Ventilate well. Minimize
red blood cells, marrow, liver, kidneys. handling, wash hands after touching.
Fumes are especially dangerous.

Ketones Skin, eye and respiratory tract irritants. Ventilate, wear appropriate respirator.
Acetone, Can cause peripheral nerve damage. Wear gloves.
(lacquer thinner)

 Appendix > Health & Safety > Studio Chemicals

 Studio Chemicals

Compound Effect Precaution

Liver of Sulfur When heated to decomposition, it
(potassium sulfide) releases sulfur oxide fumes that react with
moisture to form hydrogen sulfide. High
concentrations of this can cause brain
damage and suffocation.
Do not allow mixture to come to a boil. All
coloring benefits can be obtained from a
warm, not hot, solution.

Mercury Damages brain, nervous system and Avoid fumes and skin contact. Ventilate
kidneys. and wear gloves.

Pitch Skin irritant when hot. Wear gloves, avoid heating to a boil.

Platinum Metal is safe but fumes (created when Ventilate.

melting) can cause lung and skin irritation.

Polyester Resins Skin irritant. Some resins release toxic Wear gloves and ventilate. Store according
fumes when mixed with binders. to directions.

Silver Compounds Absorbed into skin as vapor or dust, these Wear goggles, gloves, and a respirator.
Silver Chloride can cause a disease called argyria. Silver
Silver Nitrate dust in eyes can cause blindness.

Sulfuric Acid & Sparex Irritates skin and respiratory tract. Ventilate. Keep container covered. Do not
(sodium bisulphate) Damages clothing. mix stronger concentration than necessary.
Neutralize with baking soda and water
mixture.

Tellurium Fumes generated in refining gold, silver, Ventilate. Early symptom is “garlic breath”
copper, and in welding. Irritates skin and and a metallic taste in the mouth.
gastrointestinal system.

Toluene Causes hallucination, intoxication, lung, Avoid if possible. Ventilate well.

a.k.a. Toluol brain, and red blood cell damage.
(substitute for benzene)

Turpentine Skin irritant. Brain and lung damage Ventilate. Wear gloves.
possible.

Zinc Compounds Dust and fumes attack the central nervous Ventilate and wear respirator.
system, skin, and lungs.

Appendix > Health & Safety > Studio Chemicals 

 Temperature Conversions

Celsius to Fahrenheit Fahrenheit to Celsius

> Multiply the degrees C times 9. > Subtract 32 from the degrees F.
> Divide this number by 5. > Multiply this number by 5.
> Add 32. > Diivide by 9.

°C °F °C °F °F °C °F °C
0 32 650 1202 32 0 1300 704
50 122 675 1247 100 38 1350 732
75 167 700 1382 150 66 1400 760
100 212 725 1337 200 93 1450 788
125 257 750 1382 250 121 1500 816
150 302 775 1427 300 149 1550 843
175 347 800 1470 350 177 1600 871
200 392 825 1517 400 204 1650 871
225 437 850 1562 450 232 1700 927
250 482 875 1607 500 260 1750 954
275 527 900 1652 550 288 1800 982
300 572 925 1697 600 316 1850 1010
Who were those guys?
Daniel Fahrenheit (–) was 325 617 950 1742 650 343 1900 1038
an instrument maker who worked in 350 662 975 1787 700 371 1950 1066
Amsterdam. In  he advanced the
work of others to create an improved 375 707 1000 1832 750 399 2000 1093
thermometer in which mercury was
400 752 1025 1877 800 427 2050 1121
enclosed in a sealed glass tube. He
developed a numeric scale based on 425 797 1050 1922 850 454 2100 1149
body temperature and ice and salt
mixture. 450 842 1075 1967 900 482 2150 1177
Anders Celsius (-) 475 887 1100 2012 950 510 2200 1204
was a Swedish scientist who
made important contributions in 500 932 1125 2057 1000 538 2250 1232
astronomy, cartography, and geology. 525 977 1150 2102 1050 566 2300 1260
He devised a numerically symmetrical
scale that assigned zero degrees to 550 932 1175 2147 1100 593 2350 1288
the boiling point of water, and 
575 1067 1200 2192 1150 621 2400 1316
degrees to the temperature at which
water freezes. After his death the 600 1112 1225 2237 1200 649 2450 1343
scale was inverted. The same scale is
also called centigrade. 625 1157 1250 2282 1250 677 2500 1371
Software to automate these
functions is available on CD
in the Pro Plus Edition.

 Appendix > Reference > Temperature Conversions

 Melting Points

Melting Points
Even if you don’t commit to memory all these numbers, it is help-
ful to have a general understanding of the relative melting points
of various materials. Elements have fixed numbers (determined at
sea level), but alloys and the miscellaneous materials below show
approximations.

1000
°C

100
200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900
0
Water boils 212 100


Paper burns 451 232

Epoxy breaks down
Wood burns 480 250
Polymer clay burns 500 260

Tin 450 232

Lead 621 327
Aluminum 1220 660
Yellow Brass 1749 954
 

NuGold 1886 1030

Bronze 1945 1060
Copper 1981 1083
Nickel silver 2030 1110
Steel 2750 1511
Titanium 3272 1800

14K yellow gold 1476 802

18K yellow gold 1620 882
 

Sterling silver 1640 920

Fine silver 1762 961
Fine gold 1945 1063
Platinum 3225 1774

Italics = alloys
0

212
392

572

752

932

1110

1290

1470

1650

1830

°F

Appendix > Reference > Melting Points 

 Conversion Factors

Converting one measurement to another

We all know that  foot equals  inches—that’s the kind of conversion you
can do with the numbers shown here. To convert the unit in bold to an
alternate measurement, multiply by the number shown.

Carats (ct) Pennyweights (dwt)

to grains x 3.0865 to grains x 24
to grams x 0.2 to grams x 1.5551
to milligrams x 200 to ounce avoir x 0.05486
Grains (gr) Pound avoirdupois (lb. avoir.)
to carats x 0.324 to grains x 7000
to grams x 0.0648 to grams x 453.59
to milligrams x 64.8 to kilograms x 0.4536
to ounce avoir. x 0.00228 to ounce troy x 14.5833
to ounce troy x 0.00208 Pound troy (lb. troy)
to pennywght x 0.04167 to gram x 373.242
Grams (g) to kilogram x 0.3732
to carat x 5 to ounce avoir x 13.165
to grains x 15.4324 to ounce troy x 14.5833
to ounce avoir x 0.03527 to pound avoir x 0.82286
to ounce troy x 0.03215 Feet (')
to pennywght x 0.64301 to centimeters x 30.48
Kilograms (kg) to meters x 0.3048
to ounce avoir x 35.274 Meters (m)
to ounce troy x 32.1507 to feet x 3.2808
to pennywght x 643.015 to inches x 0.03937
to lb. avoir x 2.2046 Inches (")
to lb. troy x 2.6792 to centimeters x 2.54
Avoirdupois ounce (oz, avoir) to meters x 0.0254
to grains x 437.5 to millimeters x 25.4
to grams x 28.3495 Cubic centimeters (cu cm)
to ounce troy x 0.91146 to cubic inches x 0.061
to pennywght x 18.291 to US fl oz x 0.0338
to lb, troy x 0.07595 Cubic inches (cu in)
Troy ounce (oz, troy) to cu cm x 16.387
to grains x 480 to liters x 0.01639
to grams x 31.1035 to US fl oz x 0.554
to ounce avoir x 1.0971 US gallons
to pennywght x 20 to liters x 3.785
to pound avoir x 0.06857 to cubic inches x 231
US fluid ounces (US fl oz) to cubic feet x 0.1337
to cu cm x 29.5737 Liters (l)
Software to automate these
to cu inches x 1.80469 to US gallons x 0.2642
functions is available on CD to liters x 0.02957 to US quarts x 1.0567
in the Pro Plus Edition.

