Chapter-1

Introduction
1.1Background

In an A.C power system voltage and current waveform are expected to be

sinusoidal with constant amplitude and frequency, however due to the
increasing uses of non linear loads in power system mostly power electronics
equipment, Uninterruptible power supply,arc furnaces and controlled motor
drives, pericodically distortions in current and voltage waveform become
more. As a matter of fact voltage and current posses a set of sinusodial
waveform of variable amplitude and phase having frequinces which are
integer multiple of fundamental frequency, these frequncy multiplies of this
fundamental frequency are called harmonics frequencies. If suitable filtering is
not undertaken then these power electronics equipment will introduce inter
harmonics (Having frequency non integer multipule of fundamental but
greater than fundamental frequency) and Sub harmonics (Having frequency
non integer multipule of fundamental but lower than fundamental frquency)
components to the power system. Both harmonics and Inter harmonics have
adverse effects such as increased I2R losses, over voltage unbalancing, mal
operation of releays, saturation of transformer core etc. It is pertinent that
accurate estimation of harmonics in distroted power system current/voltage
signal is essential to effectively design filter for elimination of harmonics.

Application of Power electronics based devices in the field of industry (Arc

and industrial furnace, Industrial lasers, rolling mills, cement mills, welding,
excavators), residence sector (air conditioning, lighting, space heating,

1
refrigerators, dryers, fan etc), Telecommunication (Battery chargers, power
supplies), Transportation sector (traction control of electric vehicle’s), Utility
systems (High voltage dc transmission) etc is the main causes of poor quality
power now a days. Due to the applications of such devices the V-I
Characteristics is not linear which indicates the production of harmonics in the
system, the increased severity of harmonics pollution in power network day to
day attracted the attention of many researchers to develop different types of
efficent device to improve the power quality by reducing the harmonics level.
To quantify the magnitude of harmonics content present in power signal, Total
Harmonics Distoration (THD) is used as an index. The aforesaid adverse
affect of harmonics necessitate guidelines to maintation acceptable harmonics
level in the power system in terms of THD. To avoid these undesirable effect
initially Line reactors, isolation transformers, Low pass harmonic filters were
used but they are ineffective due to their inability to adapt to network
characteristic variation and passive filter suffer from large size, fixed and
effect of resonance etc. Recently some active Power Filters (APFs) have been
widely investigated for compensation of harmonics in electric power system.
Shunt active power filter, Series active power filter and hybrid filters
(Combination of active and passive) but the performance of such active filters
depend on the contorl mechanisim and methods applied for generation of
switching signal for the active power filter.

Again in Power System, Frequency is one of the most important and sensitive
parameter in power system. Any variation in power system is eventually
reflected the change in frequency. A change in frequency leads to change in
system reactance and the operation of several relays such as reactance relay is

2
affected. Frequency is a measure of mismatch between power generation and
load demand. If load demand is greater than power generation under
frequency situation arises and if generation is greater than load demand over
frequency situation arises, in either case change in frequency poses a threat to
efficiency, safety of entire system and increase in chances of system collapse,
thus frequency is an integral part of power system protection, power quality
monitoring, and operation and control of devices using digital technology.
Hence the accurate estimation and tracking of system frequency is of utmost
important. Due to development of several electronics and other non linear
devices, the present power system is subjected to several undesirable
conditions such as presence of noise and harmonics etc. Keeping in mind
several undesirable conditions and also taking into account the dynamic
phenomenon of frequency variation conventional frequency estimation based
on constant frequency assumption are not suitable for achieving accurate
frequency estimation.

This chapter presents a progressive review on power system Frequency

estimation, harmonics estimation and harmonics elimination. Power System
Frequency and Harmonics estimation methods based on signal processing
approach such as Recursive Least square (RLS), Extended Least Square
(ELS), Kalman filtering(KF), Least Mean square (LMS) etc to soft computing
approach such as Fuzzy logic, neural network ,Genetic algorithm and
Evolutionary Computation etc are discussed. Harmonic elimination methods
starting from passive filtering, active filtering to hybrid filtering along with
different control techniques such as synchronous detection technique, indirect

3
current control technique, Hysteresis current control, Fuzzy logic controller
are also reviewed.

1.2 A Review on Power System Frequency Estimation using Signal Processing

Techniques

The rapid growth of Signal processing Techniques and soft computing

techniques make modern frequency measurement flexible and a variety of
techniques have been developed in the recent years for the same purpose.
Some of the best techniques for frequency estimation are described in this
chapter.

Frequency or the period of a signal can be measured by Zero crossing

detection [1], when measuring the frequency of a signal, cycles of a reference
signal is measured over one or more time periods, however Multiple periods
of measurement helps to reduce errors caused by phase noise. Accurate
measurement can be achieved by this method at the expense of slow
measurement rates. Zero crossing detection method or its modification using
curve fitting of voltage samples is the simplest approach for frequency
estimation [2] but the estimation accuracy gradually decreases when high
contents of harmonics are associated with the signal,

Duric, M.B et al; [3] proposed a new approach to the design of a digital
algorithm for network frequency estimation. Derivation of the proposed
algorithm is based on Fourier and zero crossing technique. Fourier method is
used as digital filter and zero crossing technique is applied to the cosine and
sine components of the original signal which can be corrupted by higher
harmonics. Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is used by many researchers for

4
frequency estimation of a signal, The conventional DFT shows excellent
performance when the signals contains fundamental and integer harmonics
component [4]. presence of decaying dc component in a signal and the
implicit data window in DFT, introduce fairly large errors in the estimation
when frequency deviates from the nominal value.[5] To improve the
performance of DFT, some approaches has been mentioned by some authors
[6-8] like feedback loop by turning the sampling interval, adjusting the data
window length, changing the nominal frequency used in DFT iteratively,
correcting the gains of orthogonal filter and tuning the weighted factor
recursively respectively. Theoretically the decaying component can be
completely removed from the original waveform once its parameter can be
obtained. Some of the authors added some samples to calculate the parameter
of the decaying component based on this idea. The effect of DC components
by DFT is eliminated by using the outputs of even-sample set and odd-sample
set. Some authors estimate the parameter of the DC of decaying component by
using the phase-angle difference between voltage and current.

Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is one of the conventional methods for

frequency estimation and it is based on a Fourier series model of the data and
the data are composition of harmonic signals. This analysis is computationally
efficient and produces reasonable results for a large class of signal process [9].
Though this method possess this type of advantage it has associated with some
disadvantage like frequency resolution,i.e the ability to distinguish the spectral
responses of two or more signals and irregular windowing of data that occurs
at the time of processing with FFT. Windowing manifests itself as leakage in

5
the spectral domain-energy in the main lobe of spectral responses that are
present [10-11].

Sidhu et al; [12] proposed a revised digital algorithm called Smart Discrete
Fourier Transforms to estimate the frequency of a sinusoidal signal with
harmonics in real time. This algorithm smartly avoids the errors which are
coming due to the deviation of frequency from nominal frequency and always
associated with all the advantages of DFT [4], although this approach is
suitable for measurement of frequency over a wide-range, the on-line
application requires a trade-off between the accuracy and computational
complexity.

T.Lobes et al; [13] Proposed Prony estimation technique along with Discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT) which is a static state algorithm for power system
frequency estimation with a variable data window to eliminate the noise and
harmonics associated with a signal. Least square algorithm along with
orthogonal FIR digital filter presented by the same author [13] for
measurement of frequency in the operating condition of a power system.This
algorithm is capable of producing a correct and noise free estimate for near
nominal, nominal and off nominal in very short duration.

Jin Kwon Hwang et al; [14] presented a Novel-DFT based frequency

estimation technique by introducing three digital filter to reduce the frequency
error developed by noise and leakage effect of the negative fundamental
frequency in a single phase signal analyzed by DFT based algorithm[4].
Tomas Radil et al; [15] proposed one algorithm based on leakage
compensation by best fitting a theoretical spectrum of a rectangular windowed

6
single-tone signal on the spectrum of the analyzed signal for the accurate
estimation of the signal’s frequency. The proposed algorithm is several times
faster than the multi harmonic sine fitting algorithm. The proposed algorithm
is suitable for monitoring frequency in power systems. It can also be applied
in other areas, particularly when the accurate estimates of the signal’s
amplitude and phase are required.

Arghya Sarkar, [16] proposed a novel digital signal processing algorithm for
online estimation of the fundamental frequency of the distorted power system
signals. The basic algorithm relies on the development of an efficient variance
reduction algorithm and design of a new stable band pass infinite impulse
response (IIR), second-degree digital integrator (SDDI) with reduced
approximation error. Compared with the well-established technique such as
the enhanced-phase-locked-loop (EPLL) system, the proposed algorithm
provides higher degree of immunity and insensitivity to harmonics and noise
and faster response during step frequency change.

Karimi.H et al; [17] presented A method for estimation of power frequency

and its rate of change, the proposed scheme accommodates the inherent
nonlinearity of the frequency estimation problem by providing a fast and
accurate estimation of the frequency when its deviation from the nominal
value is incremental or large. The estimator is based on a newly developed
quadrature phase-locked loop concept.

The dominant frequency component of a input signal and its frequency

estimation is proposed by P.J moore [18] on introducing a phase-locked loop
(PLL) system. The mechanism of the proposed PLL [18] is based on

7
estimating in-phase and quadrature-phase amplitudes of the desired signal.
Mohsen Mojiri et al; [19] proposed an Adaptive Notch Filter (ANF) which
can be employed and furnished with pre- and post-filters to devise a method
for estimation of power system frequency and its rate of change They
discussed the adjustment of the ANF parameters and the design of pre- and
post-filtering stages. The dynamic responses of the proposed method with
regard to step, ramp, and oscillatory changes of frequency are faster than those
of the PLL-based method. The structural simplicity of the proposed estimator
renders it suitable for digital implementation both in hardware and software
environments.

Wu Jiekanget al; [20] proposed a high-accuracy, wide-range frequency

estimation method based on the principle of numerical differentiation. The
fundamental frequency of non-sinusoidal signal voltage and current of a
power system can be estimated with a structure similar to the basic parameter
estimator, the estimator is simple in design and implementation and it is very
effective for tracking the real-time frequency of the power system.

YiliXial et al; [21] proposed a novel technique for online estimation of the
fundamental frequency of unbalanced three-phase power systems based on
Clarke’s transformation and widely linear complex domain modeling, the
proposed method makes use of the full second-order information within three-
phase signals, thus promising enhanced and robust frequency estimation. The
proposed method is also less sensitive to the variations of the three-phase
voltage amplitudes over time and in the presence of higher order harmonics.

8
Least Mean Square (LMS) [22] algorithm is adopted where the formulated
structure looks very simple and it has been observed that this algorithm is
found to be accurate under various systems changing condition to estimate
correct measure of frequency. Pradhan et al; [23] proposed a Least Mean
Square algorithm in complex form to estimate the frequency of a power
system. This estimation of frequency is verified in the presence of noise, with
frequency jump and data collected from real time system. The presence of 3 rd
harmonic in the signal does not affect the performance of the algorithm as the
3rd harmonic component is eliminated during Clarks transform. But the
presence of 5th harmonic component affects the performance of the algorithm,
so a Butterworth Filter used for pre filtering shows the correctness of the
estimation with less error.

A Variable Step Size LMS (VSSLMS) has been proposed [24] to get more
accurate and better convergence in estimation over conventional LMS
algorithm. Disturbances exist in a signal do not affect the estimation
performance using VSSLMS algorithm. Step size of this algorithm is adjusted
by autocorrelation of square of time averaging estimate error and previous
error. The auto-correlation error is a good measure of the proximity to the
optimum and it rejects the effect of uncorrelated noise sequence in the step
size update. However, this VSSLMS provides faster convergence at early
stages of adaptation while there is little deviation in the later stage.

The conventional LMS technique based on adaptive linear filtering possesses

the advantage of simplicity in its underlying structure. However, it suffers
from the problem of poor convergence rate if the step size for adaptation is
fixed [25] This step size, in general depends inversely on input power, i.e, it

9
takes more time to learn about its input when step size is small and vice versa.
Time-varying step size is usually employed to overcome this poor
convergence problem. If the LMS of the error is only considered as the cost
function to be minimized, with respect to the dynamic variation the linear
weights of the filter may go unbounded or take longer time to respond because
of the stalling effect [26]. In order to avoid the drifting of weight involved in
the estimation mechanism, B.Subudhi et.al proposed a variable leak
adjustment technique in which a variable adaptation step size is incorporated
to attain faster convergence. To enhance the convergence characteristics and to
reduce the error of the LMS algorithm in power system frequency estimation
Ray proposed Extended Least square [27]

Soliman Abdel-Hady [28] proposed a new application for linear Kalman Filter
algorithm for power system frequency estimation. The filter uses the digitized
samples of the three-phase voltages or current waveform signals. These three
phases are transformed into two phases, using the well-known αβ –
transformation matrix. Having obtained the signal of the two new phases, a
complex phasor is constructed using the new two-phase voltages. Kalman
filter is then applied to extract the frequency and phase angle of the
fundamental component of the complex phasor.

An approach based on Recursive Least Square (RLS) Algorithm applied to

frequency estimation of the instantaneous power system [29] the Three-phase
voltage signal is transformed to a complex form which is easy to be handled
by the proposed approach. The RLS Algorithm is more suitable for online
frequency estimation due to its rapid convergence rate. This algorithm
recursively finds the coefficients that minimize a weighted linear least squares

10
cost function related to the input signals. When compared with other
algorithms, the RLS algorithm exhibits the feature of rapid convergence rate.
However, this benefit comes at the cost of high computational complexity.

Adaptive LMS algorithm-based adaptive filters are used to estimate the

discrete Fourier coefficients of sine and cosine terms of noisy sinusoidal
signals, whose frequencies are known a priori. The standard RLS technique is
used by many researchers but it is computationally complex. Using
approximations, a new recursive Gauss–Newton adaptive filter is proposed by
Das [30] to estimate fundamental and harmonic phasors of power system
voltages or currents and their variations because of sudden disturbances take
place in a power system. Further, the filter possesses computational simplicity
of the normal gradient technique and has the speed of convergence of the
Newton method.

A.Pradhan et al, [23] Presents an arc cosine function –free technique for
frequency estimation to reduce the burden of computation with little decline in
frequency estimation accuracy. A leak factor updatation algorithm has been
proposed for variable leakage factor in VLLMS [24]. This leak adaptation in
the proposed VLLMS has the advantage of using measurable signals in the
system to perform the adjustment of the leak factor.

Recently Soft Computing (SC) techniques are receiving more attention as

optimization techniques for many industrial applications. It is an evolving
collection of methodologies, which aims to exploit tolerance for imprecision,
uncertainty and partial truth to achieve robustness, tractability, and low cost.
SC provides an attractive opportunity to represent the ambiguity in human

11
thinking with real life uncertainty. Fuzzy logic (FL), Neural Networks (NN)
and Evolutionary Computation (EC) are the core methodologies of soft
computing; it can solve problems that have not been able to be solved by
traditional analytic methods. In addition, SC yields rich knowledge
representation (symbol and pattern), flexible knowledge acquisition (by
machine learning from data and by interviewing experts) and flexible
knowledge processing (inference by interfacing between symbolic and pattern
knowledge), which enable intelligent systems to be constructed at low cost
and high machine intelligence quotient (HMIQ).

This section describes some of the recent developed soft computing methods
applied for frequency estimation in power system signal.

Neural Network and Genetic Algorithm (GA) have been used in [31], for
estimation of power system frequency. In this proposed algorithm, the learning
of weights of NN was carried out by GA. Authors have compared the
performance of this proposed technique with the conventional error back
propagation and LMS algorithm. But they found that the proposed algorithm
outperforms over the other two. They have judged the performance using
simulation only and also observed that though the algorithm gives better
performance still it suffers from problem in training of the network.

M. Gupta et al; [32], proposed a faster training algorithm for estimation

purposes. The author first applied only Gradient Descent (GD) algorithm
separately for the estimation of frequency and observed that it has the
disadvantages of getting stuck in local minima. Then applied PSO separately
and observed that the square of the error fluctuates randomly and it may take

12
much iteration to converge. To avail the advantages of both the technique, a
hybrid algorithm has been proposed by the same author in the same work to
estimate the power quality parameter estimation. In those new hybrid
algorithm chances of getting stuck in the valley of local minima becomes
almost nil. Simulated results prove the superiority of the proposed hybrid
algorithm (combination of GD& PSO) in terms of lesser number of iterations
to converge.

A. Sundarrajan [33], proposed Evolutionary Algorithms (EA) like, Enhanced

Particle Swarm Optimization (EPSO), Multi Objective Particle Swarm
Optimization (MOPSO) and Stochastic Particle Swarm Optimization (SPSO)
to overcome the premature convergence problem in a standard PSO. These
algorithms reduce transient oscillations and also increase the computational
efficiency for frequency estimation,

P. K. Ray et al; [34], proposed RLS-Adaline and KF-Adaline algorithms for

power system frequency estimation approaches, the weights of the Adaline are
updated using RLS/KF algorithms. Frequency of power system signal is
estimated from final updated weights of the Adaline. Neural estimator was
found to be an effective estimator [35]. It consists of an adaptive perception of
neuron called Adaline. Since KF and RLS both are recursive in nature, online
estimation is possible and KF can be used for both filtering and estimation, KF
and RLS algorithms have been employed in the proposed hybrid algorithm for
updating the weight in Adaline. Both RLS-Adaline and KF-Adaline
estimators’ track the power system signal in different cases such as signal
corrupted with noise, in presence of harmonics and in presence of sub
harmonics and inter harmonics. Evolutionary Computation technique [36] is a

13
population based search algorithm; it works with a population of strings that
represent different potential solutions. It enhances its search capability and the
optima can be located more quickly when applied to complex optimization
problems. An EC technique called Bacterial Foraging Optimization (BFO) is
developed and it is combined with RLS and Adaline [38] to power system
frequency estimation. BFO is one of the recent bio-inspired computing used
by many researchers in different areas of optimization.

Four new hybrid algorithms such as RLS-Adaline, KF-Adaline, RLS-BFO and

Adaline-BFO [39] are presented. The performances of the first two proposed
hybrid algorithms i.e RLS-Adaline and KF-Adaline are dependent on the
initial choice of weight vector W and Covariance matrix P. By using an
optimal choice of weight vector, faster convergence to the true value of signal
parameter can be achieved. After the optimization of the weight vector, online
tracking of frequency of signal can be carried out. Both the algorithms track
the frequency of signal at different level of noises and different signal
changing conditions but the performance of tracking using KF-Adaline is
better than RLS-Adaline.

Fuzzy linear regression is proposed in [40] for frequency and harmonics

evaluation in a power network, which used digitized voltage signals as fuzzy
numbers for estimation of frequency and harmonics components of voltage
signal. Sampling frequency effects, data window size and degree of fuzziness
on the estimated parameters has been investigated and presented.

The frequency and the rate of frequency change are estimated by the non
recursive Newton-type algorithm [40, 43] using generator swing equation, the
recursive algorithm form is improved with a strategy of sequential tuning of

14
the forgetting factor. By this, the algorithm convergence and accuracy are
significantly improved.

1.3 A Review on Power System Harmonics Estimation

Harmonics are a mathematical way of describing distortion in voltage or

current waveform. The term harmonic refers to a component of a waveform
occurs at an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency. Estimation of the
harmonic components in a power system is a standard procedure of the
assessment of quality delivered power. Several methods such as Discrete
Fourier Transforms, Least Square Error technique, Kalman filtering, Adaptive
Notch Filters etc; has been used for harmonic estimation of distorted signals in
power system. Some of the methods used for harmonics estimation purposes
are described here.

Fast Fourier transform (FFT) [52-54] is an efficient method for harmonics

estimation and it produces reasonable results for a large class of signal
processes. it has some advantages but still there are several performance
limitations of this approach. The most distinctive limitation is that of
frequency resolution, which incorporates spectral responses of two or more
signals. It is very crucial to develop better tools to avoid possible technical
hazards which may come up due to their existence. Windowing of the data
which is the leakage in spectral domain manifest itself as second limitation. As
many measured process are being brief in duration and having short time –
varying spectra, It is troublesome to analyze short data records. To alleviate
the limitations of the FFT approach, many new spectral estimation methods

15
have been proposed during the last few decades [55-57]. Advantages of the
new methods depend strongly upon the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).

In Kalman Filter (KF) [59], individual harmonics injection source is treated as

a random state variable. Error covariance analysis of harmonic injection
source is treated as a random state variable, was used to determine the optimal
metering locations in power systems. Based on this optimal arrangement, the
KF was able to estimate and track each harmonic injection in power system
[60] KF estimates amplitude and phase when frequency is fixed. However,
when frequencies vary, it is unable to retune itself to the frequency changes.
Similarly, Fourier Linear Combiner using single layer neutral network able to
estimate harmonics at static Frequency but during frequency change tracking
time becomes much larger and there is more error in estimation. Das P.K. et al;
[61] presents an approach combining both Fourier Linear Combiner and
Extended Complex Kaman Filter (ECKF) which will overcome the above
mentioned problem.