 Appendix > Reference > Conversion Factors

Relative Weights & Sizes

Metal Conversions Equivalent Numbers

These factors allow you to calculate drill
the weight of a known object in an al-
B&S mm inches size
ternate metal, as in “How much would 0 8.5 .325 ⁄
this sterling ring weigh in 18K gold?” 1 7.34 .289 ⁄
To change to this: multiply 2 6.52 .257 1⁄4
this: by this:
3 5.81 .229 ⁄ 1
4 5.18 .204 ⁄ 6
Sterling 18K gold 1.48
14K gold 1.248 5 4.62 .182 ⁄ 15
10K gold 1.104 6 4.11 .162 ⁄ 20
platinum 2.046
7 3.66 .144 ⁄ 27
fine silver 1.015
8 3.25 .128 1⁄8 30
9 2.90 .114
Brass 18K gold 1.885
14K gold 1.589 10 2.59 .102 38
10K gold 1.406 11 2.31 .091 ⁄ 43
fine silver 1.273
12 2.06 .081 ⁄ 46
sterling 1.21
13 1.83 .072 50
18KY Gold 18KW gold 1.064 14 1.63 .064 ⁄ 51
14K gold 0.842
10K gold 0.745 15 1.45 .057 52
platinum 2.046 16 1.30 .051 54
sterling 0.675
17 1.14 .045 ⁄ 55
14KY Gold 18K gold 1.157 18 1.02 .040 56
14KW gold 1.035 19 0.914 .036 60
10K gold 0.884
fine silver 0.791 20 0.812 .032 1⁄3 65
sterling 0.801 21 0.711 .028 67
22 0.635 .025 70
Platinum 18K gold 0.722
14K gold 0.625 23 0.558 .022 71
10K gold 0.528 24 0.508 .020 74
fine silver 0.494
25 0.457 .018 75
sterling 0.483
26 0.406 .016 ⁄ 77
27 0.355 .014 78
28 0.304 .012 79
29 0.279 .011 80
30 0.254 .010

Software to automate these

functions is available on CD
in the Pro Plus Edition.
Appendix > Reference > Relative Weights & Sizes 
 Elements & Alloys

Metal or alloy Au Ag Cu Zn Other Melting Point Sp.Grav.

Al Aluminum 100 Al 660°C 1220°F 2.7
Sb Antimony 100 Sb 631 1168 6.6
Bi Bismuth 100 Bi 271 520 9.8
260 Cartridge brass 70 30 954 1749 8.5
226 Jewelers brass 88 12 1030 1886 8.7
220 Red brass 90 10 1044 1910 8.8
511 Bronze 96 4 Sn 1060 1945 8.8
Cd Cadmium 100 Cd 321 610 8.7
Cr Chromium 100 Cr 1890 3434 6.9
Cu Copper 100 1083 1981 8.9
Au Gold (fine) 100 1063 1945 19.3
920 22K yellow 92 4 4 977 1790 17.3
900 22K coinage 90 10 940 1724 17.2
750 18K yellow 75 15 10 882 1620 15.5
750 18K yellow 75 121⁄2 121⁄2 904 1660 15.7
750 18K green 75 25 966 1770 15.6
750 18K rose 75 5 20 932 1710 15.5
750 18K white 75 25 Pd 904 1660 15.7
580 14K yellow 58 25 17 802 1476 13.4
580 14K green 58 35 7 835 1535 13.6
580 14K rose 58 10 32 827 1520 13.4
580 14K white 58 42 Pd 927 1700 13.7
420 10K yellow 42 12 41 5 786 1447 11.6
420 10K yellow 42 7 48 3 876 1609 11.6
420 10K green 42 58 804 1480 11.7
420 10K rose 42 10 48 810 1490 11.6
420 10K white 42 58 Pd 927 1760 11.8
Fe Iron 100 Fe 1535 2793 7.9
Pd Lead 100 Pb 327 621 11.3
Mg Magnesium 100 Mg 651 1204 1.7
Monel Metal 33 60 Ni, 7 Fe 1360 2480 8.9
Ni Nickel 100 Ni 1455 2651 8.8
752 Nickel silver 65 17 18 Ni 1110 2030 8.8
Pd Palladium 100 Pd 1549 2820 12.2
Old pewter 80 Pb,20 Sn 304 580 9.5
Pt Platinum 100 Pt 1774 3225 21.4
Ag Silver (fine) 100 961 1762 10.6
925 Sterling 921⁄2 71⁄2 920 1640 10.4
800 Coin silver 80 20 890 1634 10.3
Mild steel 99 Fe, 1 C 1511 2750 7.9
Stainless steel 91 Fe, 9 Cr 1371 2500 7.8
Sn Tin 100 Sn 323 450 7.3
Software to automate these Ti Titanium 100 Ti 1800 3272 4.5
functions is available on CD Zn Zinc 100 419 786 7.1
in the Pro Plus Edition.

 Appendix > Reference > Elements & Alloys

 Weight-to-Size Chart

Sheet Metal – Weight per square inch in ounces or pennyweights

fine sterling fine 10K 14K 18K fine
mm inch B&S silver silver gold gold gold gold platinum
(oz) (oz) (dwts) (dwts) (dwts) (dwts) (oz)

6.54 .2576 2 1.42 1.41 52.5 31.4 35.5 42.3 2.91

5.19 .2043 4 1.12 1.12 41.6 24.9 28.1 33.6 2.31
4.11 .1620 6 0.894 0.884 33.0 19.8 22.3 26.6 1.83
3.26 .1285 8 0.709 0.701 26.2 15.7 17.7 21.1 1.45
2.59 .1019 10 0.562 0.556 20.8 12.4 14.0 16.7 1.15
2.05 .0808 12 0.446 0.441 16.5 9.85 11.1 13.3 0.913
1.63 0.0641 14 0.354 0.350 13.1 7.81 8.82 10.5 0.724
1.29 0.0508 16 0.281 0.277 10.4 6.21 7.00 8.35 0.574
1.02 0.0403 18 0.223 0.220 8.20 4.91 5.55 6.62 0.455
0.813 0.0320 20 0.176 0.174 6.51 3.90 4.40 5.25 0.361
0.645 0.253 22 0.140 0.138 5.16 3.09 3.49 4.216 0.286
0.511 0.0201 24 0.111 0.110 4.09 2.45 2.77 3.30 0.227
0.404 0.0154 26 0.088 0.087 3.24 1.94 2.19 2.62 0.180
0.330 0.0126 28 0.070 0.069 2.58 1.54 1.74 2.08 0.143
0.254 0.100 30 0.055 0.055 2.04 1.22 1.38 1.65 0.113

Round Wire – Weight per foot in ounces or pennyweights

fine sterling fine 10K 14K 18K fine
mm inch B&S silver silver gold gold gold gold platinum
(oz) (oz) (dwts) (dwts) (dwts) (dwts) (oz)

6.54 0.2576 2 3.45 3.41 128 76.3 86.1 104 7.07

5.19 0.2043 4 2.17 2.14 80.1 48.0 54.2 64.6 4.45
4.11 0.1620 6 1.36 1.35 50.4 30.2 34.1 40.6 2.80
3.26 0.1285 8 0.856 0.848 31.6 19.0 21.4 25.6 1.76
2.59 0.1019 10 0.541 0.534 20.0 11.9 13.5 16.1 1.11
2.05 0.0808 12 0.339 0.335 12.6 7.50 8.47 10.1 0.695
1.63 0.0641 14 0.214 0.211 7.78 4.72 5.33 6.36 0.437
1.29 0.0508 16 0.135 0.132 4.96 2.97 3.35 4.00 0.275
1.02 0.0403 18 0.085 0.084 3.11 1.87 2.11 2.51 0.173
0.813 0.0320 20 0.053 0.053 1.96 1.17 1.33 1.58 0.109
0.643 0.025 22 0.034 0.033 1.23 0.738 0.833 0.994 0.068
0.511 0.0201 24 0.021 0.021 0.775 0.464 0.524 0.625 0.043
0.404 0.0154 26 0.013 0.013 0.488 0.292 0.330 0.393 0.027
0.330 0.0126 28 0.008 0.008 0.306 0.184 0.287 0.247 0.017
0.254 0.0100 30 0.005 0.005 0.193 0.115 0.130 0.155 0.010

Appendix > Reference > Weight-to-Size Chart 

 Hardening Steel

What Happens
Steel that contains small amounts of carbon has the ability to transform
into several states or crystal configurations that have different degrees of
hardness, toughness, and springiness. Control over the formation of these
states depends on the alloy used, the temperatures reached, and the rate
of cooling. After working the steel into the desired shape, heat it to change
its crystals into hard martensite. A second heat treatment is then needed to
transform the steel into tough particles of cementite bonded in a matrix of
relatively flexible ferrite.

Spark Test Process

Before spending . Tool steel is sold in its annealed state, but if you are
time on a tool, recycling a worn tool, the first step is to anneal it. Heat
be sure you’re the steel to bright red and cool it as slowly as possible.
working with Bury the hot steel in sand or ashes to achieve a slow
a hardenable cooling. A second-best alternative is to set a firebrick
material. Mild onto the hot steel to hold in the heat.
steel (also called low carbon steel) . Shape the tool by forging, sawing, grinding, and filing.
contains .–. carbon, an Forging must be done while the steel is red hot. Do
amount that is insufficient to cause not strike after the color has gone or the steel may
hardening. To test an unknown crack. When making a patterned tool such as a stamp,
piece of material, hold it against a check the image by pressing it into clay.
grinding wheel. Mild steel gives dull,
round, orange sparks, while tool . Harden the tool by heating it to glowing red and
steel throws bright, star-like sparks quenching it immediately in oil or brine. Hold small
that split into multi-pointed bursts tools in tweezers and set large pieces on a brick.
at the tip. Punches are usually hardened only an inch or two up
from the stamping end. The goal here is to convert
the pearlite stage into martensite. Because this phase
is nonmagnetic, at proper temperature, a magnet will
not stick.
low medium high . Check for hardness by stroking a file across the tool. If
carbon carbon carbon the hardening was successful, the file will slide across
tool steel the steel and make a glassy sound.
. Remove the gray oxide scale with fine sandpaper
so you will be able to see the colors of the next
step.
. Reduce brittleness by heating in a step called drawing the temper (a.k.a.
Access Video drawing or tempering). This can be done with a torch or, for small pieces,
on a hot plate. Go slowly, letting heat travel from a thick section to a
Library thinner one. The higher the temperature the more flexible the steel will
on CD become. This flexibility comes at the cost of hardness, however. The straw
colored area at the tip has maximum hardness but it is also brittle. The
blue area further down is less brittle, but not as hard.

 Appendix > Summary > Hardening Steel


Checklist
. Set the object in place and arrange
for the best angle and proper
framing.
. Add close-up rings or lenses to
allow focusing.
. Turn on the lights; correct
shadows and hot spots.
. Look for reflections. Figure out
what they are and how to get rid
of them.
. Set a gray card (available from a
photo dealer) into the field and
take a reading on a light meter,
either as a separate tool or the
one built into the camera. Set the
aperture at the highest number
on your camera and adjust the
shutter speed as required.
. Double check the image. If it’s
good, make the exposure.
Photographing Jewelry
Tips
Photographing small reflective objects presents two problems. Because the
camera is close to the work, depth of field becomes critical. To keep both the
foreground and background in focus, it is necessary to keep the lens opening
(f-stop) small, like f-. To allow enough light to reach the film through
such a small opening, a long exposure time is needed. To keep the camera
steady for the length of time required, use a tripod. To further reduce the
risk of jiggling the camera, add a cable release. Most digital cameras include
a setting for close-up work. Experiment to figure out which settings work for
you. If all else fails, read the manual.
It’s possible to shoot jewelry in daylight with the appropriate film, but
greater consistency is possible when using lights. Flood lights are usually
mounted in aluminum reflectors and should be covered with a diffusing
material to spread the light outward. Tissue paper will work, but there is a fire
hazard because the bulbs get hot. Frosted acrylic, cotton fabric, or sailcloth
are better alternatives. To properly illuminate the work and avoid shadows,
light should come from both sides and sometimes from above. Use pieces of
white foam core to shield, shade, and bounce light.
Very reflective objects are difficult to photograph because they
mirror the objects around them. To avoid the reflection of the camera and
photographer, shoot through a piece of white cardboard with a hole cut out
for the lens.
Scale Background Material
Scale is important in translating an It’s easy to forget that a close-up
object into a photograph. In rare photo is like a magnifying glass.
cases, a common object like a coin Materials that look good to the naked
can be set beside the piece, but this eye become a jungle of lint, lines, and
usually creates a distraction. Instead, flaws when viewed close up. Medium
the relationship between the object values of colored paper make good
and the picture area is used to provide background surfaces. Color-Aid paper
a sense of scale.
(available at an art supply store) is
especially rich looking.
Photo Booth
Stretch fabric or translucent paper
over a frame; don’t let either get hot
enough to ignite. Use a long piece of
paper or fabric as backdrop, gently
curved to avoid a line between the
table and the wall. Adjust the height
and angle of the lights for each object,
tilting to show highlights
and shadows.
Appendix > Summary > Photographing Jewelry 
 Copyright Basics

Intellectual Property Laws

Category Description Example More info
Copyright Protects writings, designs, expression, Mickey Mouse Lib. of Congress, Copyright Office
and images. This is a federal protection. www.loc.gov/copyright

Trademark A graphic image and/or words Nike athletic equipment US Patent and Trademark Office
associated with a specific product. www.uspto.gov

Patent Registered ownership of a device When you invent a US Patent and Trademark Office
or process that is proven to be not better mousetrap, you www.uspto.gov
obvious to others in the field. may patent it.

Trade Secrets Similar to patent but easier to acquire. Can’t tell you. It’s a US Patent and Trademark Office
Often used while a patent is pending. secret. www.uspto.gov

Copyright Patents Data

Copyright is the most familiar and
inclusive of the forms of protection.
Copyright is automatic as soon as
a work is in a “fixed form”—typed,
drawn, printed, etc. The © notation
is not necessary but it is required
before you file an infringement suit.
In simple terms, a copyright
says, “I made this up. It belongs to
me and I have control over how it
is used.” Unless you are specifically
and clearly given permission or
know that a work is in the public
domain, it is always best to
seek permission before you use
something that you did not create.
Patents fall into two categories: Facts and ideas cannot be protected,
utility (the way a widget works) and but the presentation of information
design (the way the widget looks). can. Water boils at º F at sea
Patents are given only to two- level; this is a fact, and no one owns
dimensional materials; not a clasp the information. If you create a
but a drawing of a clasp. Securing unique chart to show this fact, you
a patent is often a long and costly are entitled to protect the chart.
procedure because it is necessary to In most cases, common sense
prove that no one has had the idea is a good guide. If someone came
before. US Patents are in effect for up with something—a poem or a
either  years (design) or  years pendant —they probably don’t want
(utility) and are good only in the you to take it. Would you, if you
United States. To protect your ideas were the creator? At the very least,
in other countries, you’ll need to it is courtesy to ask permission.
acquire additional patents.
Common Assumptions
> It doesn’t have a © mark so it’s okay to use it. Wrong.
> I’m not making money on this, so it’s okay to use it. Wrong.
> I got it off the Internet so all rights are waived. Wrong.
> I’m using only a small portion for review or parody
and I’ll make it clear I’m not the author/designer. Okay.
> Copyright is lost if you don’t defend it. Wrong.
(This applies to trademarks.)
> If a work is reproduced for education, the usual Wrong.
copyright rules do not apply. (Many copyright holders,
however, allow limited use in legitimate academic situations.)

 Appendix > Summary > Copyright Basics

 Rendering Templates

How to use this page

These templates will speed up the
early stages of rendering a ring or
bracelet in three-quarter view. Set
a blank piece of paper on these
outlines and draw over them.

Perspective Projection
This view, also known as “three- This view shows all angles in a head-
quarter,” mimics the way we usually on view.
perceive objects. It does not convey
data like measurements, but gives a
good sense of a piece, especially to
an untrained eye.

Geometric Templates 8
mm
3 14 x 8
Circles are handy for mm 28 x 7
mm
drawing stones and ring 4 20
9 mm
interiors. Ovals are a mm 18 x 10
5 mm 30 x 9
common shape for gems, mm
and are used when drawing 10
mm
round items in perspective. 6
22 x 14
Regular forms like 15 mm
triangles, pentagons, and mm 25 x 18
12 mm
7
hexagons lend stability and mm
precision to designs. 22 x 10
mm

The book Practical Jewelry

Rendering is available on CD
in the Pro Plus Edition.

Appendix > Summary > Rendering Templates 

 Circle Divider

Use this tool to divide a circle

into uniform parts. Center the
work on the target below and
make marks at the selected
intervals.