Rosendomacias J.A. et al; [62] Presented the basic theory of the STDFTand
kalman filter approach as well as the kalman filter models available for
harmonics estimation, STDFT shows quite a uniform convergence within a
period to the proper value of the harmonic, despite the presence of higher
harmonics. However it can not deal properly with the presence of decaying
DC Component, which produces ripple around the correct harmonic
magnitude.

MaamarBettayed et al; [63] proposed Several variants of Recursive Least

Square (LS) algorithm such as Weighted Least Square (WLS), Recursive

16
Least Square information form (RLS-I), Recursive Least Square Covariance
form (RLS-C), Extended Least Square form 1 (ELS-1) and Extended Least
Square form 2 (ELS-2) for estimation of power system Harmonics using a
noisy harmonic signal from an AC bus of a six-pulse Rectifier as a test signal
and applied various RLS algorithms to signals having different SNR values.

An online estimation technique of harmonic signal based on LS and Total

Least Square (TLS) optimization criteria has been presented [71]. The SVD
technique [64] is very interesting for signal reconstruction and estimation. The
application of this methodology in an offline estimation of higher harmonics
in Power transmission system, Linear Least Square method for harmonic
detection in a Power system using Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) is
proposed by [65] The size and location of large harmonic sources which are
smaller in size in comparison to suspious buses in practical power system are
unknown before state estimation.

Lio et al;[66], proposed a systematic approach to identify and estimate

harmonic sources in power networks, when the number of harmonic meters is
less than the number of unknown state variables. Dominguez et al. [124]
presented the introduction of digital filter for estimation of Harmonics
components of a signal. The digital filter CDF (Characteristics Harmonics
Digital Filter) incorporated in treatment of samples before applying Discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT). The convergence of the algorithm during signal
change is also improved.

Yilmatz et al; [67] suggested parametric spectral estimation methods for the
estimation of harmonics, inter-harmonics and sub-harmonics, Co-Variance and

17
Modified Co-Variance methods are applied for estimation of harmonics. A
Mother Wavelet Transform based approach for the study of time-varying
power system harmonics has been developed where time frequency
localization chacteristics are embedded in Wavelets. Mandel [68] suggested
Ensemble Kaman Filter (EnKF), is a new version of the Kalman Filter and is
an important data assimilation component of ensemble forecasting. This ref.
described the derivation and practical implementation of the basic Version of
EnKF [68] this paper suggested that EnKF can be implemented without access
to the observation matrix but only an observation function is required.

Soft computing is a concept that has come into prominence in recent times and
its application to power system analysis is still more recent. This section
explores the application of soft computing techniques in the area of power
system harmonics estimation, soft computing as opposed to conventional
“hard” computing, is a technique that is tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty,
partial truth and approximation. Some of the important branches of soft
computing (SC) are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), Fuzzy Logic (FL),
Genetic Algorithm (GA), and BFO etc.
Das P.K. et [125] proposed a technique on Fuzzy LMS for estimation of
harmonics voltage and current signals in power network using fuzzy gain
scheduling method for the adjustment of step size to provide faster
convergence and noise rejection for tracking fundamental as well as
harmonics components from signals.

Joorabian et.al, [69] described decomposition of Total Harmonics estimation

problem into a linear and non-linear problem, Linear Estimator (Least Squre
(LS)) has been used for amplitude estimation and an adaptive linear combiner

18
“Adaline” which is very fast and simple is used for harmonics phase
estimation. Improvement in convergence and processing time is archived in
this algorithm. This algorithm estimates correctly for static, dynamic and fault
signal but estimation is difficult for inter and sub harmonic components.

If there is any frequency drift in signal, then conventional FFT based on fixed
measurement window is unable for effective power system monitoring.
However, Lie et al. [70] applied the Least Square technique with ANN to
harmonics extraction in time varying situation. This proposed method is
capable of dealing simultaneously the measurement of varying frequency,
amplitude and any harmonic components present in the power system.

Mori et al. [81] presented a method based on back propagation learning for
feed-forward neural network for harmonics prediction. S. Ghodratollaht et al.
[72] presented an adaptive neural network based on Genetic Method called
GAP (Genetic AdalinePerceptrons) for tracking the harmonics components of
current and voltage waveforms in faulted power system, at each iteration of
Adaline, GAP uses GA for selection of optimized value for learning
parameter.

Bettayeb and Qidwai [73] presented a new algorithm for estimation of

harmonics using GA’s. The proposed algorithm estimates phase of power
system signal using GA. After the estimation of phase, amplitude has been
estimated using Least Square (LS) algorithm. Signals taken across load from a
two-bus three-phase system with a full-wave six-pulse bridge rectifier were
applied to this algorithm.

19
Mishra [74] presented to estimate the harmonic components present in power
system voltage/current waveforms. The foraging strategy becomes adaptive by
using Takagi-Sugeno scheme. Linear Least Square has been combined with
B.F.O and Takagi-Sugeno scheme used for estimation of amplitude.

De Arruda, et al; [75] Presented a new methodology to estimate harmonics

distortion in power system, based on measurements of a limited number of
given sites. The algorithm utilizes Evolutionary Strategy (ES), a developed
branch of evolutionary algorithm, the main advantage in using such a
technique relies upon its modeling facilities as well as its potential to solve
fairly complex problem, Ray Pravat et al; [76] presented the Artificial Neural
Networks and Evolutionary Computation techniques, which, focuses on
exploiting estimation of harmonics in power system. This in turn will be
useful for designing active filters to ensure power quality (pure sinusoidal
voltage or current signal in a power system). It is also demonstrated through
simulation that how Neural Network and Evolutionary Computing (Bacterial
Foraging Optimization (BFO)) are combined to achieve accurate estimation of
different harmonics components of a distorted power system signal. Adaline-
BFO algorithm and the BFO algorithm have been applied for estimation of
harmonics of the voltage obtained across the inverter terminals of a prototype
Photo-Voltaic (PV) system. From the obtained results, it is confirmed that the
proposed Adaline-BFO algorithm provides superior estimation performance
when compared with the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), Kalman Filter
(KF) and BFO algorithms.

20
1.4 Reviews on Harmonics Elimination
The effect of Harmonics due to linear and non-linear load in power system
was not a major issue in the last 40 years. However, in the recent year the
number of harmonic producing devices is increasing rapidly from low-voltage
to high voltage application. These nonlinear loads increases the generating
capacity of harmonics, The increased severity of harmonics pollution in power
network has attracted the attention of many researchers to develop different
types of device to mitigate the harmonics and enhance the power quality. A
progressive development of various devices and control algorithm used for
Harmonics elimination in power system to enhance the power quality is
discussed in this section.

Current harmonics are produced by [97, 120] nonlinear load such fluorescent
lighting with electronic ballasts, switch mode power supply (SMPS), battery
chargers, rectifiers, inverters, three phase power converter fed drives, arc
furnaces, arc welding, discharge lighting and saturable reactors etc. in the
power system leading to current and voltage waveform distortion. All these
loads draw the non-sinusoidal currents resulting in current harmonics and are
injected back into the supply system through the Point of Common Coupling
(PCC), which causes severe deterioration of power factor and other adverse
effect such as overheating of transformer, increase in R.M.S value of supply
current, losses, over loading in the system, unnecessary tripping and
interference with telecommunication lines and poor power system efficiency
etc. [98, 122]

To avoid these undesirable effect initially Line reactors, isolation transformers,

K-Factor transformers, tuned harmonic filters (fixed capacity or automatic

21
switched multiple banks), IGBT based fast switched harmonic filters, Low
pass harmonic filters were used but they are ineffective due to their inability to
adapt to network characteristic variation. Gonzalez, D. A., et.al [126] proposed
shunt passive filters for harmonic mitigation in power system. Shunt passive
filters are configured with inductance, capacitance and resistance elements and
tuned to control harmonics. Shunt passive filters are advantageous over series
compensators as they have compensate harmonics as well as reactive power,
in addition they have not carried large currents hence associated losses are
less. Ludbrook, A. et al; [127], proposed high pass filter for notch reduction in
a power distribution system having large electronic loads. Therefore, recent
progress in switching devices has resulted in the formulation of several active
filter topologies such as shunt, series and hybrid active filters [99-100]. based
on their objectives, system configuration, power circuits and control strategy,
these filters not only used for current or voltage filtering but also used for
voltage dips, damping, isolation, reactive power control for power factor
correction and voltage regulation etc.

A comprehensive review of active filter (AF) configurations, control

strategies, selection of components, other related economic and technical
considerations and their selection for specific applications are presented. The
most important configuration widely used in active filtering applications for
current harmonic reduction and power factor improvement is the Shunt Active
Power Filter. A SAPF consists of a controllable voltage or current source
inverter. The voltage source inverter (VSI) based shunt APF is the most
commonly used type, due to its well known topology and straight forward
installation procedure. SAPF acts as harmonic current source which injects an

22
anti-phase but equal magnitude of the harmonic and reactive current as that of
nonlinear load. As a result components of harmonic currents contained in the
load current are cancelled and the source current remains sinusoidal and in
phase with the respective phase to neutral voltage, Series APFs are less
common than the shunt APF. This is because of the fact that they have to
handle high load currents which will increase their current rating considerably
compared SAPF especially on the secondary side of the interfacing
transformer. This increases the I2R losses. However, the main advantage of
series APF over shunt APF is that they are ideal for voltage harmonics
elimination [101]. It provides the load with a pure sinusoidal waveform, which
is important for voltage sensitive devices such as power system protection
devices. With this feature, series APF is suitable for improving the quality of
the distribution source voltage

The utilization of fast switching devices in APF application causes switching

frequency noise to appear in the compensated source current and interfere
with neighboring sensitive equipment. To overcome the limitations, hybrid
active power filter are designed. Active power filter keeps the power system
balance under the condition of unbalanced and nonlinear loads [98, 102] The
Performance of the SAPF mainly depends upon the design of power inverter,
types of current controller and methods to obtain the reference current.

The Controller is the most important part of the active power filter and
recently a lot of research is being conducted in this area [99].Mostly a
Proportional- Integral (PI) controller is used to control the DC link capacitor
voltage as well as to estimate peak value of reference source current for both
single phase and three phases APF [103-105]. The output of PI controller is

23
multiplied with unit vector of source voltage to generate reference source
current. Unit vector implies a sine wave having unit peak value with phase
same as that of source voltage. As PI controller has large impact on source
current harmonics, a low pass filter is connected at the output of PI controller
to reduce the source current THD. Some advance technologies, such as Fuzzy
Logic, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Genetic Algorithm have been
used in literature [106-108] to generate reference source current. P. Kumar and
A. Mahajan [106] compares different soft computing techniques for
generating reference source current. They found that with application of soft
computing technique, APF give very good response under frequent load
variation. In [107] comparison of PI controller and Fuzzy Logic Controller is
done for controlling the DC voltage of capacitor. The generation of reference
current using the combination of ANN and Fuzzy Logic is explained in [128].
In this literature all the analysis have been carried out in discrete time domain,
the main benefit of this controller is that it can handle nonlinearity.
Harmonics are estimated using neural network [108] and real power loss by
circuit elements of APF is estimated using PI controller. Both PI controller and
NN are used to generate reference source current. A three phase shunt active
power filter was proposed by H. Akagi using instantaneous active and reactive
power theory [109]. In this control strategy, reference source currents are
calculated instantaneously using instantaneous source voltages and load
currents. Further development in this strategy was done by S. Bhattacharya,
who calculated d-q (direct-quadratic) components of instantaneous three
phase currents [129]. This literature gives concept about synchronous
reference frame and calculated reference source current instantaneously
without sensing the source voltage. A modified reference current extraction

24
method [130] is proposed using both p-q(active –reactive) and d-q theory . In
[130], reference source current is calculated using real power balance of the
system. The peak value source current required to balance the real power loss
of the circuit elements is calculated. The peak value of source current required
to provide real power to nonlinear load is calculated. Finally both the peak
values are added to give the peak value of reference source current.

Modulation scheme plays an important role in reducing the source current

THD. Mostly two types of switching modulation schemes are applied to active
power filter, Hysteresis modulation (HM) and Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM). But for a single phase APF both HM and PWM switching schemes
are classified into two types, unipolar modulation and bipolar modulation.
Application of unipolar modulation scheme is discussed in [118-119] and in
[118-119], unipolar hysteresis modulation based switching scheme
applications technique analyzed and bipolar hysteresis modulation scheme
[110] presented. A brief description of unipolar and bipolar modulation
schemes is given below. As shown in Fig. 1.1 for positive source current,
unipolar modulation employs +V and 0 , and for negative source current it
employs -V and 0 . But bipolar modulation scheme only employs +V and -V
both for positive and negative current.

25
 Fig.1 (a) Source Current (b) Unipolar Modulation (c) Bipolar Modulation

In unipolar Modulation, even harmonics are found to be absent So THD of

source current in bipolar modulation is twice of unipolar modulation scheme.
In PWM switching scheme, switching frequency remains constant, where as in
HM switching scheme, switching frequency may varies as the load changes.
To control the switching frequency, an adaptive hysteresis band based current
controller for APF is presented [111]. In this control strategy hysteresis band
width changes with change of load but it requires complicated mathematical
calculations. B. Mazari proposed a method of updating hysteresis band using
fuzzy logic to avoid mathematical calculation [116]. All the above discussed
hysteresis band controllers are based on two level hysteresis band. A three
level hysteresis band based current controller is presented. THD of source
current reduced significantly in three level hysteresis band [131] based
controller of APF. Although most of the research on APF is based on reference
current extraction method and switching schemes, current control of APF also
plays a significant part in analyzing stability of the complete system,
robustness under external disturbances and reducing THD of the source

26
current. Current of APF can be controlled directly or indirectly. In direct
current control method, the sensed coupling inductor current used directly in
the controller of APF, in indirect current control method sensed source current
is used in the controller to generate switching pulses. In literature [103-104],
[112], indirect current controller is implemented, whereas literature [155],
[167] are based on direct current controller. Mostly indirect current control
techniques are applied as it is easier to implement. A resonant current
controller is presented in [112]. A Lyapunov stability based current control
strategy is presented in [105]. The concept of equilibrium points and
linearization of single phase shunt APF is explained in literature [132]. Both
model reference adaptive controller [132], Lyapunov stability controller [105]
are very good method for analyzing stability of the system. In [132], transient
response of the system is significantly improved, which is better than the PI
controller based APF. The sliding mode (SM) control [178] is applied to three
phase shunt APF. Also in both literature [103] and [104] SM control strategy is
applied to single phase shunt APF. SM controller via feedback linearization
[110] is applied to shunt APF . Coming into the SM control strategy and
feedback linearization control strategy, it is found that there is good
development of these control strategies applied to other field of power
electronics.

To avoid the drawbacks of variable switching frequency, a PWM based

constant switching frequency SM controller of DC-DC converter [133] is
presented. Similarly fixed switched frequency SM [134] controller for single
phase VSI is developed. To make the boost converter robust under variation of
input voltage and load, an adaptive SM controller [135] is presented. A

27
variable sliding surface based position control of DC motor [136] is presented.
Maximum power point tracking method of photovoltaic system using SM
controller [137] is analyzed. In this literature instead of sensing voltage of the
capacitor connected across the photovoltaic system, current flowing through
the capacitor is used in the SM controller. In Dynamic stability of the
photovoltaic system [138] connected to grid is analyzed using zero dynamic of
the system. This process is nothing but the feedback linearization of grid
connected photovoltaic system [139]. A robust Partial Feedback Linearization
(PFL) scheme of the photovoltaic system for maximum power point tracking
is presented. This control algorithm is mainly robust under parameter
uncertainties. Also an Exact Feedback Linearization (EFL) scheme is
presented. The complete description of SM control strategy is explained.
Similarly a detail explanation of feedback linearization method is given.
Voltage regulation and robustness toward any type of load under distorted
source conditions is discussed.

Salem Rahmania et al;[99] made a comparison of the performance of the

single-phase shunt active power filter (SPSAPF) and the single-phase shunt
hybrid power filter (SPSHPF) that adopt both an indirect current control
scheme with a unipolar pulse width modulation (UPWM) strategy. The
SPSHPF topology includes, in addition to the components of the SPSAPF, a
power factor correction capacitor connected in series with a transformer.
Smitha Krishnan et al; [140] proposed a new shunt active power filter
composed of a three-phase converter and a Scott transformer. The controller
part includes fuzzy controller and FBD detection method of compensating
current. Since the voltage source converter is important part in APF, more care

28
is given to design of DC side capacitor. The controlling of DC capacitor
voltage along with harmonic current control is adopted here to improve the
system behavior. Efficiency of operation can be increased by modifying fuzzy
controller with fuzzy-hysteresis controller, the performance of proposed shunt
active power filter has been verified and the results obtained gives better
accuracy in comparision to others technique.

The current control with a fixed hysteresis band has the disadvantage that the
switching frequency varies within a band because peak - to - peak current
ripple is required to be controlled at all points of the fundamental frequency
wave. Kale et al [111] have proposed an adaptive band controller for APF. The
adaptive hysteresis band controller changes the hysteresis bandwidth as a
function of reference compensator current variation to optimize switching
frequency and THD of supply current. This paper proposes a fuzzy-adaptive
hysteresis band control, where the hysteresis bandwidth can be easily
calculated with the help of a fuzzy logic controller (FLC). Another important
task in the active filter design is the maintenance of constant DC voltage
across the capacitor connected to the inverter. This is necessary because there
is energy loss due to conduction and switching power losses associated with
the diodes and IGBTs of the inverter in APF, which tend to reduce the value of
voltage across the DC capacitor.

29
1.5 Motivations of the Work
 Several System identification techniques such as Least Square(LS),
Recursive least square (RLS), Extended least square (ELS) , Least
mean square (LMS) and Kalman Filter (KF) have been applied to power
system frequency estimation. To increase the speed of convergence, to
reduce computational and settling time, an immediate motivation is to
apply some improved recursive techniques to power system frequency
estimation.
 Different harmonics estimation technique based on Recursive least
square (RLS), Least Mean Square (LMS), Kalman filter (KF) and
variants of Kalman Filter such as Extended Kalman Filter (EKF),
Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) and Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF)
have been studied but the motivation is to develop an efficient
harmonics estimation technique which will be capable of estimating the
harmonics components at different critical situations of power system
signal such as variation in frequency, amplitude in presence of inter
harmonics and sub harmonics and also for the case of dynamics signal.

 There is scope in developing hybrid identification technique employing

both classical and optimization techniques for harmonics estimation. In
that hybrid technique, estimation problem can be treated as an
optimization problem, so that estimation error becomes very much
reduced on minimizing a cost function which is sum of the squared
estimation error. .

30
 For Improvement in power quality, developed estimation algorithm may
be utilized in addition to different control algorithm for designing shunt
active power filter to reduce power quality index.
 Many works in literature, validate the estimation and elimination
methods using power system synthetic signal .The performance of the
developed estimation and elimination technique should be verified
using dataset collected from industrial set up and development of
prototype experimental set up using fast processor such as
Microcontroller, DSP and dSPACE etc.

31
1.6 Problem Statement
The problem addressed in the thesis comprises of the following three sub
problems such as frequency estimation, harmonics estimation and harmonics
elimination described below.

PC
Non linear
C
Load
Source Load
current current
PD
PG

Active Harmonics Frequency estimation

power filter Estimation Algorithm Algorithm

Fig. 1.2 Schematic of estimation and elmination problem

1.6.1 Frequency Estimation Problem

In the present day modern power systems, fast and accurate frequency
estimation has become quite vital. Any mistake in accurate estimation of
frequency may threaten the frequency stability or at least lead to system
operation problems.The fundamental frequency is one of the most important
and sensitive parameters of a power system. Any imbalance between the
system load and generation directly affects the frequency and leads to
frequency deviations. So it is necessary to maintain frequency at its nominal
value or as close as possible to that value within a narrow limit. Deviation of
frequency from its rated value is an indication of imbalance between real

32
power generation and load demand. Any mistake in accurate estimation of
frequency could cause inadequate load shedding by frequency relays, which
would eventually be resulted in a major grid collapse in a power system, Thus
the frequency estimation problem is concerned with developing efficient
algorithms with a view to obtain accurate estimation of frequency of the
resulting distorted power system voltage signal.

1.6.2 Harmonics Estimation Problem

Increased demand of nonlinear loads such as power electronics devices in

commercial, industrial, residential, Telecommunication, traspotation sector
and utility system etc, instigate a significant amount of harmonics into power
system which result in deviation of signals from their sinusoidal nature. The
distortion of current signal being complex will introduce inter-harmonics and
sub-harmonic components to power system if not properly filtered. As
harmonics and inter harmonics has hazardous effect on power system,
appropriate and effective filters must be designed to eliminate harmonics.
Hence, the harmonics estimation problem signifies to buildup accurate
estimation algorithms for computing amplitude and phase of the harmonics of
the distorted voltage/current signal.
1.6.3 Harmonics Elimination problem

Power quality gradually decreases as the demand of the nonlinear load

increases day by day, the main cause of degradation of power quality is
harmonics distortion in voltage/current signals which has several adverse
effect in the power system such as overheating of motor, transformer and
capacitor, increase in conduction loses and eddy current losses, premature

33
damage of electrical equipment, important data loss from computers used in
offices, meter reading with higher percentage of error, etc. Therefore
mitigation of harmonics from voltage and current wave forms has become a
major concern of power and control researchers. Initially Passive filters have
been used to improve the power quality by compensating voltage and current
harmonics, but these are no longer used due to high cost, large size and
resonance effect. Also there is no possibility of using same passive filter for
different loads. These problems can be overcome by use of active power filter
(APF) and several types of active filter has been used to suppress the
harmonics in power system but still it is necessary to improve the quality of
active power filter. In this context harmonics elimination problem is intended
to develop efficient control algorithms for active power filter to eliminate the
harmonics and enhance the power quality.