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

8 8

6 7 7 6

5 5

4, 8 4, 8

7 7

3, 6
3, 6

8 7 7 5 8
5

4, 6, 8

To Divide a Circle into Equal D Making a Cone Pattern C

Parts . Draw an accurate side view
1. Draw diameter AB. of the cone.
2. With A as center, and AB as . Extend the sides to meet (D).
A B D
radius, scribe an arc. Repeat, . Set a compass with radius BD
with B as center. and scribe an arc.
3. With a ruler, divide AB into the . Multiply AB times pi (.)
desired number of parts. This and mark this distance along
example shows five. the arc BC.
4. Draw a line from C through the . Connect DC. The shaded
second division. portion is the pattern.
C
5. Step AD around the circle. Presto!
A B
 Appendix > Reference > Circle Divider
 Studio Layout Templates

This looks like fun

Draw a floorplan (including doors, windows, and vents) of your studio space
at a scale of 1⁄2"= 1 foot. Cut out this page (or a photocopy of it) and arrange
the relevant pieces to create a layout that is efficient.

Rolling Hydraulic
Kiln Mill Press
Bench 12 x 12 12 x 12
18 x 18
18 x 36

Soldering Table
12 x 30 Sink
20 x 14

Drawing/Design Table
12 x 30

Sinks
Buffing Machine 30 x 14
Studio Layout Templates
12 x 30
1⁄2"= 1 foot

Sanding Machine
12 x 24 Bookshelf
Flexshaft 30 x 12

Lapidary Wheels
12 x 24
Wax Pot Bookshelf
30 x 10

Bench Grinder Vulcanizer

Bookshelf
15 x 20 30 x 8

Sandblaster
20 x 20 Stump

Centrifugal Casting
Anvil Machine
Stump

Vise

Appendix > Reference > Studio Layout Templates 

 Phase Diagrams

Silver/Copper Phase Diagram

A phase diagram is a graphic representation of the effects of heat on alloys of various proportions.
The diagram shown here is for all possible mixtures of silver and copper. Phase diagrams for just
about any alloy you can imagine are available in reference books at the library.

1100° C 2012° F

B
1000 1830
A
900 1650

800 1470
C
700 129 0


600 1110

500 930
Diagram by
Joanne L. Murray;
Used with
400 750 permission.
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
% silver (balance copper)

The left edge represents  silver. The point marked A indicates its melting point as being ° F
(.° C). The right edge represents  copper, whose melting point is shown at B. Reading across
the graph, the percentage of copper is increased as the silver is decreased. Halfway across is an alloy of
equal parts of the two metals. The bottom edge of the graph is the lowest temperature shown, in this
case ° C. Each phase diagram will use different temperature ranges, choosing the range that is perti-
nent to the alloy being displayed.
To fill in the graph, laboratory tests are made for many alloys, first a mixture of  parts silver to
 part copper, then :, :, and so forth. These tests determine the temperature at which the alloy
is no longer solid (the solidus) and the temperature at which it is total liquid (the liquidus). These are
plotted on the graph and yield the freezing curve, shown here as the boundary between red and blue
regions, dipping down to the left of center. This tells us that of all possible mixtures of these two met-
als, a combination of . silver and . copper has the lowest freezing point (° F, ° C). Ster-
ling, an alloy of . copper and . silver, is indicated on the diagram by the vertical red line near
the left edge: the graph shows that its melting point is ° F (° C).
Alloys in the red zone at the top of the diagram are totally liquid, in the blue areas above the red
line they are in a semi-solid or slushy state, and in the rest of the diagram they are completely solid.
That most alloys can be slushy over a wide range of temperatures is important in their behavior during
casting. Notice that in one area the metal passes directly from solid to liquid, at the point marked B.
This is called the eutectic point. The presence of eutectic in the metal gives the Japanese alloy shibuichi
its distinctive characteristics.
The yellow portions on either end represent the solid solutions of silver in copper and copper in
silver—these are true homogeneous alloys. In the wide range of alloys between the two solid solutions,
alloys are inhomogeneous mixtures of the two kinds of particles.

 Appendix > Silver-Copper Phase Diagram

 Geometry Formulas

Circle Sphere Triangles

A = π(r) or Area of a surface = πr A = bh
A = d (.) πr 
V=
C = πd  r
d d h

Circular Section Spherical Segment Pyramid

rl Area of a surface =  π r h A = sum of triangular sides
A= 2
V = Nsrh
h
l V = π h (r – 3 )
πrø 
l= r
180
ø
h
h

Circular Segment Cone Trapezoid

h (a+b)
A = .[r l - c(r-h)] Area of a surface = π r r + h A=

where l = . r ø π r h a
V= 3
h
h
c h
r r
ø b

Cylinder Frustrum of a Cone Trapezium

Area of surface =  π r l Area of surface = π s (R+r) (H+h) a + bh + cH
A=

V = π r l V = π h (R + Rr + r) a
3
s

l r h
h H
R
b

Ellipse Parabola Parallelogram

A = π Dd A=lr A = hb


r
d h
D l
b

Appendix > Reference > Geometry Formulas 

 Suggested Reading

Amulets and Superstitions The Jewelry Engraver’s Manual

E. A. Wallis Budge Hardy & Allen
Dover, New York,  (originally ) Van Nostrand, New York, , 

Artists Anodizing Aluminum Jewelrymaking for Schools Tradesmen

David LaPlantz and Craftsmen, Murray Bovin
Press de LaPlantz Bovin, Forest Hills, New York, , 
Bayside, CA, 
Jewelry Manufacture and Repair
Centrifugal or Lost Wax Jewelry Casting Charles Jarvis
for Schools, Tradesmen and Craftsmen Bonanza, New York, 
Murray Bovin
Bovin, Forest Hills, New York, , rev.  Jewelry Workshop Safety Report
Charles Lewton-Brain
Creative Casting Brain Press Ltd.
Sharr Choate Alberta, Canada, 
Crown, New York, 
Ring Repair
Creative Metal Clay Jewelry Alan Revere
CeCe Wire RAJA Press, San Francisco, CA, 
Lark Books, Ashville, NC, 
Metalwork and Enameling
The Curious Lore of Precious Stones Herbert Maryon
George Kunz Dover, New York,  (orig. )
Dover, New York,  (orig. )
Metal Techniques for Craftsmen
Design and Creation of Jewelry Oppi Untracht
Robert vonNeuman Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 
Chilton, Radnor, PA, , revised 
Jewelry, Concepts and Design
Rings for the Finger Oppi Untracht,
George Kunz Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 
Dover, New York,  (orig. )
Practical Goldsmithing
Foldforming Alan Revere
Charles Lewton-Brain Revere Academy Books, San Francisco, 
Brain Press Ltd.
Alberta, Canada,  Theory and Practice of Goldsmithing
Erhard Brepohl, trans. Charles Lewton-Brain
Form Emphasis For Metalsmiths Brynmorgen Press, Maine, 
Heikki Sëppa
Kent State Univ. Press, Kent, Ohio,  The History of Beads
Lois Sherr Dubin
The Jeweler’s Bench Reference Harry N. Abrams, New York, 
Harold O’Connor
Dunconor, Taos, NM, 

 Appendix > Reference > Suggested Reading

 On-Line Resources

Resources on the Web

It goes without saying that even as I write it, this page is going out of date.
The Web offers an incredible wealth of information and inspiration for artists.
Here are some sites that have been helpful for metalsmiths.

Organizations snagmetalsmith.org Society of North American Goldsmiths

craftcouncil.org American Craft Council
silversmiths.com Society of American Silversmiths
PMCguild.com Precious Metal Clay Guild
isgb.org Int’l Society of Glass Beadmakers
abana,org Artist/Blacksmith Association
copper.org Copper Development Association
cdc.gov/niosh Nat’l Institue for Occupational Safety

Magazines lapidaryjournal.com Lapidary Journal

ajm-magazine.com American Jewelry Manufacture
beadandbutton.com Bead & Button
craftsreport.com Crafts Report

Suppliers bonnydoonengineering.com Hydraulic presses and accessories

(also see the castaldo.com
next two omega.com
pages) electricanvil.net
parawire.com
AdvantageLumber.com
bereahardwoods.com
woodworkerssource.net
hearnehardwoods.com
shop.woodcraft.com
unitedpmr.com
tapplastics.com
orascoptic.com
chainmailconnection.com
artessentialsofnewyork.com
goldleafcompany.com
tsijeweltools.com
Rubber mold materials
Electronic devices, pyrometers, etc.
Miscellaneous metals information
Assortment of metal wires
Wood
Wood and woodworking equipment
Wood and woodworking equipment
Wood and woodworking equipment
Wood and woodworking supplies
United Precious Metal Refining Co.
Supplier of plastics and related supplies
Wearable microscopes (dentistry)
Chain mail information
Gold leaf materials and instruction
Gold leaf
Handtools, beads, books, findings

Appendix > Reference > On-Line Resources 


Jewelry Supplies
Allcraft Jewelry Supply
135 W 29th St. Room 402
New York, NY 10001
Contenti
123 Stewart St.
Providence, RI 02903
contenti.com
Gesswein
255 Hancock Ave.
PO Box 3998
Bridgeport, CT 06605
gesswein.com
Frei & Borel
PO Box 796
126 Second St.
Oakland, CA 94607
ofrei.com
Indian Jewelers Supply Co.
601 East Coal Ave.
Gallup, NM 87302
ijsinc.com
Metalliferous
34 West 46th St.
New York, NY 10036
metalliferous.com
Rio Grande
7500 Bluewater Road NW
Albuquerque, NM 87121
riogrande.com
William Dixon
750 Washington Ave.
Carlstadt, NJ 07072
grobetusa.com
 Appendix > Reference > Suppliers
Suppliers
Precious Metals
800-645-7124 David H. Fell & Co Inc 800-822-1996
212-279-7077 6009 Bandini Blvd. 323-722-6567
212-279-6886 fax City of Commerce, CA 90040 323-722-9992 fax
dhfco.com
800-343-3364
800-651-1887 fax Hauser & Miller Co 800-462-7447
401-421-4040 Box 500700 800-535-3829 fax
St Louis, MO 63150 314-487-1311
hauserandmiller.com
800-243-4466
888-454-4377 fax Hoover & Strong 800-759-9997
203-366-5400 phone & fax
203-366-3953 fax 10700 Trade Road 804 794-3700
Richmond, VA 23236 804-794-5687 fax
hooverandstrong.com
800-772-3456
800-900-3734 fax Myron Toback 800-223-7550
510-832-0355 25 West 47th St. 212 398 8300
510-834-6217 fax New York, NY 10036 212-869-0808 fax
myrontoback.com
800-545-6540 United Precious Metal 800-999-3463
888-722-4172 fax 2781 Townline Road 800-533-6657 fax
505-722-4451 Alden, NY 14004
505-722-4172 fax unitedpmr.com
888-944-0909 Non-Precious Metals
212-944-0909
Admiral Steel L.P. 800-323-7055
212-944-0644 fax
4152 W. 123rd St. 708-388-9600
Alsip, IL 60658-1869 708-388-9317 fax
admiralsteel.com
800-545-6566
800-965-2329 fax
Bayshore Metals Inc. 800-533-2493
505-839-3300
244 Napoleon Street 415-647-7981
505-839-3310 fax
San Francisco, CA 94124 415-285-5759 fax
bayshoremetals.com
800-847-4188
800-243-2432 fax
Reactive Metals Studio 800-876-3434
201-935-0100
Box 890 928-634-3434
Clarkdale, AZ 86324 928-634-6734 fax
reactivemetals.com
 Suppliers

Miscellaneous Specialties Enamels

Arrow Springs 800-899-0689 Thompson Enamel 800-545-2776
4301A Product Drive 530-677-1400 650 Colfax Avenue 859-291-3800
Shingle Springs, CA 95682 530-677-1600 fax Bellevue, KY 41073 859-291-1849 fax
arrowsprings.com thompsonenamel.com

Centaur Forge 800-666-9175 Bovano of Cheshire 800-847-3192

117 N. Spring Street 262-763-9175 830 S. Main 203-272-3208
Burlington, WI 53105 262-763-8350 fax Cheshire, CT 06410-3410 203-250-7527 fax
centaurforge.com
Enamel Emporium 713-984-0552
Harbor Freight Tools 800-423-2567 1221 Campbell Road 713-984-1586 fax
3491 Mission Oaks Blvd. 800-905-5220 fax Houston, TX 77055
Camarillo, CA 93011 805-388-3000
harborfreight.com Enamelwork Supply Co. 800-596-3257
1022 NE 68th 206-525-9271
J. I. Morris Company 508-764-4394 Seattle, WA 98115 206-526-5795 fax
394 Elm Street 508-764-7350 fax
Southbridge, MA 01550 Frantz Art Glass & Supply 360-426-2643
jimorris.thomasregister.com E. 1222 Sunset Hill Rd. 360-427-5866 fax
Shelton, WA 98584
Northwest Pitchworks 360-715-1772 frantzartglass.com
1317 Roland Street
Bellingham, WA 98226
northwestpitchworks.com

Small Parts 800-220-4242

13980 NW 58th Court 800-423-9009 fax
PO Box 4650 305-557-7955
Miami Lakes, FL 33014 305-558-0509 fax
smallparts.com

Gun Bluing source:

Birchwood Laboratories, Inc. 800-328-6156
7900 Fuller Road 952-937-7931
Eden Prairie, MN 55344 952-937-7979 fax
birchwoodcasey.com

Appendix > Reference > Suppliers 

Index        ,
      .   
   ,      
       .

abrasives, – accessories,  problem solving, 

acids,  building advanced jeweler’s, sand, –
adhesives,  – sling, 
air compressors,  building basic jeweler’s, – steam, 
alginate,  grinder,  stones in place, 
alloy(s),  knife,  thermosetting plastics, 
amount of gold in,  pin, ,  using molds, –
common, ,  vise,  vacuum, 
components of aluminum,  bezels,  water, 
easily fusible,  basic,  catches. See also clasps
and elements, melting points fancy, – basic box, 
and specific gravities of,  interior and partial,  friction, 
eutectic,  problem solving,  hinge-based, 
Japanese,  thick,  for pins, 
metals used for steel,  birthstones,  spring, 
popular,  bits, drill,  telescoping pin, 
soldering,  blades, spiral,  threaded, –
suitable for depletion gilding, bone,  trick, 
 bossing. See shallow forming variations of box, 
aluminum,  brass,  Celsius, Anders, 
anodizing, – brazing,  centrifugal casting, 
annealing Britannia silver,  chains, –
defined,  bronze,  basic loop-in-loop, –
glass,  buffing, – basics of making, 
wire,  burins. See gravers cable, 
anodizing,  burnishers, ,  chain mail, –
aluminum, – burnishing curb, 
reactive metals, – a groove,  double loop-in-loop, –
anticlastic raising, – hand,  foldover, 
control of,  machine, – idiot’s delight, 
antler,  burnout,  loop-in-loop mesh, 
anvils,  mesh from coils, 
argyria,  Pantera, 
cabochons sailor’s, 
easy setting for,  terminals for, 
bails,  raised bezels for round or oval, unsoldered, –
basket settings,   woven, 
basse-taille,  carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS),  champlevé, 
beads casting channel setting, 
attaching,  centrifugal,  chasing, 
stringing,  double metal,  hammers, 
belt buckles,  glass,  chemicals, studio, –
belt sanders,  lost wax process, – chisels, 
bench molds and hollow,  chuck keys, 

 Index
        , Index
      .   
   ,      
       .

circle divider,  dapping,  materials into metal clay, 

clamps,  deformation,  objects in plastic, 
clasps. See also catches degree gauge,  enameling
assorted, – depletion gilding, ,  champlevé, 
barrel,  depth of field,  cloisonné and basse-taille, 
hinges as,  dichroic glass,  equipment, 
lentil,  die forming, – full coat, 
specialty,  hydraulic,  materials, 
cloisonné,  dies plique-á-jour, 
coefficient of expansion (COE),  brittleness of,  process, –
cold connections cutting,  sgraffito and full coat, 
rivets, – defining,  engraving, –
tabs,  forming, – types of, 
threaded,  press, ,  etching, –
wire wrapping,  steel silhouette,  low-tech photo-, 
collars, ,  using threading,  eutectic bonding, 
collar settings,  wooden,  exhaust tables, 
collets,  diffusion, 
compounds,  in mokumé, 
ill effects and precautions for dividers, ,  Fahrenheit, Daniel, 
using, – double metal casting,  fibulas, 
contamination drawbench,  files, 
niello,  drawplates,  scoring with, 
of platinum,  homemade,  tips for using, 
by white metals,  draw tongs,  filing, 
conversions drilling,  findings
metal, calculating weight in pearls,  bead tips, 
alternate metal,  drills,  earring, 
of one measurement to another, dust,  pin, –
 firescale, 
relative weights and sizes,  around overlay, 
temperature,  earrings protecting against, 
copper,  findings for,  first-aid kit, . See also safety
plating, simple,  tension spring clasp for,  flange, around die-formed shape, 
role of, in reticulation,  elastic deformation,  flexible shaft machines, , , 
/silver phase diagram,  electroforming,  fluxes, , 
copyrights,  electrolyte cleaning,  metal-laden, 
basics pertaining to,  electroplating,  foil, 
crimping,  history of,  foldforming, –
crown settings,  nickel used in,  folds, types of, –
crystals, ,  electrostripping,  forging, 
cuff links,  electrum,  forms, hollow. See shell structures
cutting dies, . See also dies Elkington, G.R.,  French loops, 
cuttlefish, – embedding fumes, dangerous