34
1.7 Objectives

 To apply an improved iterative algorithm such as Improved Recursive

Netwon Type Algorithm (IRNTA) to power system frequency
estimation problem and to compare its estimation performance with the
existing classical techniques such as Recursive Least square (RLS) and
Kalman Filter (KF).
 To propose an efficient estimation technique such as VLLMS, to avoid
more estimation error and less speed of convergence of LMS in power
system harmonics estimation problem. Estimation performance of the
proposed VLLMS is validated using arduino duo micro controller as a
processing platform.
 To achieve improvement in percentage error in estimation, processing
time in computation and performance at different critical conditions of
power system, attempts have been made in combining classical
technique with optimization technique such as MGA and BFO.
 To develop control algorithms such as synchronous detection technique
with HCC and indirect current control technique with FLC for
designing active power filter to power system harmonics elimination
problem.
 To validate the proposed estimation and elimination technique on data
obtained from laboratory experimental set up using fast processors such
as arduino duo microcontroller, dSPACE 1104 and also from industrial
set up.

35
1.8 Book Organization:
Chapter 1 provides a brief back ground on the area of research of
frequency and harmonics estimation and design of filter using different control
algorithm for harmonics elimination, it also includes motivation and objective
of the thesis followed by problem ststement. Thesis organisation is discussed
at the end of the chapter.
Chapter 2 Presents an Improved Recursive Netwon Type Algorithm
(IRNTA) based frequency estimation technique , The performance of such a
formulation is studied for several critical cases that often arise in a power
system, e.g., sudden change in frequency, amplitude and phase of signal, in
presence of harmonics in the signal and the results obtained are compared with
another two iterative techniques such as Recursive Least Square (RLS) and
Kalman Filter (KF) Finally, frequency estimation of the laboratory data
collected from normal working day of a Laboratory and is also presented.
The current signals obtained from the captive power plant of a Ferro alloys
industry is also investigated for frequency estimation.
Chapter 3 Suggests a New estimation techniques that is Variable Leaky
Least Mean Square (VLLMS) applied to power system Harmonics estimation
problem, after the presentation of estimation of frequency in the previous
chapter, estimation of harmonics is carried out in this chapter. For the purpose,
power system signal modelled in a parametric form. Then the weight of the
unknown parameter is updated using VLLMS algorithm.From the updated
weights of unknown parameter, fundamental as well as harmonics components
of amplitude and phase are estimated. The performance of the proposed
VLLMS algorithm is compared with other existing algorithms such as

36
Recursive Least Square (RLS) and Least Mean Square (LMS), for different
critical cases that may arises in a power system such as sudden change in
amplitude of signals and also dynamics signal.
The experimental prototype hardware setup is designed in the Labortary.
Finally Harmonics estimation of Labortary generation signal i.e. across the
output of a single phase PWM inverter, using arduino due microcontroller is
also presented.
Chapter 4 Describes two hybrid algorithms such as KF-MGA and KF-
BFO for estimation of harmonics components of a power system. In chapter 3
only application of signal processing technique have been discussed for
estimation of harmonics but in this chapter we have switch over to
combination of signal processing and optimization technique for the
improvement of percentage error in estimation,processing time in computation
and performance in presence of inter and sub harmonics component. A
comparative harmonics estimation performance of two proposed strategy is
made to show the superiority between them. A labaratory proto type is also
developed for generation of power system data inorder to validate the efficies
of the proposed algorithm.
Chapter 5A novel controllers that uses an indirect current controller in
conjunction with Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) with different fuzzy rules has
been implemented for harmonic elimination in a single phase system, A SAPF
is designed using combined synchronous detection and two level hysteresis
current controller techniques for elimination of harmonics in a three phase
distribution system. A prototype experimental setup is designed in dSPACE
platform for verification of proposed elimination technique.

37
 Chapter 6 provides comprehensive summary and conclusions of all
estimation approaches for power system frequency and harmonics estimation
as well as all the control techniques implemented for active power filtering. It
also focuses on contributions of thesis and scope for future work

38
 Chapter 2
Power System Frequency Estimation Using Signal Processing
Techniques
2.1 Introduction

Power Quality (PQ) has become an important research subject due to

the increased number of non-linear components in modern power systems.
The power electronic equipment introduces harmonic distortions that can
deteriorate power system quality and affect the system performance [120]. In
order to maintain the specified PQ level, it is crucial to control the quality of
the supplying voltage. Therefore, harmonic filters must be used to reduce the
level of harmonic distortions. The operation of these filters relies on the
quality of the monitoring of the harmonic distortion. The monitoring relies on
the quality of transducers used in the measurement scheme, as well as on the
methodology for the assessment of signal distortions. In the past, a number of
methods have been developed to estimate harmonic distortions in power
systems. One of widely used methods is the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
This method is simple and efficient. However it is sensitive to the changes of
the fundamental signal frequency [48]. Furthermore, to achieve a fast
convergence, the FFT data window must be short enough, which might lead to
limitations in terms of extraction of frequency components. Least Square (LS)
method has also been widely used as a parameter estimator [46, 74]. It
minimizes the sum of the squares between measured and observed values [86].
In different applications, LS has shown the estimation accuracy with the
presence of large disturbance and frequency deviations. Another method,

39
Kalman Filter (KF), improves the quality of estimation by considering more
rigorously the understanding of the signal noise [85, 43, 47]. In a number of
cases LS and KF have shown their advantages as compared to FFT based
techniques in processing signals consisting of variation in frequency.
However, the dynamics involved in LS and KF raises concern since it exhibits
poor performance [44] with respect to sudden change in amplitude, phase or
frequency of signal i.e during dynamic changes in power system parameters,
convergence of the algorithm is slow maens it takes more time to track the
parameters of the signal. So far as identifications of non-stationary systems are
concerned, [95] discusses on time frequency signal filtration applied to
recursive method of modal parameter identification. Model order of the
system is reduced and signal components are separated by using adaptive
wavelet filtering. For identification of Linear Time Varying (LTV) systems
[41] having non stationary properties and small magnitude vibration, a typical
subspace based technique is used to extract the observability range space
using the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) of a general Hankel matrix.
The varying transition matrix is estimated at each moment through the SVD of
two successive Hankel matrices. A vector vibration response measurement
based [42] parametric identification for time varying structure is reported,
where the identification is based on three simultaneously measured vibration
response signal obtained during a single experiment. An ARMA (Auto
Regressive Moving Average) [82] with varying co-efficient is also a very
familiar choice in using the adaptive estimate methods. As these models were
initially proposed for scalar (single-input and single-output) systems, the use
of them is quite difficult in multivariable systems. So, to address the more
complex problem, state space model is preferred. Popularity of the state space

40
model is due to the latest development in the subspace-based methods for state
space model realization. Accurate spate space model of multi variable systems
can be obtained directly from input-output data using subspace methods.

In this chapter, an Improved Recursive Newton Type Algorithm

(IRNTA) [43] based frequency estimation [24] technique is developed. The
performance of such a formulation is studied for several critical cases that
often arise in a power system, e.g., sudden change in frequency, amplitude and
phase of signal, in presence of harmonics in the signal and the results obtained
are compared with another two iterative techniques such as Recursive Least
Square (RLS) and Kalman Filter (KF) Finally, frequency estimation of the
laboratory data collected from normal working day of a Laboratory and also
industrial setup is discussed.

The remaining of the chapter is organized as follows. Section 2.2 presents the
frequency estimation using the existing signal processing technique. Section
2.3 shows the proposed algorithm and formulation of equations. Section 2.4
describes the frequency estimation based on the proposed algorithm. Section
2.5 discusses the simulation results of the proposed algorithm. Section 2.6
presents some experimental setups and test results for the data obtained
fromthem. Section 2.7 concludes the chapter.

41
2.2 Frequency Estimation using existing signal processing
Techniques
2.2.1 Recursive Least Square (RLS) Algorithm applied to
Frequency Estimation

Let a distorted power system signal buried with noise is represented by the
following structure
A(t )  A1 sin  t + 1  +  (t ) (2.1)

To estimate the signal A(t ) , the amplitude ( A1 ) , phase (1 ) and frequency ( f ) ,
equ (2.1) can be written in discretized form as

A(k )  A1 sin kT cos 1 + A1 cos kT sin  +  (k )

A(k )   sin kT cos kT    T +  (k )

(2.2)

Where
  11  A1 cos 1
   21  A1 sin 1
Further notational simplification of (2.2) can be made by expressing this in
regressor form given by
A( k )  h(k ) +  ( k )

(2.3)
Where  (k ) Signal noise.
Using the RLS estimation technique, the parameters can be estimated using
the following computing steps
 
 (k )   ( k - 1) + K ( k )e( k )
(2.4)

Where  (k )  current value of estimate

42

 (k - 1)  Past value of estimate
K (k )  Kalman Gain
The error in the measurement is given by

e k   A k  - h k   (k - 1)
T
(2.5)

The gain K is updated using the following expression

K (k )  P ( k - 1)h(k )[I + h(k ) T P (k - 1) H (k )] -1

(2.6)

Where P(k )  Error Covariance matrixand  (0    1) = Forgetting factor,

the covariance matrix can be updated using the following updatation law as
given by

P (k )  [ I - K ( k )h( k ) T ]P( k - 1) / 

(2.7)

Equations (2.4) to (2.7) are initialized at k  0 . Initial covariance matrix

P (0) is usually chosen to be very large. i.e. P  I , where  is a large
number and I is a square identity matrix.

After getting the final estimate of      T , the fundamental amplitude

( A1 ) and phase (1 ) can be estimated as given below
A1  ( A1 cos 1 ) 2 + ( A1 sin 1 ) 2

A1   2 +  2 (2.8)

tan 1 


1  tan -1 (2.9)


43
Once the estimates of amplitude and phase are obtained, then fundamental

frequency ( f ) can be estimated as follows. f is given by f  can be
2

evaluated from the noisy measurement A(k ) using equation (2.1) as given
below
A(k )
sin(kT + 1 ) 
A1

 A( k ) 
kT + 1  sin -1  
 A1 

1  A(t ) 
f  [sin -1   - 1 ] (2.10)
2kT  A1 

2.2.2 Kalman Filtering (KF) for frequency Estimation

The discretized voltages signal as described in section 2.2 is also

considered for applying KF to frequency estimation. The regressor form of
signal as described in (2.3) is also taken. Then applying Kalman Filtering
algorithm to (2.3), unknown parameters      T are estimated as
follows
 
K  k   P  k / k - 1 (h P k / k - 1 h T + Q) -1 (2.11)
Where K is the Kalman gain, H is the observation matrix, P  I is the
covariance matrix, where  is a large number and I is a square identity
matrix. Q Is the noise covariance of the Signal,so the covariance matrix
is related with Kalman gain with the Following equation
  
P(k / k )  P( k / k - 1) - K (k ) h P(k / k - 1) (2.12)

Hence the updated estimated state is related with previous state with the
following equation.

44
   
 (k / k )   (k / k - 1) + K (k )( A( k ) - h  (k / k - 1))

(2.13)

After updatation of the unknown parameter matrix,  by Kalman Filtering,

using equations (2.8-2.10), frequency is estimated.

2.3 Signal Model Presentation and IRNTA Algorithm Development

Let us assume the following observation model of the input signal (arbitrary
voltage or current);
A(t )  h( x, t ) +  (t ) (2.14)
Where A(t ) is an instantaneous signal at time t ,  (t ) is a random noise, X
is a suitable parameter vector, and h . is expressed as follows:
M
h( x.t )  A0 e -t +  Ak sin( kt +  k )
k 1

(2.15)
For the generic model (2.15), a suitable vector of unknown parameters is
given by
x  [ A0 ,  ,  , A1 ,....., AM , 1 ,.....,  M ]T
(2.16)
Where A0 is the magnitude of the decaying dc Component at t  0 ,   1 / T , T
being the time constant , M is the highest order of harmonics present in the
signal,  is the fundamental angular velocity i.e equal to 2 f , f being
frequency , AK is the magnitude of the k th harmonics. The number of
unknowns, i.e., the model order, is

n  2M + 3 (2.17)

45
The Model (2.15) can be simplified, e.g., containing only the fundamental
harmonic. This is due to the fact to reduce the order of the system and our
requirement i.e. determination of frequency can be met with that
simplification.The Model selection depends on the application, i.e., on the
features of the input signal processed.The vector of unknown model
parameters (2.16) can be estimated by applying non recursive NTA numerical
algorithm (2.16) given by

� � ^
x k +1  x k + ( J kT J k ) -1 J kT ( A- h( x k )) (2.18)
Where k is an iteration index, J is an  m, n  jacobian matrix, A is an  m.1
measurement vector, h is an  m.1 vector of nonlinear functions determined
by the model assumed ,and m is the number of signal samples belonging to
the data window.The use of the NTA necessitates inversion of normal equation

matrix N   J KT J K  at every iteration. This requires much of CPU time,

-1

particularly when the model order is high. The real time computation can be
significantly reduced by applying the following recursive form of NTA
algorithm. So performance of computing using IRNTA becomes improved.

^  ^
x k +1  x k + Pk +1 J k +1 ( Ak +1 - h( x k )) (2.19)

Pk +1  1 /  k +1 (( Pk - ( Pk j k +1 j kT+1 Pk ) /(  k +1 + j kT+1 Pj k +1 ))
(2.20)
T
jm  �
�j1, j2, j3 �
�
Where is the m-th row of the Jacobian matrix.For example,
the third element (i.e., the first derivative of angular velocity) is given by the
following equation

46
 M
j3  h( x) /    Ak kt cos(kt +  k ) (2.21)
k 1

Other elements can also be derived, in the same way.

The new recursive algorithm presented requires the appropriate selection of
the sampling frequency, the initial guess for X0 and the forgetting factor  .

Normally, one selects  near 1.0  e.g., 0.95  . Here,  is tuned to the dynamics of
the input signal processed.

The quality of estimation depends upon on the pre-selected forgetting factor 

. The faster convergence and the bigger sensitivity to random noise can be
achieved by setting  less than 1 0.5 .on the other hand the slower
convergence and less sensitivity to random noise follows for  near 1
 e.g.   0.99  .

2.4 IRNTA based frequency estimation

The noisy single phase power system signal can be represented as

y (t )  A1 sin( 0 t + 1 ) +  (t )
(2.22)

Where (t ) is a random noise, The vector of unknown parameter is given by

x ( k )  [ A1e  0 e 1e ]
(2.23)

A1e : Estimated amplitude, 0e : Estimated Angular Frequency

1e : Estimated Phase, The signal model in regressor form can be written as

hx( k )  A1e sin( 0 e kT + 1e ) (2.24)

47
Jacobin matrix is given by

 hx(k ) hx( k ) hx( k ) 

J  
 A1e  0 e 1e 
(2.25)

On applying the recursive form of NTA Algorithm

Pk +1  1/ k +1 (( PK - ( Pk jk +1 jkT+1 Pk ) /(k +1 + jkT+1 Pjk +1 )) (2.26)

� � �
(2.27)
x k +1  x k + PK +1 J K +1 ( AK +1 - h ( x k ))
After estimating the unknown parameter x , Frequency can be calculated as

f 0 e (k )  x 12 (k ) / 2 * pi (2.28)

2.5 Simulation Studies

This section presents simulation results performed with the IRNTA algorithm.
We present the performance of the algorithm in estimating frequency in
different cases of power system signal. MATLAB/SIMULINK is used for the
purpose. The initial values of Covariance matrix for all the three algorithms
presented (RLS, KFand IRNTA) and forgetting factors for RLS and IRNTA
are given in Table -2.1. The model order selection is algorithm specific. In
case of RLS and KF, model order depends on system structure matrix and in
case of IRNTA, it depends on order of Jacobian matrix. For selection of
starting parameters of RLS, KF and model order, [18] is referred. Different
cases of simulated signals that may represent several well-known properties of
real-time power system voltage signal are considered for the simulation study.

Table-2.1 Parameters used for simulation studies (RLS, KF and IRNTA)

48
 Algorithms  ( P  I ) 

RLS 100 0.96

KF 100 -
IRNTA 100 0.96

2.5.1 Sinusoidal signal in presence of noise

A 50 Hz signal with constant frequency but with random noises is generated
with a 1 millisecond sampling interval. The comparative estimation
performance of proposed algorithm for SNR of 40 dB is shown in Fig. 2.1.
Fig.2. 2 shows MSE in the estimation of frequency of signal at SNR 40 dB. It
is found from the Fig. that maximum MSE in case of KF followed by RLS
with noise is of the order of 10 -3. But MSE, in case of IRNTA algorithm,
converges to zero after 10th sample. Hence IRNTA outperforms over other two
algorithms (RLS and KF). A quantitative assessment of the results for SNR of
40 dB case is presented in Table 2.2 Besides frequency values, the Table also
lists frequency deviation and computational time for the respective algorithms.
The frequency deviation is computed as frequency deviation = mean ((true
value–estimated value) /true value). It may be noted that the accuracy in
estimation of frequency using IRNTA is better (error in estimation is only
0.006%) compared to other two algorithms. The computational time for
estimation in case of IRNTA is also least among these three methods.

49
 53 RLS
KF
IRNTA
52
F req u en cy in H z.

51

50

49

48

47

0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

Fig. 2.1 Estimation of frequency from noisy signals with SNR 40 dB

-3
x 10
5
RLS
KF
4 IRNTA

3
MSE

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

Fig. 2.2 Estimation performance in MSE of frequency of signal

Table 2.2 Comparative assessment of RLS, KF and IRNTA algorithms

Parameter RLS KF IRNTA

50
 Estimated Frequency 49.84 49.78 49.997

Frequency deviation, % 0.32 0.44 0.006

Computational time 0.1024 0.1375 0.0994

(seconds)

2.5.2. Jump in frequency in the signal

The next case is considered to be the signal having jump in frequency. The
frequency change from 50 Hz to 49 Hz using the proposed algorithm is
presented in Fig 2.3. It is observed from this Fig. that the proposed approach
follows very closely the actual system frequency in case of IRNTA as
compared to other two algorithms.

51
RLS
KF
50.5 IRNTA
F req u en cy [H z]

50

49.5

49

48.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

Fig. 2.3 Estimation during sudden frequency change of 49 Hz from 50 Hz

51
2.5. 3. Jump in amplitude of signal
Here the sudden change in amplitude of signal is taken into account. Fig. 2.4
shows the signal whose amplitude changes from 1 p.u. to 1.5 p.u. at 40th sample.
Fig. 2.5 presents the comparative estimation performance of frequency using
the proposed algorithm; from this Fig. it is found that IRNTA estimates
accurately the frequency even if there is some change in amplitude of signal.

2
A m p litu d e in P .U .

1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

Fig. 2.4 Single phase signal during change of amplitude at 40th Sample

51
RLS
KF
50.5 IRNTA
F req u en cy in H z.

50

49.5

49

48.5

48
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

52
 Fig. 2.5 Estimation of Frequency during sudden change in amplitude

2.5. 4 Change in phase of signal

Fig. 2.6 shows a single phase signal when there is change in phase from 60 0 to
1200 at 40th sample. Fig. 2.7 shows the estimation of frequency during sudden
change of phase. Here also estimation accuracy of IRNTA is more as
compared to RLS and KF algorithms.

1
A m p litu d e in P .U .

0.5

-0.5

-1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

Fig. 2.6 Single phase signal during change of phase at 40th Sample

53
 80
RLS
75 KF
IRNTA
F req u en cy in H z .
70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

Fig. 2.7 Estimation of Frequency during sudden change of phase

2.5. 5 In the presence of harmonics

Next we consider the problem of estimating fundamental frequency (50 Hz)

from signals having harmonics content in them. The common case of 3 rd
harmonic is considered. Fig.2.8 shows the single phase signal containing this
harmonic. Fig. 2.9 shows the comparative estimation of frequency using
proposed algorithm from the signal with harmonics.

54
 1

A m p litu d e in P .U .

0.5

-0.5

-1
10 20 30 40 50
Sample No.

Fig. 2.8 Single phase signal containing harmonics

75 RLS
KF
70 IRNTA
F re q u e n c y [H z ]

65

60

55

50

45

40

35
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

Fig. 2.9 Estimation of Frequency in presence of harmonics

2.5. 6 In presence of Sub and Inter harmonics

The performance of the proposed algorithm is then evaluated when sub and
inter harmonics are present in a signal. The frequency, amplitude and initial

55
phase of the sub and inter harmonics considered here are as 20 Hz, 0.4 p.u.
and 650 and 130 Hz, 0.3 p.u. and 550 respectively. Estimation of Fundamental
frequency of the signal using the three algorithms is shown in Fig. 2.10. In this
case also proposed algorithm estimates better compared to other two.