Index 
Index        ,
      .   
   ,      
       .

flux,  gypsy settings,  jaw protectors, 

from niello,  jeweler’s bench. See bench
produced by white metals,  jewelry
released by heat created by hammering table, design for photographing, 
machining,  building,  suppliers, –
from thermosetting plastics,  hammers,  use of paper as material for, 
wax,  chasing,  jigs
from working with gold ingots,  for planishing,  angle cutting, 
fusion,  handles,  bending, 
glass,  file,  forging, 
metal clay,  graver,  miter cutting, 
hardening pearl holding, 
steel, ,  tube-cutting, 
gas bubbles, during etching,  sterling,  joining
gauge plate,  hard wax, – aluminum, 
gems. See also stones hinges, , – thermoplastics, 
general information, – basic,  jump rings, making, 
laboratory-grown,  cradle, 
list (in alphabetical order), interior, or hidden, 
– pin spring,  karat
stress reduction for corners of silversmith’s,  determining, 
rectangular,  spring,  purity of, 
summary chart,  standoff,  keum-boo, 
geometry formulas,  tension,  kilns, , 
gilding three-part,  for metal clay, 
depletion,  tips for making,  Kunz, George Frederick, 
with gold and silver leaf,  use of leather for, 
glass, . See also enameling holding strap, 
gold, – hones,  lacquer, 
in keum-boo,  hydraulic press,  lapidary, 
solders,  lashing, 
using pickle to clean karat,  layout, 
gold-filled,  implants,  careful, for engraving, 
gold leaf, ,  inlay, – templates for studio, 
granulation, – intellectual property laws,  tools, 
gravers,  investing, – lead, , 
handles for,  investment, – leather, 
sharpening,  soldering,  lenses, 
styles of,  using cores,  Lewton-Brain, Charles, 
grinders,  for working with platinum,  lost wax process, –
grip, importance of proper,  investment soldering,  burnout, 
for investment,  iron,  calculating the charge, 
on mountings,  equipment and supplies, 
when holding gravers,  hard wax, –

 Index
        ,
      .   
   ,      
       .
investing, –
models, 
soft wax, –
sprues and spruing, 
loupe, 
lubrication
for drawplates, , 
to speed sawing, 
machines
buffing, –
finishing, –
improved milling, 
sandblasting, 
sanding, , 
ultrasonic, , 
magnets, 
magnification, 
malleability
factors determining, 
of gold, 
vacancies, contributing to, 
mallets, , 
raising with, 
mandrels, , 
masking, 
media, tumbling, 
melting points, 
of elements and alloys, 
metal clay, –
firing equipment, 
laboratory-grown gems used
with, 
slip, 
using torch with, 
metallurgy, –
micrometer, 
microscopes, 
models
arranging sprues for, 
for lost wax process, 
Mohs scale of hardness, 
mokumé, 
Index
molds recipes for, –
cured,  patterned rollers, 
cutting,  pavé, 
cuttlefish, – pearls, attaching, 
and hollow castings,  pedestal-prong settings, 
ingot and charcoal,  pendant bails, 
plaster,  pen plating, 
release and holding of,  pewter, 
reusable,  phase diagrams, 
vulcanized,  photoetching, low-tech, 
mordants. See acids pickles, , 
in depletion gilding, 
piercing, 
National Institute for Occupational Pinchbeck, Christopher, 
Safety and Health (NIOSH), pins
,  catches for, 
nickel,  findings for, –
nickel silver,  tension spring clasp for, 
niello, – planishing, 
applying,  plastic deformation, 
making,  plastics, –
niobium,  rivets made from, 
specific gravity, 
plating, simple copper, 
Occupational Safety and Health platinum, 
Administration (OSHA),  pliers, 
omega clips,  rack, 
on-line resources,  setting prongs with, 
organic materials,  plique-á-jour, 
overlay, – polishing cloths, 
setting,  precious metal clay (PMC). See
oxidation,  metal clay
in patinas,  prongs, 
protecting against,  of different sizes, 
resistance of platinum to,  pearls and soft stones in, 
punches, , 
dapping, 
paint, for metals,  putty, 
paper, 
patents, 
patinas raising, –
methods for applying, – anticlastic, –
preparation and preservation, reactive metals, 
– anodizing, –
Index 
Index        ,
      .   
   ,      
       .

reading, suggested,  niello contamination,  shell structures, 

recrystallization,  precautions for compounds, shibu-ichi, 
repetitive stress injuries (RSIs),  – silver, –. See also tarnish
exercises,  and thermosetting plastics,  /copper phase diagram, 
simple modifications for torch,  silver leaf, , 
prevention of,  using pickles,  sinking, 
symptoms and causes,  with wax,  sliding calipers, 
replacement air, ,  sandblasters,  sling casting, 
repoussé, – sandblasting, ,  snips, 
resins,  sanders,  soft wax, –
resists,  sanding solder, 
respirators, , ,  machines, ,  inlay, 
reticulation,  sticks and boards, ,  preparation, 
rhodium,  saw blades, ,  seams, in raising, 
rhombus,  holders for,  stops, 
rifflers,  sawframes, ,  soldering, 
rings sawing, ,  alloys, 
carving,  scientific notation,  hard. See brazing
establishing size for,  scoring,  investment, 
pliers for forming,  tools,  methods, 
rivets, – scrapers,  and mokumé, 
basic,  hollow,  rules for, 
special, – scraping,  surfaces, 
roll printing,  scratchbrushes, ,  specific gravities, 
room temperature vulcanizing seaming,  of elements and alloys, 
(RTV),  settings. See also bezels; spiculum
rouge,  stonesetting bending, 
rubber,  from behind,  curved double, 
rulers,  channel,  making, 
rust prevention,  collar,  spring pins, 
collet and crown,  springs, , 
gypsy,  sprues, , 
safety. See also fumes, dangerous; pavé,  spruing, , 
toxicity pedestal-prong,  stakes, 
anodizing,  rectangular,  sinusoidal, 
buffing,  specialty,  stamping, 
drilling,  square or rectangular frames staples, tabs and, 
etching,  for,  Stark, Jean, , , 
eye care,  tube,  steam casting, 
health, and common sense,  turtle and basket,  steel, . See also welding
magnets and,  sgraffito,  hardening, 
marking food containers used shaku-do,  step bit, 
for chemicals,  shallow forming,  sterling, 
when mixing investment,  shears, ,  using pickle to clean, 

 Index
        , Index
      .   
   ,      
       .

stones. See also gems thrumming,  vacancies, , 

casting,  titanium,  vacuum
channel setting,  tools, – casting, 
rectangular, ,  bench accessories,  method of investing, 
round,  bending,  vaporization, 
setting heat sensitive,  chasing,  vent hoods, 
soft, in prongs,  cutting, – ventilation, , , , 
stonesetting. See also settings dapping,  push vs. pull, , 
tips,  hand,  when using fluxes, 
tools,  holding,  for wax fumes, 
stretching,  layout,  vent tables, , 
stringing,  making carving, for hard wax verdigris, 
stropping,  casting,  vernier, 
sweeps,  planishing,  vises, 
drawer,  pushing, , . See also pin, , 
gravers Voluntary Product Standard, 
raising,  vulcanizer, 
tabs, ,  for repoussé, 
in seaming,  rust prevention, 
in turtle settings,  sinking,  wax, 
tapered spindles,  stonesetting,  hard, –
taps,  tube cutting and scoring,  injecting, 
tarnish wire drawing,  soft, –
caused by rubber,  torches, , ,  wax injecting, 
prevention,  torque,  weight(s)
removal, ,  toxicity relative, and sizes, 
resistance, use of rhodium for,  of ammonia and bleach,  -to size chart, 
temperature of solvent and glue vapors,  welding, 
conversions,  tube(s) white metals, 
indicators,  bending,  contamination of, 
tempering, glass,  cutting,  whittling, 
templates making,  wire
rendering,  setting,  French, 
studio layout,  tubemaking,  gallery, 
terminals, for chains and cords,  tumbling, – prepared, for cable chains, 
textures media,  tips when using, 
in reticulation,  solutions,  wrapping, 
using metal clays to capture,  with steel shot, for hardening,  wire drawing, 
thermoplastics,  turtle settings,  tools, 
thermosetting plastics,  tusk,  wood, 
coloring,  work-hardening, 
as holding materials for copper, 
engraving,  ultrasonics, ,  defined, 
threaded connections,  urethanes, 

Index 
Complete Metalsmith
Student Edition
Compact, efficient, and durable. This condensed
version is designed for entry level metalsmiths
with limited resources. Like the other editions,
this book uses the one-topic-to-a-page format
that puts information at your fingertips.
>  pages
> plastic cover
> full color
> spiral bound to lay flat

Professional Edition
Almost three times larger than the original 
edition of The Complete Metalsmith, this book
has everything of the earlier version, plus more.
New materials include a chapter on color, new
techniques, additional resources, more chains,
and color illustrations of gems.
>  pages
> full color
> fabric hardcover
> flap and elastic band to hold notes

Pro Plus Edition

This edition moves this popular book into the
st century with an electronic version that
takes advantage of the latest technology. This
bundle includes the printed Professional Edition,
plus a CD that contains:
> the full text of Complete Metalsmith as a
searchable and printable PDF.
> video clips merged into the text.
> computational software for handheld PDAs
and desktop computers.
> the full text of Practical Jewelry Rendering.
> a specially created electronic edition of the
popular book, Design Language.
> all the software needed to use this CD on
both PC and Macintosh computers.
 Also by Tim McCreight
Metalworking for Jewelry
Practical Casting
Custom Knifemaking
Metals Technic (editor)
Practical Jewelry Rendering
Design Language
Jewelry: Fundamentals of Metalsmithing
Metalsmith’s Book of Boxes
Color on Metal
Working with Precious Metal Clay
Theory & Practice of Goldsmithing (editor)

This book was composed in InDesign .

on a Macintosh G computer.
Brynmorgen Press is proud
to premier this font,
Expo Sans,
designed by Mark Jamra.

Printed in Hong Kong

by Elegance Printing.
 Quotations used in Complete Metalsmith and Design Language
collected by Tim McCreight
from The smith also sitteth by the anvil, and fighteth
Complete Metalsmith with the heat of the furnace, and noise of the
hammer and the anvil is ever in his ears, and his
eyes look still upon the pattern of the thing that
he maketh. He setteth his mind to finish his work,
and waiteth to polish it perfectly.
— Ecclesiasticus
Overhand the hammers swing, overhand slow,
overhand so sure, They do not hasten each man
hits in his place.
— Walt Whitman
What we see depends mainly on what we look for.
— John Lubbock
Ugly things are ugly in much the same way the
world over.
— Bruno Munari
Truth is something you stumble into when you
think you’re going some place else.
— Jerry Garcia
Look for points in common which are not points
of similarity, it is thus that the poet can say, “A
swallow stabs the sky,” and turns the sparrow into
a dagger.
— George Braque
Creativeness often consists of merely turning up
what is already there. Did you know that the right
and left shoes were thought up only a little more
than a century ago?
— Bernice Fitz-Gibbon
Mastery doesn’t interest me—there is a world
full of virtuosos. I like to work as if I’m at the
beginning.
— Betty Oliver
The more I design, the more certain I am that
elimination is the secret of beauty.
— Gustav Stickley
Criticism comes easier than craftmanship.
— Zeuxius
Do what you can,
with what you have,
where you are.
— Theodore Roosevelt
I am not yet so lost in lexicography as to forget
that words are daughters of earth, and that
things are the sons of heaven.
— Samuel Johnson
My play was a complete success. The audience
was a failure.
— Ashleigh Brilliant
This is how I try to define design, as having to do
with how things fit — how things fit the hand,
how furniture fits the body, how people fit in
buildings, and how buildings fit the landscape.
Design, most of the time, is about finding this
sense of fit between people, places and things.
— Akiko Busch
When we live in awareness, we can see miracles
everywhere.
— Thich Nhat Hann
There ain’t any answer. There ain’t going to be
any answer. There never has been an answer.
That is the answer.
— Gertrude Stein
There’s process and there’s product. If you’re too
concerned about product, it can get in the way
of process.
— Mike Meyers
All the really good ideas I ever had came to me
while I was milking a cow.
— Grant Wood
We can’t all and some of us don’t. That’s all there
is to it.
— A.A. Milne
Everything has beauty, but not everyone sees it.
— Confucius
Without any doubt good and accurate use of
files comes from practice and more practice.
— Charles Jarvis
Blunder ahead with your own personal view.
— Robert Henri
Less is only more where more is no good.
— Frank Lloyd Wright
 2

All things change according to the state we are In iron we possess a substance from which can
in. Nothing is fixed. be made the thick, heavy ribs of the vessel of
— Robert Henri war, the slender blade of the surgeon’s knife, or
the exquisitely artistic leaf work of the chancel
This old anvil laughs at many a broken hammer. screen.
— Carl Sandburg — Paul Hasluck

By the hammer and hand, all the arts do stand. Learning stamps you with its moments. It isn’t
— traditional steady. It’s a pulse.
— Eudora Welty
What looks good can change, but what works,
works. It ain’t what you do, it’s the way that you do it.
— Ray Eames — Sy Oliver &
James Young
I hear and I forget.
I see and I remember. It takes a long time to become young.
I do and I understand. — Pablo Picasso
— Chinese proverb
Gaiety in objects, enjoyment in their construc-
When you get a thing the way you want it, leave tion, in making them work—this to me seems
it alone. very important.
— Winston Churchill — Olivier Mourgue

The inner life of a human being is a vast and var- The one serious conviction that a man should
ied realm and does not concern itself alone with have is that nothing is to be taken too seriously.
stimulating arrangements of color, form, and — Samuel Butler
design.
— Edward Hopper It is often said, “The public does not appreciate
art!” Perhaps the public is dull, but there is just a
The afternoon knows what the morning never possibility that we are also dull, and that if there
suspected. were more motive, wit, human philosophy, or
— Swedish Proverb other evidences of interesting personality in our
work the call might be stronger.
Time is a great teacher, but unfortunately it kills — Robert Henri
all its pupils.
— Hector Berlioz

from Design Language The universe is full of magical things patiently Be yourself, because somebody has to, and
waiting for our wits to grow sharper. you’re the closest.
— Eden Philpots — Jack Kent

The pursuit of truth and beauty is a sphere of Speak to the earth and let it teach you.
activity in which we are permitted to remain — Job 12: 8
children all our lives.
— Albert Einstein You must have the Devil in you to succeed in
any of the Arts.
I exist as I am, that is enough. — Voltaire
— Walt Whitman
3

There is no abstract art. You must always start They are able because they think they are able.
with something. — Vergil
— Pablo Picasso
The truth is more important than the facts.
Written truth is four-dimensional. If we consult — Frank Lloyd Wright
it at the wrong time, or read it at the wrong
pace, it is as empty and shapeless as a dress on There’s no where you can be that isn’t where
a hook. you were meant to be.
— Robert Grudin — Lennon and McCartney