80
RLS
75 KF
IRNTA
70
F req u en cy [H z]

65

60

55

50

45

40

0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.

Fig. 2.10 Estimation of Frequency in presence of sub- and inter- harmonics

2.6. Experimental Results

So far performance of the IRNTA algorithm has been studied on simulated
signals. It would be interesting to have the same on some experimental data
that captures many more features arises due to the introduction of
measurement and instrumentation errors. This section presents such studies.

2.6.1 Validation on Real time (Data Collected from Industrial setup)

56
Three phase current signals generated at the terminals of the generators
installed at the captive power plant, FACOR Power Ltd, Bhadrak, Odisha,
India are collected at a sampling rate of 1 kHz.

G 11KV
Generator Rating

Output MW/MVA-52/65 T/F

Terminal Voltage-11KV
132KV
P.F-0.8 lagging

Excitation Voltage-55V CT Secondary

Excitation Current-12.5Amp
Input: 0-1
Connection-Star Transducer AOutput: 4-20mA
Phase-3 Phase A.C
Bus Bar
Frequency-50Hz
Digital
DDCMIS
Distributed
Control
Monitory
Information
system
3 Phase Current

Fig. 2.11 Schematic Diagram of collecting industrial data

Fig. 2.11 shows the schematic diagram for the data collection set up that
involves current transformer to facilitate the measurement. The generated
voltage is fed to 11KV/132KV Generator transformer, the output of GT fed to
the busbar. For acquiring digital current data, the generator is connected to

57
400Amp/1Amp CT. The output of CT is fed to the Transducer of output range
4-20 mA. Current signal of mA range is fed to DDCMIS (Digital Distributed
Control monitory information system) which consists of several components
such as panel terminal block, Analog input card (AT-810), Communication
interference, Profibus Communication, Controller (ABB 800m), Server, etc.
DDCMIS provides digital data of generator MW, MVA, pf, voltage and
current. In the present work, we obtained three-phase digital current data from
the output of DDCMIS. The data almost corresponds to 50Hz signal with
noises. Since the captured signal does not have any typical visually dectable
feature, we omit its presentation. From these three-phase digital current data,
frequency of the system is estimated using the three algorithms (RLS, KF and
IRNTA). Fig. 2.12 shows the performance of the algorithms and it is observed
that the KF generates largest error of more than 0.2 Hz. Whereas IRNTA
closely follow the actual frequency with errors less than 0.02 Hz. So error in
estimation in case of IRNTA is minimum and hence more effective.

50

49.8

49.6
Frequency [Hz]

49.4

49.2 RLS
KF
IRNTA
49
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Sample No.

Fig. 2.12 Estimation of Frequency from industrial data

58
2.6.2 Validation on real-time (laboratory setup) data
The Data is obtained in laboratory from the supply on normal working day as
per the experimental setup shown in the Fig.2.13 and Schematic Diagram of
Experimental Data collection is shown in Fig.2.14.

Fig. 2.13 Experimental set up for Laboratory data generation

Specifications of the Instruments used are:

1. Autotransformer: Maximum load 15 Amps, 4.05 kVA, input 240V and

output 260V @ 50/60 Hz frequency.
2. Isolation Transformer: 230/115V (2 in Nos.) (Supply to measuring
devices isolation and between Supply and DSO isolation)
3. Nonlinear Load: a single phase diode bridge rectifier with a 100 Ω
resistor in series with a 250mH inductor at the dc side.
4. Digital Storage Oscilloscope (Tektronix with kit no TPS2014): Band
Width-100 MHz, Sample rate-1 GS/s, 4 channel, Record length-2500
data points, PC Connectivity- 9 pin female port and PC Communication
software.

59
 5. Voltage Probe: A 10X voltage probe is used to capture the distorted
signal from the
6. PC: 1.46 GHz CPU and 1GB RAM, desktop computer. It stores the data
in the form of discrete form with the help of pc communication
software, which is captured by the DSO.
The waveform is stored in the Digital Storage Oscilloscope and then through
the Open Choice PC Communication software it is acquired in the personal
computer. From the digital voltage data, Estimation of Frequency is carried
out using proposed algorithm. As per International Electro-technical
Commission 61000-4-30 [9], for computing the power quality parameters, 10
cycles in a 50-Hz system which is 200-ms windowing at a sampling time of
0.4 ms has been used. The variation of estimated frequency with the proposed
algorithm is shown in Fig.2.15, which shows that the estimated value closely
approaches the actual value of 50 Hz.

SINGLE
Auto ISOLATION PHASE R-L
Transformer TRANSFORMER(1:1)
FULLWAVE LOAD
DIODE
BRIDGE
230V,50 HZ RECTIFIER

SUPPLY

DSO PC

Fig.2.14 Schematic Diagram of Experimental Data collection

60
 F re q u e n c y in H z .
50.4 RLS
KF
50.2 IRNTA

50

49.8

49.6

49.4

49.2

49

48.8

48.6

0 50 100 150 200 250

Sample No.

Fig. 2.15 Estimation of Frequency of Experimental data

2.7 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, a Newton Type algorithm is presented for power system

frequency estimation. In this proposed algorithm, unknown parameter is
updated in recursive form to estimate the frequency. The estimation
performance of the proposed algorithm is compared with two existing
recursive techniques such as Recursive Least Square (RLS) and Kalman filter
(KF). However, initialization of covariance matrix is very much important for
RLS and KF algorithms because improprer choice of these parameters may
lead to more computational burden, more convergence time and more
estimation error. To overcome these problems in the existing methods,
proposed Improve Recucrsive Newton Type Algorithm (IRNTA) has been
developed. Both simulation and experimental studies have been performed to
study the efficacy of the proposed algorithm and a comparision made beween
the three algorithms (IRNTA, RLS and KF). Moreover, it has been observed
that the proposed algorithm (IRNTA) not only superior in minimizing the error
but also superior in terms of convergence rate and computational aspect as
compared to RLS and KF.

61
 Chapter-3
Real time Harmonics Estimation of Distorted Power System Signal

3.1 Introduction
Estimation of power system harmonics is now a day’s one of the important
issues of power system engineers. Due to significant growth of nonlinear loads
in power systems, mostly power electronic equipments, uninterruptible power
supplies, arc furnaces and controlled motor drives, current and voltage signals
of power system become highly distorted. Main sources of inter harmonics
and sub harmonics in power system are power electronics devices (e.g.,
cycloconverters), arcing loads (e.g., welding machines and arc furnaces),
which are widely used in rolling mills and linear motor drives [80]. Recently,
grid integration of Renewable energy sources based on power electronic
converters also contribute to the increasing concern for the betterment of
power quality [124-125]. The aim of this work is to develop efficient
harmonics estimation technique and to design filter for removal of unwanted
harmonics distortion in power system.
In literature [83, 69, 72], so many algorithms have been applied for
power system harmonics estimation. The fundamental one is based on the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT). But it fails in presence of inter-harmonics and
variations in system fundamental frequency, because of leakage and picket-
fence effects [53-55],some methods [55, 34] are provided to improve these
drawbacks. Kalman Filter (KF) [58, 63] is the right choice for estimation of
harmonics contained in a power system signal [59-61]. However, to optimize
estimations, the higher-order terms in the Taylor’s expansion for this method
were neglected because of a nonlinear function including the formulation of

62
measurements. As a matter of fact, estimation of distorted signals may occur
incorrectly or take longer to converge and even diverge.A popular method for
parameter estimation is Least Square (LS) algorithm [65]. The algorithm is
very powerful in estimating system parameters and is widely used for
estimating harmonics and their deviations in a signal. But online estimation is
not possible in this case because of it’s batch processing methodology.

A power system digital harmonic analyzer[80] having built in FFT, where

68000 microprocessor- based instrument samples the waveform and calculates
the harmonics of signal for both current and voltage waveforms. Method
based on Taylor-Kalman-Fourier [59] was also used for instantaneous phasor
and harmonics estimation of power system signals. A method based on filter
bank (FB) with adaptive filtering [82] was used for estimation of parameters
describing harmonics and inter harmonics in a power signal. Each harmonic
and inter harmonic component is estimated recursively. Advantages and
disadvantages of adaptive filters such as cascade FIR comb filters and
resonator based filters for estimation problem were discussed and an improved
&suitable combined algorithm [141] based on above two filters using
decoupled modules and multirate sampling was proposed for frequency and
harmonics estimation of power signal. Using wavelet transform [142],
analysis on harmonics distortion was carried out by many researchers. A fast
and accurate approach for real time estimation for time varying harmonics of
voltage and current signal based on rotational invariance technique (ESPIRIT)
[143] assisted adaptive wavelet neural network (AWNN) is presented. AWNN
provides quick estimate whereas ESPIRIT handles for time varying signal
with higher accuracy.

63
 At the same time, soft computing techniques, e.g. Fuzzy Logic, Neural
Networks, Genetic Algorithm and simulated annealing have also been used for
harmonics estimation [74, 91, 121]. However, such soft computing approaches
suffer from poor convergence rate and larger computational burden. Artificial
Neural networks have also been extensively studied as a means of harmonic
extraction [121].But, the initial choice of weight vector and learning
parameters affect the convergence characteristics of the Neural type Estimator.

The conventional LMS technique suffers from the problem of poor

convergence rate if the step-size for adaptation is fixed. This step size in LMS,
depends inversely on input power, i.e. it takes more time to learn about its
input when step size is small and vice versa. Poor convergence problem of
LMS can be overcome by using time varying step size [23].

If the Lest Mean Square of the error is considered as the cost function to be
minimized, then due to the dynamic variation of signal, the linear weights of
the filter may go unbounded or it may take longer time to respond due to the
stalling effect [23]. To overcome this, one may employ the leaky LMS
algorithm that incorporates the magnitude of the weights in the cost function
to avoid the parameter drifting or the stalling problem [24]. One may,
however, make the leak adjustment as a variable one so that it converges
slowly along the worst-case eigen direction (the direction of the eigenvector
corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of the error auto-correlation matrix)
as opposed to the best-case eigen direction (the direction of the eigenvector
corresponding to the largest eigen value) [92-93]. Although such leaky LMS
algorithm has been employed in stereophonic acoustic echo cancellation
problem [53], effectiveness of the same in estimating power system harmonics

64
appears to be not investigated so far. Moreover, the frequent dynamical
changes in a power system motivate one to implement such an algorithm for
efficiently estimating power system harmonics.

In this Chapter, a Variable Leaky LMS (VLLMS) [91-93] based harmonics

estimation technique is developed. For the purpose of modelling power system
signal in a parametric form, the VLLMS algorithm is applied on this signal.
The performance of such a formulation is compared with other existing
algorithms applied to harmonics estimation problem, e.g., RLS [63] and LMS
[23] for several critical cases that often arise in a power system, e.g., sudden
change in amplitude of signal, in presence of sub and inter-harmonics in the
signal and also for dynamic signal. Finally, harmonics estimation of laboratory
generated signal i.e. across the output of a single phase PWM inverter, using
arduino due microcontroller is also presented. In all the cases, the performance
of the proposed algorithm is found to be superior compared with that of RLS
and LMS, algorithms. Moreover, a significant feature of the VLLMS
algorithm is to restrict the estimated parameters to drift beyond limit gives an
advantage in implementing other correcting circuitry based on the estimator.

The remaining of the chapter is organized as follows. Section 3.2 presents

the proposed algorithm and formulation of equations. Section 3.3 describes the
harmonics estimation based on the proposed algorithm. Section 3.4 discusses
the comparative simulation results of the proposed algorithm. Section 3.5
presents some experimental setups and test results for the data obtained from
them. Section 3.6 concludes the Chapter.

3.2 Algorithms applied to Power System Harmonics Estimation

65
 3.2.1 VLLMS based Harmonics Estimation
Let us assume the voltage or current waveforms of the known fundamental
angular frequency  as the sum of harmonics of unknown magnitudes and
phases. The general form of the waveform is

N
y (t )   An sin( n t +  n ) + Adc exp(- dc t ) +  (t )
n 1

(3.1)

Where N is the number of harmonics,  n  n2f 0 , f 0 is the fundamental

frequency,  (t ) is the additive noise, Adc exp(- dc t ) is the dc offset decaying
term.
After discretization of Eq. (3.1) with a sampling period, T one obtains the
following expressions

N
y (k )   An sin(n kT + n ) + Adc exp(- dc kT ) +  (k ) (3.2)
n 1

Invoking Taylor series expansion of the dc decaying term, Adc exp(- dc t ) and
retaining only first two terms of the series

y (k ) can be obtained as

N
y (k )   An sin( n kT +  n ) + Adc - Adc dc kT +  (k ) (3.3)
n 1

For estimation amplitudes and phases Eq.(3.3) can be rewritten as

N
y (k )   [ An sin( n kT ) cos n + An cos( n kT ) sin  n ] + Adc - Adc dc kT +  (k )
n 1

(3.4)

Eq. (3.4) can be rewritten in parametric form as follows

66
y (k )  H (k ) X (3.5)

H ( k )  [sin(1 kT ) cos(1 kT ) ... sin( N kT ) cos( N kT ) 1 - kT ]T

(3.6)

The vector of unknown parameter

X  [ A1 cos(1 ) A1 sin(1 ) ... An cos( n ) An sin( n ) Adc Adc dc ]T (3.7)

The VLLMS algorithm [141] is applied to estimate the state. The algorithm
minimizes the square of the error recursively by altering the unknown
parameter Xk at each sampling instant using equation (3.8) given below

X k +1  (1 - 2 k  k ) X k + 2  k ek yk (3.8)

Where the error signal is


ek  y k - y k (3.9)
Step size  k is varied for better convergence of the VLLMS algorithm in the
presence of noise.
k +1   k +  k Rk2 (3.10)

Where Rk represents the autocorrelation of ek and ek -1 . It is computed as

Rk   Rk -1 + (1 -  )e k e k -1

(3.11)
Where  is an exponential weighting parameter and 0    1 , and  (0    1)
and   0 control the convergence time.The variable leakage factor  k [132]
can be adjusted as

 k +1   k - 2  k ek yk X k -1 (3.12)
After the updating of the vector of unknown parameter using LMS algorithm,
amplitudes, phases of the fundamental and nth harmonic parameters are

67
derived as
An  X 2
2N + X 22N -1  (3.13)

 X 
 n  tan -1  2 N  (3.14)
 X 2 N -1 

3.2.2 Harmonics Estimation using Least Mean Square (LMS)

algorithm
The LMS algorithm is applied to estimate the state. The algorithm
minimizes the square of the error recursively by altering the unknown
parameter Xk at each sampling instant using equation (3.15) given below
X k  X k -1 +  k ek yk (3.15)
Where the error signal is

ek  y k - y k

The step size  k is varied for better convergence of the LMS algorithm in
the presence of noise.
 k +1   k + Rk2 (3.16)
Where Rk represents the autocorrelation of ek and ek -1 . It is computed as
Rk  Rk -1 + (1 -  )ek ek -1 (3.17)
Where  is an exponential weighting parameter and 0    1 , and  (0    1)
and  0 control the convergence time.

3.2.3 Harmonics Estimation using RLS algorithm

The signal as described in section 3.1 is taken; the vector of unknown

parameter X , as in (3.7) is updated using RLS as
X is updated using Recursive Least Square Algorithm as
 
X ( k + 1)  X ( k ) + K ( k + 1)e( k + 1) (3.18)

68
 Error in measurement is

e( k + 1)  y ( k + 1) - H ( k + 1) T X ( k )

(3.19)
The gain K is related with covariance of parameter vector

K (k + 1)  P( k ) H (k + 1)[1 + H ( k + 1)T P (k ) H ( k + 1)]-1 (3.20)

The updated covariance of parameter vector using matrix inversion lemma

P (k + 1)  [ I - K (k + 1) H (k + 1) T ]P (k ) (3.21)
These equations are initialized by taking some initial values for the
estimate at instants t ,  (t ) and P . As the choice of initial covariance matrix
is large it is taken as P  I , where  is a large number and I is a square
identity matrix.
After the updating of the vector of unknown parameters using Recursive
Least Square (RLS) algorithm, amplitudes, phases of the fundamental and
nth harmonic parameters and dc decaying parameters can be derived using
(3.13)-(3.14)

69
 Start

Initialize,,,,, , and

Model the signal in parametric form using

(3.5)

Evaluate Error=Estimated voltage –Actual voltage using (3.9)

Update Step Size, Leakage Factor and Weight Vector on minimizing

error from (3.10), (3.12) and (3.8)

No
Is final iteration
reached

Yes

Get final updated Weight Vector

Estimate Amplitudes and Phases for Fundamental and nth

Harmonics using (3.13) and (3.14)

Stop

70
 Fig.3. 1 shows the flow chart of the estimation scheme of VLLMS algorithm

3.3 Simulation Results

3.3.1 Static signal corrupted with random noise and decaying DC
component
To evaluate the performance of the proposed VLLMS algorithm in estimating
harmonics amplitude and phase, discretized signal having fundamental
frequency 50 Hz is generated in MATLAB. The power system signal used for
the estimation, besides the fundamental frequency, contains higher harmonics
of the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 11th and a slowly decaying DC component [90]. This kind
of signal is typical in industrial load comprising power electronic converters
and arc furnaces.

y (t )  1.5 sin(t + 800 ) + 0.5 sin(3t + 600 ) + 0.2 sin(5t + 450 ) + 0.15 sin(7t + 360 )
+ 0.1sin(11t + 300 ) + 0.5 exp(-5t ) +  (t )
(3.

22)

The above signal is corrupted by random noise (t)  0.05randn having normal
distribution with zero mean and unity variance. All the amplitudes, given are
in p.u. values.Different parameters [17,207,208] used in the simulation studies
are selected on the basis of series of experiments performed during the
implementation of this method and are given in Table. 3.1

Table 3.1 Simulation Parameter

Initial
Parameter  Initial W    max  min Initial 
P0

Value 0.001 0.018 0.99 0.97 0 0.008 0.0001 0.01 1.1

71
 A m p litu d e in p .u .
actual
RLS
2 LMS
VLLMS
1

-1

-2
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time in sec.

Fig.3.2. Actual and Estimated signal using RLS, LMS and VLLMS
A m p litu d e in p . u .

1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4
RLS
0.2 LMS
VLLMS
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.3a. Estimation of amplitude of fundamental component of signal
P h a s e in d e g .

80

75

70

65

60
RLS
55 LMS
VLLMS
50
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Time in sec.

Fig.3.3b. Estimation of phase of fundamental component of signal

72
 0.4
A m p litu d e in p .u . RLS
0.35 LMS
VLLMS
0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.

Fig.3.4a. Estimation of amplitude of 5th harmonic component of signal

A m p litu d e in p .u .

80
RLS
60 LMS
VLLMS

40

20

-20

-40
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Fig. 3.4b Estimation ofTPhase
imeof in5thsec .
harmonic component of signals
A m p litu d e in p . u .

0.4
RLS
0.35 LMS
VLLMS
0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.

Fig.3.5 Estimation of amplitude of 11th harmonics component of signal

73
 100
RLS
LMS
P h a s e in d e g .

VLLMS
50

-50

-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.6. Comparison of MSE in Estimation of signal

Fig.3.2 shows actual vs. estimated value of signal using three different
algorithms. Actual vs estimated signal almost matches with each other with
very less deviation in case of LMS algorithm. Figs.3.3a and3.3bshow the
tracking of fundamental amplitude and phase of signal in presence of random
noise and decaying dc components using RLS, LMS and VLLMS algorithms
Fig.3.4a and3.4b presents the comparative estimation of 5th harmonic
amplitude and phase of signal. Figs.3.5a and3.5b shows the estimation of 11th
harmonic amplitude and phase of signal respectively. In the above estimation
process, proper choice of co-variance matrices optimally tune RLS algorithm.
The RLS algorithm exhibits oscillations in the estimated amplitude of
fundamental and harmonics components in the presence of a distorted signal
and noise.These results are quite significant in tracking steady-state both
fundamental as well as harmonics components of a power system over a
period of 24 hour for the assessment of power quality and harmonics
distortions. Fig.3.6 compares Mean Squared Errors in the estimation of signal

74
using three different algorithms such as RLS, LMS and VLLMS. It is found
from Fig.6 that MSE is in the order of 10 -3.Fig. 3.7 presents a sensitivity
analysis of estimation of power system harmonics using VLLMS algorithm. It
gives an idea regarding variation of estimation error in signal with respect to
variation of sampling frequency in estimation. It is found that estimation error
in signal is very much reduced with increase in sampling frequency and the
minimum estimation error is 0.001 at a sampling frequency of 3 kHz. From
this Figs.3.1-3.7, it is seen that estimation accuracy using VLLMS is more as
compared to other two such as RLS and LMS.

Fig.3.7. Variation of Estimation error with sampling frequency

Table 3.2 Harmonics Parameters Estimated values using VLLMS

Parameters 3rd 5th 7th 11th

Amplitude 0.498 0.1999 0.1498 0.1013

Phase 59.97 44.96 35.87 29.995

75
Table 3.2 shows the amplitude and phase estimates of all harmonic
components using VLLMS in presence of noise and dc decaying components.
On comparing the actual values of parameters, it is found that VLLMS is a
good estimator so far as estimation accuracy of harmonic components is
concerned.

3.3.2. Estimation of harmonics in presence of amplitude drift

Fig.3.8 shows the estimation of 5th harmonic amplitude using the above
three algorithms. It is observed that all algorithms track the 5th harmonics
change in amplitude from 0.2 to 0.5 p.u.with oscillations in case of RLS and
LMS estimation.

0.8
A m p litu d e in p .u .

RLS
0.7 LMS
VLLMS
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.8. Estimation of 5th harmonic amplitude during amplitude drift

3.3.3. Harmonics estimation of signal in presence of inter and sub-

harmonics
To evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm in the estimation
of a signal in the presence of sub-harmonics and inter-harmonics, a sub-
harmonic and two inter-harmonics components are added to the original
signal. The frequency of sub-harmonic is 20 Hz, the amplitude is set to be 0.2

76
p.u. and the phase is equal to 75 degrees. The frequency, amplitude and phase
of one of the inter-harmonic is 130 Hz, 0.1p.u. and 65 degrees respectively.
The frequency, amplitude and phase of the other inter-harmonic is 180 Hz,
0.15p.u. and 10 degrees respectively. Fig.3. 9 and 3.10 shows the estimation of
phase and amplitude of a sub-harmonic and an inter-harmonic respectively.

85

80
P h a s e in d e g .

75

70

65
60

55
RLS
50
LMS
45 VLLMS
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.9. Estimation of sub-harmonics having phase 75 deg.

0.35
A m p litu d e in p .u .

RLS
0.3 LMS
VLLMS
0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.10. Estimation of inter-harmonics having amplitude 0.1 p.u.

In the simulation studies the performance index (a measure of accuracy in

estimation)  is estimated by

77
 N 
 ( y (k ) - y (k ) ) 2
 k 1
N
 100 (3.23)
 y(k )
k 1
2


where y (k ) and y (k ) are actual and estimated signal respectively. In this case
the significance of the performance index  is that it provides the accuracy of
the estimation algorithm. Small value of  corresponds to more accurate
estimation and vice versa.

The performance indices of all the three algorithms are given in Table 3.3
From which it can be seen that VLLMS achieves significant improvements in
terms of reducing error for harmonicsestimation in comparison to other two
algorithms. VLLMS exhibits superior estimation performance and is more
robust as compared to RLS and LMS owing to the fact that unlike in RLS, the
performance of the VLLMS is not influenced by the initial choice of
covariance matrix used in RLS.

Table 3.3 Comparision of Performance Index

SNR 40 dB 30 dB 20 dB
RLS 0.064 0.72 0.853
LMS 0.042 0.51 0.638
VLLMS 0.0034 0.24 0.418

3.3.4. Harmonic Estimation of a Dynamic Signal

78
To examine the performance of VLLMS algorithm in tracking harmonics and
its robustness in rejecting noise, a time-varying signal of the form

y (t )  {1.5 + a1 (t )} sin( 0 t + 80 0 ) + {0.5 + a3 (t )} sin(3 0 t + 60 0 )

(3.23)
+ {0.2 + a5 (t )} sin(5 0 t + 45 0 ) +  (t )

is used where the amplitude modulating parameters a1 (t ), a 2 (t ) and a3 (t ) are

given by

a1  0.15 sin 2f 1t + 0.05 sin 2f 5 t

(3.24)

a 3  0.05 sin 2f 3 t + 0.02 sin 2f 5 t (3.25)

a 5  0.025 sin 2f 1t + 0.005 sin 2f 5 t

(3.26)

f 1  1.0 Hz, f 3  3.0 Hz, f 5  6.0 Hz.

In case of static signal, which is discussed in subsection A, signal

parameters such as amplitude, phase and frequency do not change with respect
to time but in case of a dynamic signal, in the above example a1 (t ), a 2 (t ) and
a 3 (t ) change with respect to time. Here, the random noise  (t ) has a normal
distribution of zero mean, unity variance and amplitude of 0.05 randn.

The estimation of time varying 5 th harmonic signal in the presence of

random noise is shown in Fig.3. 11 It is observed that there is more oscillation
in estimation using RLS but using other two algorithms such as LMS and
VLLMS, the estimated value of amplitudes and phases of signal closely

79
matches with the actual with more accurate estimation using VLLMS
algorithm.

0.22
A m p litu d e in p .u .

0.21

0.2

0.19

Actual
0.18
RLS
LMS
0.17 VLLMS
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.

Fig.3.11. Estimation of 5th harmonics amplitude of dynamic signal

3.4 Experimental Studies and Results

In view of real-time application of the algorithm for estimating harmonics in a
power system, voltage data generation was accomplished in the laboratory by
giving the 230 V supply voltage to a regulated dc power supply. Then output
of dc voltage regulator is fed to single phase PWM inverter to generate the
required ac test signal with harmonics. This 230 V ac test signal is fed to
measurement signal pre-processing circuit.

3.4.1. Measurement Signal Pre-Processing Circuit: It consists of the following

components as discussed below.

1. The 9 V step down Transformer: Since we will be measuring 230 V ac it

has to be stepped down to a suitable voltage range to be operated on and

80
 also the Transformer provides sufficient isolation necessary to keep
ourselves as well as the sophisticated electronics from harm’s way.
2. Voltage Divider (1/10): The output of the Transformer, when unloaded
can give up to 14-17 volt Peak. Which can be further reduced by using a
Voltage divider which divides it 10 times which is the ratio of the
resistances 10K and 100K
3. Voltage Offset Adding Circuit: The voltage after the voltage divider has
both a positive and negative peak, which is not suitable for our ADC.
Therefore, we add an OFFSET using the Rail to Rail swing OPAMP
LM358.
4. The OPAMP functions as a voltage follower, and buffers the mid-point
voltage that appears at the junction of R3 & R4. This significantly
reduces the impedance of the voltage source, resulting in enhanced
performance.
5. The Final Voltage Divider: Since the original circuit gives out a signal
in the range of 5 V, but since we have used a microcontroller, which has
an ADC capable of only measuring a signal in the range of 3.3 Volt, a
final Voltage divider has been used to keep the voltage in range suitable
for the ADC.
3.4.2 Voltage Supply Circuit (230 V ac to 5 V dc) of the
microcontroller:
1. 230 / 6 V Step-Down Transformer: It steps down the voltage to 6 V to
be used by our power Supply Circuit for the microcontroller as well as
the voltage offset circuit.
2. DiodeBridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier made of four diodes rectifies
the 6 V ac of the transformer secondary, i.e. only positive parts of the
signals i.e.dc.

81
 3. Smoothing Capacitor: A 1000uF 25 V smoothing capacitor smoothes
out the voltage coming from the bridge rectifier.
4. CD7805 Voltage Regulator: It eliminates any ripple present in the
voltage supply after the capacitor so that a maximum allowable ripple
of .005 Volts is present, i.e. the Output is close to pure dc suitable for
the sensitive microcontroller.
3.4.3. Arduino Due (Atmel SAM3X8E ARM Cortex-M3 CPU):

This is the microcontroller, which takes the analog voltage samples, at 20

samples for a cycle for 5 cycles and then estimates the harmonics using the
VLLMS algorithm implemented in C-language. The variables are printed to a
serial communication port which can be accessed / recorded from a computer
serial port monitoring software. These variables are then imported and plotted
in MATLAB.The experimental setup for implementing the proposed algorithm
is shown in Fig.3.12. The detailed circuit diagram of the experimental setup is
given in Fig.3.13

82
Fig.3.12. Experimental setup of Arduino Due Microcontroller based hardware for implementing the
proposed algorithm

Fig.3.13. Circuit Diagram of the Experimental setup

83
 A m p litu d e in v o lt.
400
Actual
300 Estimated
200

100

-100

-200

-300

-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.

Fig.3.14. Estimation of signal from real data

300
A m p litu d e in v o lt.

200

100

-100
Funda
-200 3rd
5th
-300 7th
11th
-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.

Fig.3.15. Estimation of Fundamental and other harmonic signals of real data

A m p litu d e in v o lt.

400
Funda
350 3rd
5th
300
7th
250 11th

200

150

100

50

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.

Fig.3.16. Estimation of Fundamental and other harmonics amplitudes of real data

84
P h a s e in d e g . 100

50

Funda
-50 3rd
5th
7th
11th
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.

Fig.3.17 Estimation of Fundamental and other harmonics phases of real data

Fig.3.14 presents the estimation accuracy of the proposed algorithm on

comparing the actual and estimated signal. After initial half cycle, actual real
generated signal and estimated signal closely match with each other. Fig.3.15
shows estimation of fundamental and other harmonics components of real
signal. Fig.3.16 and Fig.3.17 show the fundamental and other harmonics
amplitudes and phases of real generated signal using VLLMS algorithm.
Hence the obtained results are satisfactory for the application with real data.

85
3.5 Chapter Summary
This Chapter presents a VLLMS algorithm for accurate estimation of
amplitude and phase of the harmonic components of distorted power system
signal. The proposed method is based on applying a leak adjustment technique
so that drifting of parameters of the weight vectors is avoided. Since step size
is also updated in the proposed VLLMS algorithm, convergence of the
algorithm becomes faster. Improved harmonics estimation performance has
been achieved by using the VLLMS algorithm as compared to other two
existing methods such as RLS and LMS. Several computer simulation tests
have been conducted to estimate harmonics in a power system signal
corrupted with random noise and decaying dc offsets. The performance index
of estimation of VLLMS in case of distorted signal at 20 dB noise has been
found as 0.41 %. The above value is 0.1% for the case of experimental data.
These are the minimum value as compared to other estimation methods. The
simulation results in various cases of power system signal at SNR 20 dB and
experimental results show the robustness of the proposed VLLMS for
effective harmonic estimation.

86
 Chapter 4
Development of Hybrid Algorithms for Power System Harmonics
Estimation
4.1 Introduction

Estimation of harmonics of a distrubuted power system signal using different

signal processing technique such as RLS, LMS and VLLMS are discussed in
chapter 3. In order to achieve further improvement in computational time,
percentage error and tracking time in estimation, hybrid estimation algorithm
using both signal processing and optimization technique are presented in this
chapter.

In the estimation process of these hybrid technique, unknown parameters are

first estimated using MGA/BFO Algorithm, optimized output of MGA/BFO
are taken as initial value of unknown parameter for starting the estimation
using Kalman Filter Algorithm. The proposed hybrid estimation approaches
are verified in both simulation and Experimentation.

The difficulty in estimation of harmonics is due to the fact that harmonic

generating loads are dynamic in nature, which produces harmonics with time
varying amplitudes. Thus, fast methods of measuring and estimating harmonic
signals are required. BFO [38] ,[70]is applied by Mishra [74] to estimate the
harmonic components present in power system voltage/current waveforms.
BFO rests on a simple principle of the foraging (food searching) behavior of
E.Coli bacteria in human intestine. Dash et al. [121] applied a neural network
approach that is adaptive by Widow-hoff delta rule for the estimation of

87
harmonic components in a power system. The authors [121] [38] adjusted the
learning parameter of Adaline so that error between the actual and desired
output is minimized. In this context to tackle these problems, KF based
Bacterial Foraging Optimization (BFO) and Modified GA (MGA) are
presented in this chapter. Here in these techniques the power system signals
with harmonics are estimated using either BFO or MGA. Further KF is used to
update the weights adaptively so that the estimated output converges to the
desired output of the signal.

In this research work, two hybrid approaches of KF-MGA and KF-BFO are
proposed for the improvement in percentage error in estimation, processing
time in computation and performance in presence of inter and sub-harmonic
components. A comparative study of two proposed strategy for estimation of
harmonics in distorted power signals is made to show the superiority in
performance. A laboratory prototype is developed for generation of power
system data in order to validate the efficacies of the proposed algorithm

The chapter is organized as follows. Section 4.2 provides idea about power
system harmonic estimation problem. Section 4.3 gives the structure of two
hybrid estimation schemes applied to power system harmonics. Section 4.4
and 4.5 describes methods of individual KF-MGA and KF-BFO schemes for
harmonics estimation. Section 4.6 shows the simulated results for different
cases of harmonics estimation. Section 4.7 describes the experimental set-up
developed to validate the efficacy of the proposed algorithm. Section4. 8
conclude the chapter.

88
4.2 Power System Harmonics Estimation Problem

Negative effects of harmonics currents and voltages are signal interference,

over voltages, data loss and circuit breaker failure, as well as equipment
heating, malfunction and damage. Harmonics are responsible for introduction
of noise on telephone and data transmission lines, huge increases in computer
data loss, excessive heating in transformers and capacitors resulting in
shortened life or failure. Rotor heating and pulsating output torque caused by
harmonics can result in excessive motor heating and inefficiency. Let us
assume the voltage or current waveforms of the known fundamental angular
frequency  as the sum of harmonics of unknown magnitudes and phases

The general form of the waveform is

N
y (t )   An sin(n t + n ) + Adc exp(- dct ) +  (t ) (4.1)
n 1

Where, N is the number of harmonics  n  n 2f 0 ; f 0 is the fundamental

frequency; μ(t) is the additive Noise; Adc exp(- dc t ) is the probable d.c.

decaying Term.

The discrete time version of (4.1) can be represented as

N
y (k )   An sin(n kTs + n ) + Adc exp(- dc kTs ) +  (k ) (4.2)
n 1

Approximating decaying term using first two terms of Taylor series as

y dc  Adc - Adc dc kTs (4.3)
Now Eq.(4.2) becomes

89
 N
y (k )   An sin( n kTs + n ) + Adc - Adc dc kTs +  (k ) (4.4)
n 1

The nonlinearity arises in the model is due to phase of the sinusoids. From the
discrete signal

4.3 Structure of the Proposed KF-MGA or KF-BFO Hybrid

Estimation Scheme applied to Harmonic Estimation

Input Power system(plant)

Desired
Output
+
Optimize unknown Output of
parameters using MGA/BFO as _
MGA/BFO initial weight of Estimated
Output Error
KF

Weight updating
using KF

Fig 4.1 Structure of KF-MGA or KF-BFO estimation scheme

Fig. 4.1 shows the estimation scheme of proposed KF-MGA or KF-BFO

combined algorithm. First input signal is fed to either MGA or BFO algorithm.
Unknown parameters (weight vectors before initialization) are optimized
using any one of the said algorithm. Optimized output of MGA / BFO is taken
as the initial values of weights for KF algorithm. Then weights are updated
using the steps of KF algorithm. Fundamental as well as harmonic
components are estimated from final updated weights of KF. For estimation
amplitudes and phases, equation can be written as [4.4]

90
 (4.5)
N [An sin(nkTs) cosn + An cos(nkTs )sinn]
y( k )  
+ A - A  kT + (k )
n1 dc dc dc s

The discrete signal y (k ) can be modelled in state space form as

x (k + 1)   I  ( 2 N + 2 )( 2 N + 2 )
[ x1 (k ) x 2 (k ) ... x 2 N -1 (k ) x 2 N (k ) x 2 N +1 (k ) x 2 N + 2 (k )]T (4.6)

y ( k )  H (k ) x(k ) +  (k ) (4.7)

Where state transition matrix    I  ( 2 N + 2 )( 2 N + 2 ) (4.8)

Measurement matrix
H ( k )  [sin(1kTS ) cos(1kTS ) ... sin( N kTS ) cos( N kTS ) 1 - kTS ]T
(4.9)
And
x  [ A1 cos(1 ) A1 sin(1 ) ... An cos( n ) An sin( n ) Adc Adc dc ]T

(4.10)

The vector of unknown parameter can be updated as

x( k )  [ x1 (k ) x2 (k ) ... x2 N -1 (k ) x2 N ( k ) x2 N +1 (k ) x2 N + 2 (k )]T (4.11)

The optimized output of the unknown parameter using either MGA or BFO
algorithm is taken as the initial values of unknown parameter for estimation
using KF. The vector of unknown parameter can be updated as
 
x (k + 1)  x (k ) + K (k + 1) ( k + 1) (4.12)

91
 Error in measurement is

 (k + 1)  y (k + 1) - H (k + 1)T x (k ) (4.13)

The gain K is related with covariance of parameter vector

K (k + 1)  P( k ) H ( k + 1)[ H ( k + 1)T P( k ) H ( k + 1) + R ]-1 (4.14)

R is measurement noise covariance Rk at k th instant, R is initially taken as

100  [ I ]100100

Here the model relating the measurements to the states is obtained using the
first principle modeling. Deterministic behavior of the model is found from
this modeling. Based on this consideration process noise covariance is
neglected and so process noise covariance Q is taken as zero.

The updated covariance of parameter vector using matrix inversion

lemma

P( k + 1)  [ P( k ) - K ( k + 1) H ( k + 1)T P( k )] (4.15)
These equations are initialized by taking some initial values for the estimate at
instants k H(k)and P. As the choice of initial covariance matrix is large it is
taken P=αI where α is dc decaying parameters are derived as

An  ( x 22N + x 22N -1 )

(4.16)

 x 
 n  tan -1  2 N  (4.17)
 x 2 N -1 

92
Adc  x 2 N +1 (4.18)

x 
 dc   2 N + 2  (4.19)
 x 2 N +1 

Because

x  [ A1 cos(1 ) A1 sin(1 ) ... An cos( n ) An sin(n ) Adc Adc dc ]T

(4.20)

BFO or MGA is employed to optimize the initial weights x given in equation

(4.20) by minimizing the cost function as given below.

Ns Ns 
J (i, n, m, l )    2 (t )  [ y (t ) - y (t )]2 (4.21)
t 1 t 1

4.4Modified GA (MGA)
The following two modifications have been proposed Modification in parent
selection Modification in crossover mechanism

4.4.1 Parent Selection

Depending upon the values of fitness function, pairs of strings are selected
from the population pool at random for forming a mating pool. In a simple GA
approach this is termed as reproduction. And the strings are selected into the
mating pool by simple Roulette wheel selection. In this proposed algorithm,
the following modifications are applied for the selection of parents so that the
strings with large values of fitness are copied more into the mating pool.

93
The first parent in each reproduction is the string having the best fitness value.
The second parent is selected from the ordered population using normal
selection technique.

4.4.2Proposed Crossover
Crossover is an algorithm for artificial mating of two individual chromosomes
with an expectation that a combination of genes of individuals of high fitness
value may produce an offspring with even higher fitness. It represents a way
of moving in the solution space based on the information derived from the
existing solutions. This makes exploitation and exploration of information
encoded in genes.

In this proposed algorithm, the following modifications have been proposed

with an intuition to have better trade-off between exploration of unknown
solution space and exploitation of already known knowledge of solution to
find the global optimum in less number of generations. In this work, one point
crossover also called Holland crossover is adopted with a probability
Pc  0.6, 0.95 with modifications in exchange of chromosomal material In a
binary coded chromosome if the value of right most bits is changed
1  0, 0  1 , the search point in the search space shifts to a nearby point. This
helps in refining the optimum point in the already known search space. As one
proceeds towards the left from the right most bit of the chromosome, the
shifting of search point in the search space increases and it depends on the
position of the bit in the chromosome whose value is changed. The shifting is
highest with the change in the left most bit. This facilitates to explore new
region in the search space by shifting the search point wide apart from the
current optimum position in the search space.

94
Therefore, it is evident that the exploitation of already known region or
exploration of unknown region in the search space is relatively depending
upon the position of the bit in the chromosome whose value changes. In a
chromosome change in the bits towards the right from the middle position
contribute more towards the exploitation of already known region. Similarly,
change in the bits towards the left from the middle position contributes more
towards Exploration of new region in the search space. This is shown in the
Fig 4.2.

Middle Point

a7 a6 a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0

Exploration Exploitation

Fig.4.2 Example of Exploration and Exploitation in the Search Space

Thus the positional dependency of crossing site in respect of middle point of

the chromosome helps to maintain diversity of the search point as well as
improve the value of already known optimum value. Here the mechanism of
crossover is not same as that of one point crossover. In this proposed scheme,
the exchange of chromosomal material between two parents is made
considering the position of crossover site with respect to the midpoint of the
chromosome. If the crossover site falls towards the right of the midpoint of the
chromosome, the right side chromosomal material from the crossover site of
the fitter parent is replaced with that of other parent to form one offspring. If

95
 the crossover site falls towards the left of the middle position of the
chromosome, the left side chromosomal material from the crossover site of the
fitter parent is replaced with the other parent to form on offspring.