The worlds about us would be desolate except As knowledge increases, wonder deepens.
for the worlds within us. — Charles Morgan
— Wallace Stevens
Never lose a holy curiosity.
The traveler sees what he sees, the tourist sees — Albert Einstein
what he has come to see.
— Gilbert K. Chesterton I am trying to check my habits of seeing, to
counter them for the sake of greater freshness. I
What I dream of is an art of balance, of purity am trying to be unfamiliar with what I’m doing.
and serenity… something like a good armchair. — John Cage
— Walt Kelly
If you want someone to listen to what you’re
A thing is not beautiful because it is beautiful, saying, whisper it.
as the he-frog said to the she-frog, it is beautiful — Cynthia Copeland Lewis
because one likes it.
— Bruno Munari The work of craft is a fine example of the work of
life, our universal obligation.
To avoid criticism, do nothing, say nothing, be — Carla Needleman
nothing.
— Elbert Hubbard ‘Tis with our judgments as our watches, none
Go just alike, yet each believes his own.
Perplexity is the beginning of knowledge. — Alexander Pope
— Kahlil Gibran
God lives in the details.
Silence can be an answer. — Mies van der Rohe
— Cynthia Copeland Lewis
When you cannot make up your mind which
Chance favors the prepared mind. of two evenly balanced courses of action you
— Louis Pasteur should take—choose the bolder.
— W. J. Slim
The heart has eyes which the brain knows
nothing of. Design is the conscious and intuitive effort to
— Charles H. Perkhurst impose meaningful order.
—Victor Papanek
The arrangements we make are either pleasing
or not pleasing. An explanation is not necessary. He who does not understand your silence will
— Kenneth Bates probably not understand your words.
— Elbert Hubbard
Living is an everyday business. Coming to life is
strange and beautiful. We design, and we have designs on. Maybe the
— Sister Judith Savard difference is between discovering order and im-
posing order. I think the former is a good thing,
There is no wisdom like frankness. and the latter isn’t, necessarily.
— Benjamin Disraeli — Robley Wilson, Jr.
4
There is no such thing as empty space; there’s
always something to see.
— John Cage
My imagination takes its strength and guides its
direction from what I see and hear and learn and
feel and remember of my living world.
— Eudora Welty
Everything should be made as simple as pos-
sible, but not simpler.
— Albert Einstein
Design can be on turbid days what sonar is to
bats at night. It is a way to transmit signs, to
ricochet symbols outside ourselves, and by that
to locate the edges of things.
— Roy Behrens
Don’t look for meaning in the words. Listen to
the silences.
— Samuel Beckett
Whatever feeling, whatever state you have at
the time of making the line will register in the
stroke.
— Robert Henri
Even a brick wants to be something.
— Louis Kahn
Originality is nothing but judicious imitation.
— Voltaire
We think by ignoring — or by attending to one
term of a relationship (the figure) and neglecting
the other (the ground).
— Alan Watts
The principal mark of genius is not perfection
but originality.
— Arthur Koestler
Discontinuity and fragmentation are part of the
deep structure of modern culture.
— O.B. Hardison, Jr.
Nothing is beautiful that is not useful; nothing is
useful that is not beautiful.
— Japanese saying
Perhaps the most radical change that has oc-
curred in the history of theoretical thinking is
the switch from the atomistic conception of the
world as an assembly of circumscribed things
to that of a world of forces acting in the dimen-
sion of time. These forces are bound to organize
themselves in fields, interacting, grouping, con-
necting, fusing, and separating.
— Rudolf Arnheim
Gesture is expressive of the artist’s relationship
to both subject and medium. Spontaneous ges-
tures convey an immediate and intuitive manner
of working, while a more contained gesture sug-
gests a staid, methodical approach.
— Jonathan Block
It is respectable to have no illusions, and safe,
and profitable and dull.
— Joseph Conrad
Like takes to like. — Homer
I want to start living my life in grace and
harmony.
— Kurt Vonnegut
We think in generalities, but we live in detail.
— Alfred North Whitehead
Computers are useless. They only give answers.
— Pablo Picasso
Good design is whatever addresses the need a
society has for an image of itself.
— Ettore Sottsass, Jr.
Design is not invention. It is sensitivity.
— Carla Needleman
Sight is a promiscuous sense. The avid gaze al-
ways wants more.
— Susan Sontag
Every artist knows that he is engaged in an en-
counter with infinity, and that work done with
heart and hand is ultimately worship of Life
itself.
— Sôetsu Yanagi
5
To be a master of the metaphor is a sign of
genius, because a good metaphor implies an
intuitive perception of the similarity between
dissimilar things.
— Aristotle
I’m getting better at playing the silences.
— Glenn Gould
If I have ever made any valuable discoveries, it
has been owing more to patient attention, than
to any other talent.
— Isaac Newton
There is nothing new in art except talent.
— Anton Chekov
God made everything out of nothing. But the
nothingness shows through.
— Paul Valéry
No one looks at the thing itself anymore. We
look at what the thing does, at the traces it
leaves behind.
— Nick Samios
Everything on earth is somehow related but
rarely do we see it that way. We see and study it
in bits and pieces; our world seems fleeting and
fragmentary, and often, so do we.
— Philip Carlo Paratore
What happens to the hole when the cheese is
gone?
— Bertolt Brecht
Standing in the middle of a quiet room in a quiet
house while, like a curtain, the silent snow fell
at every window. I heard all that quiet. It made
noise.
— Doris Grumbach
Every movement is both action and reaction as,
in the human body, each movement involves a
set of muscles, adductor and extensor. Without
movement and return, action is frantic and mis-
guided, tense and unrhythmical.
— Carla Needleman
Confusion is a word we have invented for an or-
der that is not yet understood.
— Henry Miller
Art need not be intended. It comes inevitably
as the tree from the root, the branch from the
trunk, the blossom from the twig. None of
these forget the present in looking backward or
forward. They are occupied fully with the fulfill-
ment of their own existence.
— Robert Henri
Don’t worry about your originality. You could
not get rid of it even if you wanted to. It will
stick to you and show you up for better or worse
in spite of all you or anyone else can do.
— Robert Henri
The purpose of good design is to ornament exis-
tence, not to substitute for it.
— George Nelson
The happiest people are not the people without
problems. They are the people who know how to
solve their problems.
— Robert Schuller
To divine the significance of pattern is the same
as to understand beauty itself.
— Sôetsu Yanagi
Results! Why, man, I have gotten a lot of results.
I know several thousand things that don’t work.
— Thomas Edison
Quality is not an act. It is a habit.
— Aristotle
We shape clay into a pot,
But it is the emptiness inside
That holds whatever we want.
— Lao-tzu (Tao Te Ching)
The only road to authenticity lies through what
has already been done. There is no deep art
without deep historical awareness.
— Robert Hughes
Creativity requires the willingness and ability
to declassify and restructure information and
experience.
— Philip Carlo Paratore
Without roots, they ain’t no fruits.
— Willy Dixon
6
Every act of creation is first an act of
destruction.
— Pablo Picasso
The mysterious law of rhythm seems to be a
universal law, since rhythm is coordinated move-
ment, and movement is life, and life fills the
universe.
— Henri Herz
The artist recognizes existing relationships and
arrests them.
— Louise Nevelson
Things good and generous take form in me, and
the air is clear.
— Jelaluddin Rumi
Good poems are not made of strong emotions,
they are made of words.
— W. H. Auden
Who can say what is a good shape or an ugly
shape? It comes back to function. It is a good
shape for that purpose, or it is ugly in that rela-
tionship. The contours of a good shape will have
meaning, emphasis, balance ,and rhythm.
— Kenneth Bates
Beauty is not caused. It is.
— Emily Dickinson
To travel hopefully is better than to arrive.
— Sir James Jeans
I’m not trying to imitate nature, I’m trying to
find the principles she’s using.
— Buckminster Fuller
Emotion is not something shameful, subordi-
nate, second-rate; it is a supremely valid phase
of humanity at its noblest and most mature
— Joshua Loth Liebman
The role of art is not to give us pleasure, but
rather to present us with something that we did
not know before.
— Otto Baensch
Beautiful things are valuable and useful precisely
because they are beautiful.
— John Ruskin
In kindergarten we drew three daffodils that had
just been picked out of the yard; and while I was
drawing, my sharpened yellow pencil and the
cup of the yellow daffodils gave off whiffs just
alike. That the pencil doing the drawing should
give off the same smell as the flower it drew
seemed part of the art lesson. Children, like ani-
mals, use all their senses to discover the world.
Then artists come along and discover it the same
way, all over again.
— Eudora Welty
One repays a teacher badly if one always remains
a pupil.
— Friedrich Nietzche
One never uses the rules, one only feels them.
— John Ruskin
A man learns to skate by staggering about mak-
ing a fool of himself; indeed, he progresses in all
things by making a fool of himself.
— George Bernard Shaw
His writing had the texture of whipped cream.
And unfortunately, about as much meaning.
— Bill Smith
How sour sweet music is
When time is broke, and no proportion kept!
So is it in the music of men’s lives.
— William Shakespeare
The only thing constant is change.
—traditional
Life is essentially playful. Of course, it plays a bit
rough at times.
—Tom Robbins
The task of artists… is to organize elements into
a comprehensible whole…by simplifying, orga-
nizing and unifying.
— Kenneth Bates
The pattern satisfies me, and what more do I
want?
— Louise Nevelson
My advice, in the midst of the seriousness, is to
keep an eye out for the tinker shuffle, the flying
of kites, and kindred sources of amusement.
— Jerome Bruner