Fig.4.3 shows an example of crossover procedure. Thus by generating one

random number, only one offspring is produced by crossover. For each pair of
parent, two random numbers are generated to produce two offspring. The flow
chart of a modified GA for obtaining optimized unknown parameters (weight
vectors before initialization) is shown in Fig.4.3

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Filter 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Parent 1
Crossover
Site
Parent 2
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

Offspring 1 Offspring 2

Crossover site falls towards right Crossover site falls towards right of
of the Middle point the Middle point

Fig.4.3Example of Crossover

96
 Start

Randomly generate initial population

Simulate system and evaluate performance index

Select 2 chromosomes from the population using

Proposed GA

Perform crossover on the 2 chromosomes selected using

Proposed GA

Perform mutation on the chromosomes obtained

Replace these for the least fit chromosomes of the existing population

Yes
Check
Done
Convergence
No
No
Done Is gen<

MAX gen?
Yes
Gen = Gen+1

Fig.4.4 Flowchart for Optimal weight vector using Modified GA(MGA)

4.5BFO Algorithm

The survival of species in any natural evolutionary process depends upon their
fitness criteria, which relies upon their food searching (foraging) and motile
behavior. The E. coli bacteria that are present in our intestines have a foraging
strategy governed by four processes, namely, chemo taxis, swarming,

97
reproduction, and elimination and dispersal [178]

4.5.1 Chemotaxis
The characteristics of movement of bacteria in search of food can be defined
in two ways, i.e. swimming and tumbling together known as chemo taxis. A
bacterium is said to be ‘swimming’ if it moves in a predefined direction, and
‘tumbling’ if moving in an altogether different direction. Depending upon the
rotation of the flagella in each bacterium, it decides whether it should go for
swimming or for tumbling, in the entire lifetime of the bacterium.

4.5.2 Swarming
For the bacteria to reach at the richest food location (i.e. for the algorithm to
converge at the solution point), it is desired that the optimum bacterium till a
point of time in the search period should try to attract other bacteria so that
together they converge at the solution point more rapidly. This can be
achieved by using a penalty function based upon the relative distances of each
bacterium from the fittest bacterium.

4.5.3. Reproduction
The original set of bacteria, after getting evolved through several chemotactic
stages reach the reproduction stage. Here, the best set of bacteria gets divided
into two groups. The healthier half replaces the other half of bacteria, which
gets eliminated, owing to their poorer foraging abilities. This makes the
population of bacteria constant in the evolution process.

4.5.4. Elimination and Dispersal

In the evolution process a sudden unforeseen event can occur, which may
drastically alter the smooth process of evolution and cause the elimination of

98
the set of bacteria and/or disperse them to a new environment. Most ironically,
instead of disturbing the usual chemo tactic growth of the set of bacteria, this
unknown event may place a newer set of bacteria nearer to the food location.

4.6 Proposed BFO Algorithm

1. Initialization of BFO Parameter

2. Elimination-dispersal loop: l=l+1
3. Reproduction loop: m=m+1
4. Chemo taxis loop: n=n+1
a) For i=1,2,….S
Compute value of cost function J(I,n,m,l)


J    2  t    Y  t  - Yˆ (t ) 
Ns Ns 2

t 1 t 1

Let J SW (i, n, m, l , )  J (i, n, m, l ) + J cc ( x i (n, m, l ), P(n, m, l ))(i.e., add on the cell-to-

cell attractant effect for swimming behavior).Where
S i S
  P

J cc ( x, P (n, m, l ))   J cc ( x, x i (n, m, l ))   - d attract exp -  attract  ( x m - x i m ) 2 
i 1 i 1   m 1 
S
 P

+  hrepellant exp(- repellant  ( x m - x i m ) 2 
i 1  m 1 

J last  J SW (i, n, m, l )

End of for loop

b) For i  1,2...S take the tumbling /swimming decision

. Tumble
Generate a random vector  (i ), on - 1,1

c) Update parameter
 (i )
x i (n + 1, m, l )  x i (n, m, l ) + u  C (i )
 (i ) (i )
T

99
This results in an adaptable step size in the direction of tumble for set of
solution of parameter i

d) If minimum (J) is less than tolerance limit then break all the loops.
5. If J  N C , go to 4, In this case continue Chemot axis since the life of
bacteria is not over.
6. Reproduction
a) For the given m and l ,and for each i=1,2,3…..S,
N C +1

Let J health  J
j 1
SW (i, n, m, l )

Sort parameter in ascending J health

b) S r  S / 2 no.of set parameter with highest J health will be removed and
other S r no. of set of parameters with the best value split
7. If m  N rs go to 3, In this case ,Specified reproduction steps is not
reached ,so start the next generation in the chemo tactic loop.
8. Elimination dispersal

For i=1,2,…..S, with probability Ped ,eliminate and disperse each set of
parameters

9. Obtained Optimized values for weights (parameter)

100
 Start Y
Z

Cost functionJ(i,j)
Initialize Initialize
unknown para of
Variables
KF as output
ofBFO

No
Elimination and Dispersal J(i,j)<J(i,j-
Loop Counter E=E+1 1) Update
unknown
i=i+1 parameters
Yes using KF
Yes

E>Ned Swim, Yes

SL=SL+1
Z N<Nf
No
No
Reproduction Loop SL<Ns No
Counter R=R+1

Yes Yes Tumble

R>Nre No
i>S
No

Yes Determine Ampl. and

Chemotactic loop phase from updated
X Counter, K=K+1 X unknowns

Yes
End
K>Nc

No

101
 Fig.4.5. Flow chart of KF-BFO Algorithm

Fig 4.5 describes the proposed KF-BFO estimation scheme. This algorithm
has two distinct parts, in first part BFO is applied to optimize the unknown
parameters and in second part optimized output of BFO is again updated using
KF algorithm. As a result the error between the desired and the estimated
output is minimized.

4.7 Simulation Results and Discussion

4.7.1 Static signal corrupted with random noise and decaying DC component.
The power system signal corrupted with random noise and decaying DC
component is taken. The signal used for the estimation, besides the
fundamental frequency, contains higher harmonics of the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 11th
and a slowly decaying DC component. This kind of signal is typical in
industrial load comprising power electronic converters and arc furnaces.

y (t )  1.5 sin(t + 80 0 ) + 0.5 sin(3t + 60 0 ) + 0.2 sin(5t + 450 )

+ 0.15 sin(7t + 36 0 ) + 0.1 sin(11t + 300 ) + 0.5 exp(-5t ) +  (t ) (4.21)

The signal is corrupted by random noise having normal distribution with zero
mean and unity variance. In the simulation work, in harmonics estimation, the
values of different parameters taken during both simulation and
experimentation work are given in Table 1. The no. of parameters to be
optimized, =12 (without inter and sub- harmonics case), =18 (with inter and
sub-harmonics case) are taken. During simulation, an initial value of
Measurement noise covariance is taken as and process noise covariance is
taken as zero. Where is an identity matrix. The Genetic Algorithm parameters
used in the present research work are tabulated in

102
Table 4.1 Values of parameters used for simulation and experimental work employing BFO

S P NS NC Nre Ned Ped C(I) dattract Wattract hrenellent Wrenellent

100 12,18 3 5 10 10 0.25 0.001 0.05 0.3 0.05 10
Table – 4.2GA Parameters

Population Maximum no. of Crossover probability Mutation

size generations (Max. Probability

Gen.)
100 40 0.6 0.01
Ampl., P .U.

2
KF-BFO
1.5 KF-MGA

1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
Ampl., P .U.

0.6
KF-BFO
0.5 KF-MGA

0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
Ampl., P .U.

0.25
KF-BFO
0.2 KF-MGA

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.

Fig.4.6 Estimation of amplitude of Fundamental 3rd,5th harmonics

103
 0.16
A m pl., P .U .
0.155

0.15

0.145 KF-BFO
KF-MGA

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.

0.12
A m pl., P .U .

KF-BFO
KF-MGA
0.11

0.1

0.09
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.

Fig. 4.7 Estimation of amplitude of 7th and 11th harmonics

P hase,deg.

82
KF-BFO
80 KF-MGA

78
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
P hase,deg.

65
KF-BFO
60 KF-MGA

55
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
P hase,deg.

50
KF-BFO
45 KF-MGA

40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.

Fig. 4.8 Estimation of phase of Fundamental, 3rd and 5th harmonics

104
Figures 4.6 and 4.7 compare the estimation of fundamental, 3 rd, 5th, 7th and
11th harmonics components of signal respectively using both KF-BFO and KF-
MGA algorithms. Comparison shows that KF-MGA outperforms over KF-
BFO in each case of estimation. Figures 4.8 show a comparative estimation of
phases of fundamental, 3rd and 5th, harmonics components signal using both
KF-BFO and KF-MGA algorithms. KF-MGA gives more correct estimation
compared to KF-BFO in this Figure 4.9.

1.2
KF-BFO
KF-MGA
1

0.8
MSE

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Sample No.

Fig.4.9 Comparison of MSE in estimation of signal

Fig.4.9 shows the comparative estimation of Mean Square Error (MSE) of

signal using the two algorithms. From the figure, it is found that, MSE
performance in case of KF-MGA is comparatively better than KF-BFO

Table 4.3 compares the simulation results obtained by the proposed KF-MGA
algorithm with KF-BFO, Genetic Algorithm (GA) and BFO [70]. The final
harmonics parameters obtained with the proposed approach exhibit the best
estimation precision where the largest amplitude deviation is 2.6 occurred at
the 11th harmonics estimation and the largest phase angle deviation is 1.5358 0

105
occurred at the 3rd harmonics estimation. The computational time of estimation
using KF-MGA is the smallest (8.642 sec.) compared to other three algorithm

Table 4.3 Comparative assessment of Harmonic Estimation

Methods Parameter Fundamental 3rd 5th 7th 11th Comp

Time(s)
Actual F(Hz) 50 150 250 350 550
A(V) 1.5 0.5 0.2 0.15 0.1
Ø(0) 80 60 45 36 30
A(v) 1.476 0.487 0.182 0.157 0.0945
GA Deviation (%) 1.6 2.6 9 4.6 5.5
Ø(0) 80.58 62.46 47.05 34.36 26.9 15.425
Deviation (0) 0.58 2.46 2.05 1.64 3.1
A(v) 1.488 0.512 0.1947 0.1568 0.1044
BFO Deviation (%) 1.8 2.4 2.65 4.53 4.4
10.458
Ø(0) 80.47 57.9 45.83 34.46 29.12
Deviation(0) 0.47 2.1 0.83 1.54 0.88

A(v) 1.485 0. 51 0.195 0.1536 0.1036

KF- Deviation (%) 1 2 2.5 2.4 3.6
BFO 10.562
Ø(0) 80.44 58.2 45.78 34.62 29.324
Deviation 0.44 1.8 0.78 1. 38 0.676

A (V) 1.494 0.4973 0.2026 0.1535 0.0974

KF- Deviation () 0.4 0.54 1.3 2.3 2.6
MGA () 80.3644 58.4642 45.7342 34.7245 29.4436 8.642
Deviation () 0.3644 1.5358 0.7342 1.2755 0.5564
4.7.2 Harmonics Estimation of Signal in presence of inter and sub-
harmonics
To evaluate the performance of the KF-MGA algorithm in the estimation of a
signal in the presence of sub-harmonics and inter-harmonics, a sub-harmonic
and two inter-harmonics components are added to the original signal. The

106
frequency of sub- harmonic is 20 Hz, the amplitude is set to be 0.505 p.u. and
the phase is equal to 75 degrees. The frequency, amplitude and phase of one of
the inter-harmonic is 130 Hz, 0.25p.u. and 65 degrees respectively. The
frequency, amplitude and phase of the other inter-harmonic is 180 Hz, 0.35p.u.
and 20 degrees respectively.

0.6
Ampl., P.U.

0.5 KF-BFO
KF-MGA
0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.4
Ampl., P.U.

KF-BFO
0.3 KF-MGA

0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.4
Ampl., P.U.

KF-BFO
0.35 KF-MGA

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.

Fig.4.10 Estimation of amplitudes of a sub-harmonic and two inter-harmonics

Fig.4.10 shows the estimation of amplitudes of a sub-harmonic and two inter-

harmonics using the two algorithms. Using KF-MGA, the estimation is very
much perfect with most of the sample converge towards the reference value in
each case of estimation.

In the simulation studies the performance index  is estimated by

107
 N 
 ( y (k ) - y (k )) 2

  k 1
N
 100
 y (k )
k 1
2


Where y (k ) and y (k ) are actual and estimated signals, respectively. In this
case, the significance of the performance index  is that it provides the
accuracy of the estimation algorithm. Small value of  corresponds to more
accurate estimation and vice versa.

Table 4.4 Comparision of Performance Index

SNR GA BFO KF-BFO KF-

MGA
No noise 0.1564 0.1186 0.1062 0.0894
40dB 0.1754 0.1372 0.1146 0.0985
20dB 1.2056 0.8071 0.8032 0.7936
10dB 10.4386 5.2556 5.1634 4.6384

4.8 Experimental Validation

In view of real time application of the algorithm for estimating harmonics in a
power system, data is obtained in a laboratory environment on running a DG
set on normal working day of the laboratory as per the experimental setup
shown in Fig. 4.11.

i) D-G set:(a) Alternator-3 phase, 50 Hz, Y connected, 415 volt, 1500

rpm, 55.8 A, 40 KVA (b)Diesel Engine- Borestroke=110116, 37.2
KW, 1500 rpm

108
 ii) Rheostats: 100 ohm, 5 A (3 in no.)
iii) Non-linear load: 3 Phase diode bridge rectifier with a 10  resistor
in series with a 120mH inductor at the d.c side.
iv) Digital Storage Oscilloscope: Band Width-200MHz, Sample rate-
2GS/s, Channels-2, Record length-2500 data points, PC
Connectivity- USB Port and Open Choice PC Communication
software, Probe-P2220
v) PC: 1.46 GHz CPU and 1GB RAM, Notebook PC

The waveform is stored in a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (Tektronix Ltd.)

across almost 10-ohm resistance (measured using multi-meter) and then
through Open Choice PC Communication software, data is acquired to the
personal computer. In Experimental validation, the sampling rate of 25 kHz is
taken and there are 600 samples used for harmonics estimation using KF-BFO
and KF-MGA. Fig. 4.12 shows the estimation of voltage signal
using KF-BFO and KF-MGA algorithms from the real data
obtained from the experiment. In the said Fig., the estimated
waveform approaches the actual waveform over the cycle,
having more accuracy in estimation in case of KF-MGA as
compared to KF-BFO.

109
 Rheostat
415 V Rectifier Load
100, 5A (Three Phase
1500 rpm
DiodeBridge)
DG Set

Digital Storage PC (1.46 GHz, 1 GB RAM) with

Oscilloscope (200 PC Communication software
MHz)

Fig. 4.11Experimental setup for online data generation

20
actual
15 KF-BFO
KF-MGA
Amplitude in volt.

10

-5

-10

-15

-20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Sample No.

Fig. 4.12 Estimation of signal from real data

The performance of the proposed hybrid algorithm is very much dependent on

the initial choice of maximum and minimum value of unknown parameters
taken. In this work, maximum and minimum values as 20% deviation from

110
their actual values were taken. By using an optimal choice of parameters of
the algorithms, faster convergence towards the actual value of signal
parameter can be achieved. Both the algorithms track the fundamental and
harmonic signals very well with the performance of tracking using KF-MGA
is better than KF-BFO but both the methods can be used for online and offline
estimation.

4.9 Chapter Summary

This chapter presents two new hybrid algorithms which can accurately
estimate the amplitudes and phases of the fundamental as well as harmonic
components contained in a power system signal contaminated with noise. In
the estimation process, the algorithms first apply MGA/BFO to estimate the
unknown parameters used for determining amplitudes and phases. Then final
amplitudes and phases of fundamental and harmonics components are
estimated after updating the unknown parameter using KF algorithm. Due to
the hybridization of the KF algorithm with optimization algorithms such as
MGA and BFO, it is found that there is improvement in percentage error in
estimation, processing time in computation and performance in presence of
inter and sub-harmonic components in power system signal. Experimental
results obtained from laboratory prototype setup also prove the efficacy of the
proposed KF-MGA algorithm as compared to KF-BFO algorithm.

111
 Chapter 5
Development of Control Strategies for Harmonics Elimination using
Shunt Active Power Filter
5.1 Introduction
In recent decades, there are many studies about the issue of Harmonics and its
mitigation technique in power system. Due to the Vast application of non
linear load such as Ballasts used in Fluorescent tubes, static power converters,
AC voltage governors (low power) used for light dimmers and small induction
motors correct phase angle, Metal diminution operation, HVDC utilize large
power converters, Switch mode power supplies(SMPS), small uninterruptible
power supplies(UPS) units, Three phase loads (Variable speed drives, ,Large
UPS Units) etc, causes harmonics in the distribution system [97-98][120] and
the harmonics currents causes over heating of transformer, over loading of
neutral, un necessary tripping of circuit breaker, over-stressing of power factor
correction capacitors, skin effects etc. [100], and hampers the quality of
power, So the improvement of power quality is necessary at the present age.
Initially Passive filters, capacitors banks are used for harmonic elimination
and power factor improvement respectively. But it has associated with some
disadvantages like large size, bulky nature, resonance phenomenon etc. To
overcome this disadvantages power engineers developed several types of APF
[100][122]. A brief discussion of several types harmonics filter used for
harmonics mitigation and its principle of operation discussed here.
5.2Types of Harmonics Filter

112
The power system needs harmonics filter to avoid the harmonics and to
increase the system efficiency. Harmonics filters are mainly classified in to
three types.
1. Passive filter
2. Active filter
3. Hybrid filter

5.2.1 Passive filters:

The main constituents to form passive filters are Capacitor, inductor and/or
resistor. The passive filters are mainly classified into two types.

(i) Tuned filters

(ii) High pass filters.

Tuned filters:

To filter out the particular harmonics frequency from the system Tuned filters

are used

Fig.5.1. A single tuned Filter

Series connection of a capacitor, an inductor, a resistor and a separate out

single frequency harmonic form the structure of single tuned filter shown in
Fig.5.1, providing low impedance path to two harmonic frequencies is the
main properties of a double tuned filter and it has associated with the

113
advantage of low loss at the lower frequencies. A double tuned filter is shown
in fig.5.2.

Fig.5.2. Double tuned filter

High pass filter: High pass filter posses the characteristics of offering low

impedance path to all the high frequencies.

Fig.5.3 High pass filter

114
Fig. 5.4 shows a C-type high pass filter in which a capacitor is connected in

series with the inductor to provide low impedance path for low frequencies.

It helps to reduce the loss at low frequencies.

Fig.5.4 C-type high pass filter

Passive filters are connected in parallel with nonlinear loads such as

diode/thyristor rectifiers, ac electric arc furnaces, and so on. Among them, the
combination of four single-tuned filters to the fifth, seventh, 11th and 13th-
harmonic frequencies and a second-order high-pass filter tuned around the
17th-harmonic frequency has been used in a high-power three-phase thyristor
rectifier. The drawback of passive filters is that they create resonance
condition at particular frequencies they are intended to work for. This raises
the magnitude of harmonic voltages at that particular frequency.

115
5.2.2 Active Power Filter :

Pure active filters can be classified into two types according to their circuit

configuration

I. Shunt (parallel) active filters

II. Series active filters

5.2.2.1 Shunt (parallel) active filters

Fig.5.5. Schematic diagram of a shunt active filter

Shunt APF is connected in parallel at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) in

between source and nonlinear load. Main function of shunt APF design is to
compensate current harmonics caused by nonlinear load by supplying equal
amount of harmonics at PCC but with opposite polarity. Block diagram of
shunt APF is shown in Fig.5.5. Active filter is an inverter with some
controllable switches. A voltage source inverter (VSI) or a current source
inverter (CSI) can be used as an active power filter.

116
In CSI based APF, a CSI is connected at PCC through second order low pass
filter made up of LF and CF as shown in Fig. 5.6. Current source of the inverter
is replaced by a high DC side inductor [123]. In CSI all the semiconductor
switches must support unipolar current and bipolar voltage. Earlier researchers
were using Gate Turn-Off (GTO) thyristor with reverse blocking capabilities.
But recently to enhance research on CSI, Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) with a series diode is used.

Fig.5.6 Block diagram of VSI based shunt active power filter

Fig.5.7 Block diagram of VSI based shunt active power filter

In VSI the AC side of the inverter is connected at PCC through a coupling

inductor. In the DC side of VSI, DC source of inverter can be replaced by a

117
large capacitor as there is no resistive element used in the AC side of the
inverter. As all the circuit elements are not ideal, to overcome the internal
resistance of the circuit elements some steps should be taken while using VSI
as APF. All switches must support bipolar current and unipolar voltage. So
semiconductor switches with anti-parallel diode are generally used. Block
diagram of VSI based shunt APF is shown in Fig. 5.7

Coming into the benefits and drawbacks of both VSI and CSI based shunt
APF, CSI fed APF is very efficient in low power conditions. But it is
comparatively heavier than the VSI fed APF. Also CSI fed APF has high DC
link losses due to use large inductor in the DC side of CSI. The major
drawback associated with VSI fed APF is that there is switching ripple in the
source current after compensation. There is no such significant difference in
harmonic compensation characteristics of both VSI and CSI fed APF. But
considering ease of implementation of VSI fed APF, its performance
development is considered in this thesis.

5.2.2.2 Series active filter circuit configuration

The series active filter is series connected with the power supply. This filter
controls on the basis of “Feedback” manner. The block diagram of a series
active power filter is shown in the fig.5.8.

118
 Fig.5.8. Schematic diagram of series active filter

5.2.3 Hybrid Filters

Hybrid filters are based on the combination of active filters and passive filters.
Such a combination with the passive filter makes it possible to significantly
reduce the rating of the active filter. The task of the active filter is not to
compensate for harmonic currents produced by the thyristor rectifier, but to
achieve “harmonic isolation” between the supply and the load As a result, no
harmonic resonance occurs, and no harmonic current flows in the supply.
Series connection of active filter and passive filter to form a hybrid filter is
shown in the Fig.5.9 and series connection of active filter and shunt passive
filter is shown in Fig.5.10. To provide viable and effective solutions to
harmonic filtering of high-power rectifiers However, they have difficulty in
finding a good market because of the necessity of the transformer and the
complexity of the passive filter. A schematic diagram of the Harmonics
mitigation filter and principle operation of Shunt active power filter is shown
in the Fig.5.11 and Fig.5.12 respectively.

119
 Fig.5.9 Series connection of an active filter and a passive filter

Fig. 5.10 Combination of series active filter and shunt passive filter

120
 Harmonics Mitigation Filter

Low pass Filter Active power filter

Series APF Hybrid APF

Tuned Filter High Pass Filter

C-Type High
pass filter
Shunt APF
Single Tuned Double Tuned

Current Source Inverter Voltage Source Inverter

Combination Combination Combination

APF in
Of Shunt OfSeries Of Shunt
Series with
APF and APF and APF and
Shunt PF
Series APF Shunt APF Shunt APF

Fig.5.11 Schematic diagram of Harmonics mitigation filter classification

121
 1-Phase or 3- Interfacing Inductor/Transformer Non linear load
Phase Supply

System Variable
Power Circuit Interference
Detection

Getting Signal Generator

Reference
Over all System Controller
Signal
Estimator

Fig 5.12 Generalised block diagram of APF

The basic principle of APF is to utilise power electronics technologies to

produce specific currents components that cancel the harmonic currents
components caused by the nonlinear loads.Fig.5.12 shows the components of
a typical APF system and their connections. The information regarding the
harmonic currents and other system variables are passed to the compensation
current/voltage reference signal estimator. The compensation reference signal
from the estimator drives the overall system controller. This in turn provides
the control for the gating signal generator. The output of the gating signal
generator controls the power circuit via a suitable interface. Finally, the power
circuit in the generalised block diagram can be connected in parallel, series or
parallel/series configurations depending on the interfacing
inductor/transformer used.

122
In this Chapter, First a novel controller that uses an indirect current controller
in conjunction with Proptional Integral (PI) controller or Fuzzy Logic
Controller (FLC) with different fuzzy rule has been adapted.The indirect
current controller with FLC is used to estimate peak reference current besides
maintaining the DC side capacitor voltage of the inverter nearly
constant.Current Controller based pulse width modulation (CCPWM) is used
to generate the switching signals of voltage source inverter.A two-level
Hysteresis Current Control (HCC) in conjuction with synchronous detection
technique is applied to SAPF in a three-phase distribution system. In order to
mitigate harmonics produced by the nonlinear load connected in a three-phase
distribution system, a three-phase insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
based current controlled voltage source inverter (CC VSI) with a dc bus
capacitor is used as an Active Power Filter. The first step is to calculate SAPF
reference currents from the sensed nonlinear load currents by applying the
synchronous detection method and then the reference currents are fed to the
proposed controller for generation of switching signals. Various simulation
results are presented to verify the good behavior of the SAPF with proposed
two levels HCC. For verification of Shunt Active Power Filter in real time, the
proposed control algorithm has been implemented in laboratory developed
setup in dSPACE platform

123
5.3 Proposed Shunt Active Filter For Single Phase System

D2
Ls D1

source

D4
D3

Fig.5.13 Proposed Shunt active Power Filter

The basic components of a shunt active power filter are a single-phase full-
bridge voltage-source PWM Inverter, a DC bus Capacitor and an Inductor
.The Inverter is connected to the power supply network through the inductance
of the inductor which ensures first the controllability of the currents in the
active filter and secondly it acts as a first-order passive filter attenuating high
frequency ripples generated by the inverter. The proposed model for our work
is given in Figure 5.13 and the magnitude of the parameters associated with
the proposed filter is given in Table 5.1.The SPSAPF is connected parallel
with the single phase line where the non –linear load is connected, due to the
non-linearity behaviour of the load harmonics are generated in the system and
the filter cancels the effect of harmonics by generating the same magnitude of
harmonics current but having opposite phase with it.

124
5.4 Control Strategy applied to shunt active filters
The Controller is the most important part of the active power filter and
recently a lot of research is being conducted in this area[99], [102],
[105.Conventional PI and proportional integral derivative (PID) Controllers
have been used to estimate the peak reference currents and control the DC
Capacitor voltage of the inverter. Mostly a Proportional- Integral (PI)
controller is used to control the DC link capacitor voltage as well as to
estimate peak value of reference source current for both single phase and three
phases APF [103-105],[110]. When the Source supplies a non-linear or
reactive load it is expected to supply only the active fundamental component
of the load current and the compensator supplies the harmonics or reactive
component. The outer capacitor voltage loop will try to maintain the capacitor
voltage nearly constant which is also a mandatory condition for the successful
operation of the active power filter. The System losses are provided by the
source in steady state. The Compensator supplies the harmonics power, which
manifests itself only on the reactive component of power, however the
conventional PI Controller requires precise linear mathematical model of the
system which is difficult to obtain under parameter variations and non-linear
load disturbance. Another drawback of the system is that the proportional and
integral gains are chosen heuristically [111].To overcome the demerits
associated with PI Controller, recently fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is
developed to use as controller for many power electronics system and active
power filter application [106-108].

5.4.1 Reference source current generation

125
Generation of Reference source current is very much essential to operate the
Acyive power filter Sucessufully. Two methods namely time domain and
frequencydomain has been adopted by several researchers for reference
current generation [110].

V*dc

Sin θs +
PI or Fuzzy
Logic Vdc
Controller
-

+
i*
Multiplier Low pass filter 2 Multiplier s

iL
+

Triangular Wave

-
S1
i*
s
Not S4
+
Current Control Limiter
- S3
+ -1
- Not S2
+

is

Fig. 5.14 Block Diagram of Control Mechanism

The frequency domain methods include, Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT),

Fast FourierTransform (FFT), sliding DFT (SDFT) and Recursive Discrete
FourierTransform (RDFT) based methods. The frequencydomain methods
require large memory and computation power .On theother hand, the time
domain methods require less calculation and are widely followed for

126
computingthe reference current. Mostly used timedomain methods are
synchronous reference (d-q-0) theory, instantaneous real-reactive power (p-q)
theory [109], Multiplication with sine function [108] etc. The systematic steps
adopted for indirect control technique in conjunction with PI controller and
Fuzzy Logic Controller used for Extraction of current references shown in the
fig.5.14.

Let us assume that the load current is expressed by the equation


I L   S    I Lh .Sin h S - h  (5.1)
h 1

This equation can be written in


I L ( S )  I L .Sin( S - h ) +  I Lh .Sin( h s - h )
h2

(5.2)

Now we can see that the load current consists of two parts Fundamental load
current and load current with harmonics again the fundamental load current
consists of two parts

I L  S   I Lf + I Lh (5.3)
I Lf =Fundamental Part of the Load current,
I Lh = Harmonic Part of the Load Current,
I Lf Consists of two parts i,e active part and reactive part

I Lf  I Lfa + I Lfr (5.4)

I Lfa , I Lfr Active
current and Reactive current component of fundamental
Signal respectively

127
The Fundamental active Current

I Lfa  I L1Cos1Sin S (5.5)

The fundamental Reactive current
I Lfr  I L1Sin1Cos S (5.6)
For cancellation of harmonics and Compensation of Reactive power, we chose
the reference current I S which is equals to the fundamental active current
I Lfa

I S  I Lfa  I L -  I Lh + I Lfr  (5.7)

For filtering the load current the active component of fundamental current is
transformed into the DC component. Which we can able to get by multiplying
“sin ϴS” both sides of equation-5.2

I L ( S )Sin S  I L1 / 2.Cos1 - I L1 / Cos(2 s - 1) + Sin S +  I Lh.Sin(h S - h ) (5.8)
h2

The filtered output current therefore given by

I L  ( Sin S ) filtered  I Lf  I L1/ 2  Cos1 (5.9)

The design of dc bus voltage Vdc is used in control loop and should be
regulated at a set Value Vdcref .The dc side capacitor voltage is sensed, then
compared with a reference value .The signal error of comparison between the
sensed voltage ( Vdc ) and its reference ( Vdcref ) is the input signal of the fuzzy
regulator.The output of this regulator is considered as the peak value of line
current ( I SMax ).

128
5.4.2 PI Controller
A Proportional- Integral (PI) controller is used to control the DC link capacitor
voltage as well as to estimate peak value of reference source current for the
proposed Shunt active power filter (SAPF). The DC side capacitor voltage is
sensed and compared with a reference voltage. This error e  Vdc , ref - Vdc at the
nth sampling instant is used as input for PI controller. The error signal is
passed through Butterworth design based Low Pass Filter (LPF). The LPF
filter has cutoff frequency at 50 Hz that can suppress the higher order
components and allows only fundamental components. Its transfer function is
represented as H  S   K P + K I / S , where, K P is the proportional constant that
determines the dynamic response of the Dc-side voltage control and KI is the
integration constant that determines the settling time. The steady state error in
the DC-side voltage is eliminated by the Controller.

5.4.3 Fuzzy logic controller

Fuzzy logic control is derived from fuzzy set theory introduced by Zadeh in
1965. It is one of the soft computing tools that can take automatic decisions
like human beings. In order to implement the control algorithm of a shunt
active filter in closed loop, the dc side capacitor voltage is sensed and then
compared with a reference value.

The obtained error ( e  Vdcref - Vdc ) and Change of error signal

ce( n)  e( n) - e( n - 1) at the nth sampling instant are used as input for the fuzzy
processing. The output of the fuzzy controller after a limit is considered as the
amplitude of the reference current I S max .
For controlling the DC voltage fuzzy logic based controller has been adopted
for our work, Shunt active power filter dc bus capacitor voltage is an

129
Important parameter to be controlled, if this control is not done
properly,source current will deteriorate and lapse from sinusoidal wave form
and affect the system seriosely, Since fuzzy control rules are derived from a
heuristic knowledge of system behaviour,[106], [107] Mathematical modelling
and complex computation are not needed,[128], [140] Simplicity of fuzzy
control is based on using human like linguistic terms in the form of IF-THEN
rules to capture the non-system dynamics,[140] The fuzzy logic controller
which is used to regulate the dc bus capacitor voltage is sensed using a voltage
sensor and compared with the set reference voltage (v dc Ref),Input variables
of the fuzzy controller are capacitor voltage error (e),and change in voltage
error (∆e) at the kth sampling time, The rule table for the designed fuzzy
controller is given in the Table 5.1&5.2 respectively, which is used in our
works followed by [160]. For two inputs we took seven membership
functions, derived 49 rules and for the same two inputs we took five
membership functions and derived 25 rules. The block diagram of the
systematic operation of Fuzzy Logic Controller is shown in the Fig.5.15.

Knowledge Base Rule Base

Reference
Output
e Fuzzification Inference Defuzzification Plant

Sensor

Fig. 5.14 Block Diagram of Systematic operation of Fuzzy Logic Controller

Below Figures 5.15-5.17 shows the Input variable, Input variable error, output
variable and fuzzy structure for 7/7 rule

130
 Fig5.15 7/7 input variable

Fig 5.16 7/7 input variable error

Fig.5.17 7/7 Output variable

The Rules are manipulated as follows

131
Table 5.1 Fuzzy rule base for voltage control (7/7)

∆
e NB NM NS ZE PS PM PB
e
NB PB PB PM PM PS PS ZE
NM PB PM PM PS PS ZE NS
NS PM PM PS PS ZE NS NS
ZE PM PS PS ZE NS NS NM
PS PS PS ZE NS NS NM NM
PM PS ZE NS NS NM NM NB
PB ZE NS NS NM NM NB NB
Below Figures 5.18-5.20 shows the Input variable, Input variable error, output
variable of fuzzy structure for 5/5 rule.

Fig.5.18 5/5 input variable

Fig.5.19 5/5 input variable error

132
 Fig.5.20 5/5 Output variable error
Table 5.2 Fuzzy rule base for voltage control (5/5)

∆ NB NS ZE PS PB
e
e
NB NB NB NB NS ZE
NS NB NB NS ZE PS
ZE NB NS ZE PS PB
PS NS ZE PS PB PB
PB ZE PS PB PB PB

5.5 Simulation Results of The Proposed Shunt Active Power Filter

This section presents the details of the simulation carried out to demonstrate
the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy of the shunt active filter for
harmonics elimination and reactive power compensation, the test system
consists of a single-phase supply connected to a non-linear load with series
RL, SPSAPF is connected to the test system through an inductor L, the values
of the circuit elements used in simulations are given in Table 5.1.
MATLAB/SIMULINK is used to simulate the test system and the proposed
active filters. The simulation was conducted under three different conditions

133
that is Without APF, with Hysteresis current control and hysteresis fuzzy
combined control along with different fuzzy rule,the Comprehensive
simulation results are presented below.

Table 5.3 Simulation Parameter of single phase system

Sl no Circuit Element Values

1 Nominal Frequency 50Hz
2 Source Voltage 230V/440V
3 DC-Link Capacitor 1000 µF
4 Capacitor Voltage 350V
5 Filter Inductance 1 mH
6 Line Impedance 3Ω, 0.010H

5.5.1 Results without active power filter

The non-linear load is connect to the single phase supply and the simulation
results obtained is shown in Fig.5.21 and the corresponding FFT analysis

134
shown in Fig.5.22, THD Without Active filter is 23.6% of fundamental. The
load current and

40
Il(A m p)

20

-20

-40
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

200

100
V s(V olt)

-100

-200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time in Sec
Fig.5. 21 without active power filter

Fig.5. 22 FFT analysis of Source Current without active power filter

5.5.2 Simulation results of shunt active power filter with PI current

control

135
The load current I L , Source current IS and Supply voltage VS are shown in
Fig.5.23.The harmonic spectra of the supply current of shunt active filter with
hysteresis current control technique is shown in Fig.5.24, the THD is reduced
from 20.64% to 7.63%.

20
il [A ]

-20

40 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

20
is [A ]

-20

-40
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]

-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]

Fig.5.23 SAPF with PI current control

Fig.5.24 FFT Analysis of source current of SAPF with PI current control

5.5.3 Simulation results of shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) with Fuzzy
Logic control technique with 5/5 Fuzzy Rule

136
The load current I L , Source current IS and Supply voltage VS are shown in
Fig.5.25.The harmonic spectra of the supply current of shunt active filter with
fuzzy hysteresis combined current control technique along with 5/5 fuzzy rule
is shown in Fig.5.26, The THD is reduced from 20.64% to 5.24%.

20
il [A ]

-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

20
is [A ]

-20

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]

-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]

Fig.5.25 SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller (5/5) Rule

Fig.5.26 FFT Analysis of Source current of the simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller
(5/5) rule

5.5.4 Simulation results of shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) with hysteresis
fuzzy combined control technique (7/7) fuzzy rule.

137
The load current I L , Compensating current IC , Supply current IS and Supply
voltage VS are shown in Fig.5.27.The harmonic spectra of the supply current
of shunt active filter with fuzzy hysteresis combined current control technique
along with 7/7 fuzzy rule is shown in Fig.5.28, The THD is reduced from
23.6% to 1.48%.

20
il [A ]

-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
20
is [A ]

-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]

-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]

Fig.5.27 Simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller (7/7) Rule

Fig.5.28 FFT Analysis of Source current of the simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller
(7/7) Rule
Table 5.4: Comparison of THD reduction for each order of harmonics

Harmonic Without APF SAPF With SAPF with SAPF with

Order PI Control FLC (5/5) FLC (7/7)

138
 Rule Rule
rd
3 3.7644 1.896 0.8484 0.1849

5th 1.967 1.456 0.6222 0.1542

7th 1.213 0.5996 0.4391 0.1295

9th .845 0.4355 0.3065 0.1103

11th .3761 0.3249 0.2101 0.0927

13th 0.2133 0.2393 0.1379 0.0792

15th 0.1226 0.1741 0.088 0.0664

17th 0.0925 0.1253 0.0552 0.056

19th 0.0901 0.0881 0.039 0.0471

Table 5.5 Comparison of THD in Percentage of Fundamental

Different Control THD %

Techniques implemented
Without APF 23.6
SAPF with HCC 7.63
SAPF with Fuzzy (5/5) 5.24
SAPF with Fuzzy (7/7) 1.48

5.6 Description of the Three Phase Studied System

The active power filter consists of six power transistors (IGBT),Six power
diodes, a dc capacitor(Cdc),Three filter inductor (LC) and reference value of

139
DC side capacitor voltage(VDC,ref). The filter capacitors and reactors have the
function of suppressing the harmonic currents caused by the switching
operation of the power transistors,reduction of current harmonics is achieved
by injecting equal but opposite current harmonics component at the point of
common coupling (PCC),there by canceling the original distortion and
improving the power quality on the connected power system. Besides it has
the capability of damping harmonics resonance between an exiting passive
filter and the supply impedance. The shunt active filter is shown in the figure 1

Fig.5.29 Three- phase shunt active power filter

5.6 Control Mechanism

5.7.1 Hysteresis Current Controller
Hysteresis current control scheme is more advantageous for the control of
active power filter can be used to generate the switching signals of the
inverter. It creates an environment for fastest control with minimum hardware

140
and has excellent dynamics. Conventional hysteresis current controllers
produce bad harmonic performance, by varying the hysteresis band its
performance can be improved to get a fixedswitching frequency.
There are different typesof Hysteresis current controllers available like two-
level hysteresis current controller and three-level hysteresis current controller.
This work covers two-level hysteresis current controller for the proposed
active power line conditioner. The hysteresis current control (HCC) scheme
[116-117] is based on a nonlinear control as shown in Fig.5. 30. The actual
currents i ca , icb , icc injected by the inverter are compared with the reference
currents (ica , icb , icc ) Resulting
* * *
a error current, which is fed to the hysteresis
comparator in order to produce six switching gate pulses as shown in Fig.5.31,
The error current swings between the upper and lower hysteresis bands as
presented in Fig.5.32, During the up and down movement of the actual
current, when it touches the upper hysteresis limit of comparator-a, let the
comparator output is 0 and the switching state of phase-a is being assumed as
S1= 0 and S2 =1. Similarly when the actual current reaches the lower
hysteresis limit of the same comparator, the switching state of the phase-a
reverses, similar procedure can be followed for switching state of other two-
phases as shown in Fig.5.30.

The switching frequency of this control strategy can be determined as follows.

Referring to Fig.6.3, at any point of time if we resolve the rate of change of
phase current can be written as

dI I 2V IL
   dc  t  (5.10)
dt t L  2Vdc

141
In the equation (5.10)  2Vdc depends on switching state of inverter, rate of
change of inverter current is represented as I ,rate of change in current in
time period is t .In the hysteresis band complete switching cycle is from
0  t1  T

So the equation (5.10) can be written as for 0  t1  i.et  t1 

+ IL
t1  (5.11)
2Vdc

Again for the period t1  T (i.e.t  T - t1 )

The equation becomes

- IL
T - t1  (5.12)
- 2Vdc

By combining both the equations, total switching time can be written as:

2
1 V V
f s   dc  f max  dc (5.13)
T ILV dc IL

Where the inverter maximum switching frequency can be represented as f max

142
 Fig.5.30 Block diagram of the hysteresis current control

Fig.5.31 Diagram of two-level hysteresis current control

5.7.2 Synchronous Detection Method

The synchronous detection method is implemented for calculation of
compensating currents in which three phase source is feeding a highly
nonlinear load. The balanced three phase source currents can be obtained after
compensation. The following steps are used for generation of reference signal.

143
The three-phase Source voltage can be given as:

V sa (t )  Vma sin t
(5.14)
Vsb (t )  Vmb sin(t - 120 0 )
(5.15)
Vsc (t )  Vmc sin(t - 240 0 )
(5.16)

3-phase current drawn by load given by


I La (t )  I
n 1
an sin(t -  an )

(5.17)
I Lb (t )   I bn sin(t -  bn - 120 0 )

(5.18)
N
I Lc (t )   I cn sin(t -  cn - 240 0 )
n 1

(5.19)
Step 1:
The 3-phase instantaneous power (P3∅) in the proposed system can be written
as
 
v sa i La + v sb i Lb + v sc i Lc  p a + pb + p c  Vma sin t  I an sin(t -  an ) + Vmb sin(t - 120 0 ) I bn sin(t -  bn - 1
n 1 n 1

+ Vmc sin(t - 240 0 ) I cn sin(t -  cn - 240 0 )
n 1

(5.20)
Step-2:
The instantaneous power is passed through low pass filter (LPF), which blocks
higher order frequency component and only fundamental component is
obtained from the output of LPF.

144
Pfund  Vma sin tI a1 sin(t -  a1 ) + Vmb sin(t - 120 0 ) I b1 sin(t -  b1 - 120 0 ) + Vmc sin(t - 240 0 ) I C1
Vma I a1
sin(t -  c1 - 240 0 )   cos a1 - cos(2t +  a1 ) + Vmb I b1  cos b1 - cos(2t +  b1 ) + Vmc I c1
2 2 2
 cos c1 - cos(2t +  c1 
(5.21)

Step 3:
The average fundamental power in 3-phase is given by
T
1 Vma I a1 V I V I
Pav 
T P
0
fund dt 
2
cos  a1 + mb b1 cos  b1 + mc c1 cos  c1
2 2
(5.22)

For 3-phase balanced nonlinear load the followings can be written as

3VI
Vma  Vmb  Vmc  V , I a1  I b1  I c1  I ,  a1   b1   c1   , P  cos 1 (5.23)
2

Step 4:
Using equation (5.23), the average power per phase can be written as
VI
 Pav  ph  cos 1 (5.24)
2
Let I cos 1  I m  Maximum amplitude per phase fundamental current
2 Pav  ph
Im  (5.25)
V

Step 5:
The Load current contains Fundamental, reactive and harmonic parts; if the
active power filter can be able to compensate the total reactive and harmonics
parts then the source current waveform will be Sinusoidal.
The fundamental component of the load current can be given as
I Fa  I m sin t (5.26)
I Fb  I m sin(t - 120 )
0
(5.27)
I Fc  I m sin(t - 240 )
0
(5.28)

145
The expression of reference current for shunt active power filter in each phase
* * *
ica , icb , icc
*
ica  I La - I Fa (5.29)
i  I Lb - I Fb
*
cb (5.30)
icc  I Lc - I Fc
*
(5.31)
After getting the reference current ,it is compared with the actual current by
using hysteresys current comparator to generate six switching pulses,which
are used to control the IGBT either by turning ON or OFF
5.7 Simulation Results and Analysis of three phase system

The system model as described in Fig.5.29 is developed in the

MATLAB/Simulink environment and input simulation parameters are given in
Table 1.The objective of the simulation is to examine the performance of
SAPF considering balanced as well as unbalanced nonlinear load applied to
the studied system.
Table.5.6 Simulation Parameter for Three-phase Studied System

System parameters Values

Line Voltage 380V
Line Frequency 50Hz
Supply Impedance R=0.5Ω,L=1mH
DC Voltage 750V
Load Active Power=10kw,Inductive power=100Var
APF Inductor 30mH

5.8.1 Simulation Results using Shunt Active Power Filter for

balanced case

Simulation waveforms for SAPF considering balanced nonlinear load are

depicted in Fig.5.32. The source voltage and load current are shown in
Fig.5.32 (a) and Fig5.32 (b) respectively. The load current as shown in
Fig.5.32 (b) contains harmonics because of nonlinear load connected to the
system. The compensating current produced by SAPF and the source current

146
after compensation are shown in Fig.5.32(c) and Fig.5.32 (d) respectively.
Fig.5.33 and Fig5.34 shows the source current spectrum of phase-A without
SAPF and with SAPF respectively THD is reduced from 29.29% before
compensation to 3.76% after compensation

400
S o u rc e V o lta g e ( V )

Phase A
300 Phase B
Phase C

200

100

-100

-200

-300

-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)

Fig.5.32 (a) Source Voltage Waveform

6
Phase A
L o a d C u rre n t ( A )

Phase B
4 Phase C

-2

-4

-6
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)

Fig.5.32 (b) Load Current Waveform

147
C o m p e n s a tin g C u rre n t ( A )
100
Phase A
80 Phase B
Phase C
60

40

20

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)

Fig.5.32 (c) Compensating current Waveform

80
S o u rc e C u rre n t ( A )

Phase A
60 Phase B
Phase C

40

20

-20

-40

-60

-80
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)

Fig.5.32 (d) Source current after compensation

THD= 29.29%
9

8
Mag(% of Fundamental)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Harmonic order

Fig.5.33 FFT Analysis of Source current spectrum without SAPF of phase A

148
 THD= 3.76%

Mag(% of Fundamental)
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order

Fig.5.34 FFT Analysis of Source current spectrum with SAPF of phase A

Table 5.7Comparison of THD in Percentage for Balanced Case

Before Compensation After Compensation

29.29 3.76

5.8.2 Simulation results using Shunt active power filter for

unbalanced case
The simulation results of a three phase source supplying a unbalanced bridge
rectifier feeding a resistive and inductive load along with a three phase VSI-
based SAPF is discussed here. For the studied system, Fig.5.35 (a-d)
represent the simulated waveforms The source current spectrum of different
phases in the proposed system without and with SAPF is shown in Fig.5.36 (a-
c) and Fig5.38(a-c) respectively. It has been observed from Fig.5.36 (a) and
Fig.5.38 that the THD for phase A is reduced to 2.41% after compensation as
compared to 22.97% before compensation. Similarly, the THD of source
current for phase B is reduced to 3.02% after compensation comparison to
24.74% before compensation. For phase C, the THD is reduced to 2.75% after
compensation from 23.56% before compesation.

149
 500
Phase A
S o u rce V o lta g e s (V ) 400 Phase B
phase C
300

200

100

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)

Fig.5.35 (a) Source voltage under unbalanced condition

20
Phase A
L o a d C u rre n t ( A )

15 Phase B
phase C
10

-5

-10

-15

-20
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)

Fig.5.35 (b) Load current under unbalanced condition

C o m p e n s a tin g C u rre n t ( A )

80
Phase A
60 Phase B
Phase C
40

20

-20

-40

-60

-80
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)

150
 Fig.5.35 (c) Compensating under unbalanced condition using SAPF
S o u rc e C u rre n t (A )
100
Phase A
80
Phase B
60 Phase C

40

20

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)

Fig. 5.35 (d) Source current under unbalanced condition after compensation using SAPF

THD= 22 . 97%

6
Mag(% of Fundamental)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order

Fig.5.36 (a) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase A

THD= 24.74%
9

6
Mag(% of Fundamental)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order

Fig.5.36 (b) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase B

151
 THD= 23 .56%

12

10
Mag(% of Fundamental)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order

Fig.5.36 (c) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase C

THD= 2 .41%

1.8

1.6

1.4
Mag(% of Fundamental)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order

Fig.5.37 (a) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums with SAPF of Phase A
THD= 3 .02%

2.5
Mag(% of Fundamental)

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order

Fig.5.37 (b) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums with SAPF of Phase B

152
 THD= 2 .75%
2

1.8

1.6

1.4
Mag(% of Fundamental)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order

Fig.5.37 (c) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums with SAPF of Phase C

Table 5.8Comparison of source current in THD for unbalanced load

Phases Before Compesation After Compensation

A 22.97 2.41
B 24.74 3.02
C 23.56 2.75

5.9 Experimental Results and Analysis

To validate the effectiveness of the shunt active power filter along with Fuzzy
Logic Controller operated by 7/7 fuzzy rule as control mechanism is presented
here, some experimental results are provided in this section. The block
diagram of complete hardware structure is shown in Fig.5.40. The prototype
of experimental setup is shown in Fig.5.41, Part number SQL100A1600V
rectifier with a 470  F electrolytic capacitor and a rheostat is used as a
nonlinear load. An auto transformer is used to gradually increase the voltage
level up to 110 volts. A SEMIKRON inverter is connected in parallel in
between source and load at the point of common coupling through a ferrite
core inductor having inductance 5mH. Out of three legs of the three phase

153
inverter, only two legs have been used in this experiment. The SEMIKRON
inverter comprises of dual Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) drivers
SKHI 22 AR, IGBT switches (SKM 75 GB 123 D) and filter capacitor of
capacitance 1100  F .Two voltage sensors LV 25-P are used for sensing the
source voltage and filter capacitor voltage. Two current sensors LA 55-P are
used for sensing the desired currents. Sensor circuits are made according to
their datasheet specifications. The output of the sensors is fed to the dSPACE
1104 control board. The required pulse is given to the driver input with proper
amplification. Waveforms are taken by oscilloscope through digital to analog
converter port of dSPACE to avoid noises.
R
L

Nonlinear C
Load V
C
I
O
I
L Inductor
IGBT Switches
I L
S (SKM 75 GB 123 D)
AC 4 IGBT Gate signals
I
Source IGBT Gate Drivers
(SKHI 22 AR )
V
S Control signals
Voltage sensor
V
C
circuit
( LV 25 -P )
I
S dSPACE 1104
Current sensor Control Board
I
O circuit
( LA 55 -P )

Fig.5.38block diagram of complete hardware structure

The FLC controlled Shunt active filter Simulink model is implemented using a
dSPACE system that allows to implement a real time controller directly in
MATLAB/Simulink environment [59] [76]. The simulink file is automatically
converted in a C-Code file by the real time workshop (RTW) of dSPACE
System. The c-code file becomes source for the Real-Time Interference (RTI)

154
 of dSPACE System, which with the help of a C Compiler/Linker, produces
and downloads the machine code in the controller board.

Non Linear Load dSPACE

Auto Transformer Inverter

Current Sensor Voltage Sensor DSO

Fig.5.39 The prototype of the experimental setup

5.11 Results of Experimental Setup

Fig.5.40 Load Current and Source Voltage

155
 Fig.5.41 Source Current and Source Voltage

Fig. 5.42Filter capacitor voltage with Fuzzy logic Controller

Experimental waveforms of source voltage and load current are shown in

Fig.5.42 Source voltage and source current waveforms of Fuzzy logic
controller with 7/7 fuzzy rule is shown in Fig.6.43 and the filter capacitor
voltage with Fuzzy Logic Controller 7/7 rule is shown in Fig.6.44. It is found
that source current is approximately sinusoidal and in same phase to that of
source voltage, which implies the proposed control strategy is appropriate.
5.10Chapter Summary
Performance of the shunt active filter using different control techniques is
evaluated through

156
Indirect current controller with FLC, which is used to estimate peak reference
current besides maintaining the DC side capacitor voltage of the inverter
nearly constantShunt active filter is investigated under steady state condition
with PI controller and Fuzzy logic controller with different fuzzy rules such as
7/7 and 5/5. Comparative analysis of the performance of shunt active power
filter for balanced and unbalanced cases are also presented. Simulation results
show that the shunt active power filter is able to minimize the harmonic
contents in the phase A, phase B and Phase C in three phase system. THD of
supply current is minimized in all the three phases by using the shunt active
power filter with synchronous detection technique. Prototype experimental
setup is developed and proposed FLC with 7/7 rule is implemented for
verifying its effectiveness in mitigating harmonic.

Chapter 6
Summary and Conclusions
6.1 Summary of the Work

The thesis has mainly investigated on frequency and harmonics estimation of

signal and development of SAPF with control technique for power
conditioning. The novelty of the present work is the introduction of IRNTA to
frequency estimation, VLLMS, and hybrid algorithms for harmonics
estimation. Finally the various control techniques such PI and soft computing
approach such as fuzzy logic controller in conjuction with indirect controller

157
and synchronous detection technique applied to SAPF for enchancement of
power quality.

 A brief review of problems and short coming of earlier techniques to

power system frequency and harmonics estimation are discussed.
 Estimation of power system signal frequency is investegated using
RLS, KF and newly proposed IRNTA algorithms under several critical
conditions such as Jump in frequency, sudden change in amplitude and
phase of a signal, in the presence of harmonics, inter harmonics and
sub-harmonics.The estimation performance of the proposed algorithm is
compared with two existing recursive techniques such as Recursive
Least Square (RLS) and Kalman filter (KF). Both simulation and
experimental studies have been performed to study the efficacy of the
proposed algorithm and a comparision made beween the three
algorithms (IRNTA, RLS and KF). Moreover, it has been observed that
the proposed algorithm (IRNTA) not only superior in minimizing the
error but also superior in terms of convergence rate and computational
aspect as compared to RLS and KF.
 Harmonics estimation of power system signal based on VLLMS
algorithm is developed.Power system signal is modelled in a parametric
form, then VLLMS algorithm is applied on this signal. The performance
of such a formulation is compared with other existing algorithms such
as RLS and LMS for several critical cases that often arise in a power
system, e.g., sudden change in amplitude of signal, in presence of sub
and inter-harmonics in the signal and also for dynamic signal. Finally,
harmonics estimation of laboratory generated signal i.e. across the
output of a single phase PWM inverter, using arduino due

158
 microcontroller is also investigated. In all the cases, the performance of
the proposed VLLMS algorithm is found to be superior compared with
that of RLS and LMS algorithms.
 Two new hybrid algorithms (KF-MGA and KF-BFO) for power system
harmonics estimation are suggestedfor the improvement in percentage
error in estimation, processing time in computation and performance in
presence of inter and sub-harmonic components. First input signal is fed
to either MGA or BFO algorithm. Unknown parameters (weight vectors
before initialization) are optimized using any one of the said algorithm.
Optimized output of MGA / BFO is taken as the initial values of
weights for KF algorithm. Then weights are updated using the steps of
KF algorithm. Fundamental as well as harmonic components are
estimated from final updated weights of KF. For estimation of
harmonics amplitudes and phases,both the algorithms effectively able to
track the fundamental and harmonic signals, the performance of
tracking using KF-MGA is better than KF-BFO but both the methods
can be used for online and offline estimation. A laboratory prototype is
developed for generation of power system data in order to validate the
efficacies of the proposed algorithm.
 An indirect current controller with soft computing approach such as
Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) with different fuzzy rules has been
implemented in single phase shunt active power filter for iomprovement
of power quality.The indirect current controller with FLC is used to
estimate peak reference current besides maintaining the DC side
capacitor voltage of the inverter nearly constant.Current Controller
based pulse width modulation (CCPWM) is used to generate the

159
switching signals of voltage source inverter.The filtering performance
of FLC based indirect curent controller with different fuzzy rules such
as 7/7 and 5/5, is compared with PI controller. From the simulation
results, it is found that FLC controller having 7/7 rule base shows better
filtering performance as compared to 5/5 rule base. the effectiveness of
the hysteresis current control technique applied to Shunt Active Power
Filter (SAPF) for elimination of harmonics in a three-phase distribution
systemis presented. In order to mitigate harmonics produced by the
nonlinear load connected in a three-phase distribution system, SAPF
with two-level HCC is proposed. A three-phase insulated gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT) based current controlled voltage source inverter (CC
VSI) with a dc bus capacitor is used as an Active Power
Filter.Synchronous detection method is applied for reference current
generation and then the reference currents are fed to the proposed
controller in order to generate switching signals for VSI. Various
simulation results are presented to verify the good behavior of the SAPF
with proposed two levels HCC.Finally, a prototype experimental setup
is developed in laboratory, implementing FLC based indirect current
controller with 7/7 rule base in dSPACE 1104. Experimental results
validate the efficacy of the proposed FLC based indirect current
controller for improvement of power quality.

160
6.2 Book Contributions

The contributions of the Thesis are as follows.

 Critical analysis of tracking time, computational time and estimation

error of various estimation techniques applied to frequency and
harmonics estimation of power system signal.
 Development of improved recursive Netwon type algorithm (IRNTA)
for power system frequency estimation with introduction of parameter
updation technique to avoid short comings such as poor convergence
rate, more estimation error and more computational burden of the
conventional Recursive Least square algorith (RLS) and Kalman Filter
(KF).Finally, frequency estimation of the laboratory data collected from

161
 normal working day of a Laboratory and also industrial setup is
presented to prove the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.
 Development of a Variable Leaky Least Mean Square (VLLMS) based
algorithm for power system harmonics estimation. In the proposed
algorithm a leak adjustment technique is incorporated to avoid the
parameter drifting or the stalling problem to overcome short comings
such as poor convergence rate, more estimation error and more
computational burden of the conventional LMS and RLS. Finally,
harmonics estimation of the proposed algorithm is invesitgated in real
time application of a laboratory generated signal i.e. across the output
of a single phase PWM inverter, using arduino due microcontroller .
 Developed two hybrid algorithms by hybridizing a signal processing
technique such as KF with optimization techniques such as BFO and
MGAfor improvement in percentage error in estimation, processing
time in computation and performance in presence of inter and sub-
harmonic components during harmonics estimation of a power system
signal.A comparative study of two proposed strategy for estimation of
harmonics is made to show the superiority in estimation performance in
case of KF-MGA. A laboratory prototype is developed for generation of
power system data in order to validate the efficacies of the proposed
algorithms.
 An indirect current controller with a soft computing technique such as
FLC has been developed for power quality improvement in a single
phase system. The performance of FLC based controller is compared
with conventional PI controller in simulation results. AShunt Active
Power Filter (SAPF) with two-level Hysteresis Current Control (HCC)

162
 technique along with synchronous detection method for improvement of
power quality in a three-phase distribution system is developed.The
efficacy of the proposed Fuzzy Logic Controller is also verified
experimentally implementing it in a dSPACE1104 platform.

6.3 Conclusions

The research studies conducted resultsthe following conclusions

 Three numbers of recursive algorithms such as RLS, KF and IRNTA

have been applied to power system frequency estimation. Out of these
algorithms, simulation and experimental results confirm that IRNTA
provides better estimation results compared to other two.
 For achiving more accuracy in harmonic estimation variation of leakage
factor is introduced in the new proposed VLLMS algorithm. It is found
that estimation accuracy, computational and tracking time in case of
VLLMS better than conventional LMS and RMS. Estimation
performance of VLLMS algorithm is also verified experimentally in
implemenating it on Arduino duo microcontroller.

163
  Two hybrid algorithms such as KF-MGA and KF-BFO are also
proposed for harmonics estimation. The estimation performance of the
proposed algorithm is also verified using both simulation and
experimental data. From the results it is conformed KF-MGA provides
better estimation results in each case.

 A FLC based shunt active power filter using an indirect current

controller design for improvement of power quality in single phase
system. The performance of the proposed controller is also compared
with the conventional PI controller in simulation studies. To prove the
effeciveness of the proposed controller, an experimental set-up is
developed in the laboratory impementing it in dSPACE 1104.AShunt
Active Power Filter (SAPF) with two-level Hysteresis Current Control
(HCC) technique along with synchronous detection method is propsed
for improvement of power quality in a three-phase distribution system.
6. 4 Future Scope of Work

 Estimation of Frequency and Harmonics problems can also be extended

in nonlinear frame work where techniques such as Nonlinear Least
Square, H ∞(Nonlinear setting) and EKF (Nonlinear setting) can be
applied with further comparative assessment of the methods presented
in the thesis.

 Integrating Distributed Generation (DG) into electricity distribution

network settles new needs for power quality monitoring. In future this
work can be extended in designing active power filters for DG system
handling uncertainties in nonlinear filter dynamics

164
  Proposed research work can be extended to design and develop a novel
Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) with a FPGA based digital controller
for effective filteration perfomance and better reactive power
compensation.

References
1. V. Backmutsky, V. Zmuzdikov, A. Agizim, and G. Vaisman, “A New
DSP Method for Precise Dynamic Measurement of the Actual Power-Line
Frequency and its Data Acquisition Application,” Measurement, vol. 18,
no. 3, pp. 169–176, 1996
2. Djuric M.B., Djurisic, Z.R. “Frequency Measurement of Distorted
Signals Using Fourier and zero Crossing Techniques,” Electric. Power
Syst. Res, vol.78, no.8, pp. 1407–1415,2008
3. Duric, M.B and Durisic, Z.R “ Frequency Measurement in Power
Network in the Presence Of Harmonics using Fourier and Zero crossing
Technique,” Power Tech, 2005 IEEE Russia, pp.1-6, 27-30 June 2005
4. M.V.V.S.Yalla, A digital Multifunction protective relays, IEEE Trans.
Power Del, vol.7, no.1,pp.193-201,1992

165
5. N.T. Stringer “The effect of DC offset on current –operated relays,”
IEEE Trans. on Ind. App, vol.34, no.1, pp.30-34,1998
6. P.J.Moore, J.H. Allmeling and A.T.Johns “Frequency Relaying Based
on Instantaneous FrequencyMeasurment,” IEEE Trans.Power Del, vol.11,
no.4, pp.1737-742, 1996
7. T.S.Sidhu and M.S. Sachdev “An Iterative technique for fast and
accurate measurement of power system frequency,” IEEE Trans.on Power
Del, vol.13, no.1, pp.109-115,1998
8. G.Benmouyal “An adaptive sampling interval generator for digital
relaying” IEEETrans.Power Del, vol.4, no.3, pp.1602-1609, 1989
9. T.A.George and D.Bones “Harmonics power flow determination using
Fast Fourier Transform,” IEEE Trans. Power Del, vol.6, no.2, pp.530-535,
1991
10. L.L.Lai, C.T.Tse, W.L.Chan, and A.T.P.So, “ Real-Time Frequency and
Harmonics Evaluation Using Artificial Neural Networks” IEEE Trans.on
Power Del, vol.14, no.1, pp.52-59,Jan.1999
11. A.A. Girgis and F.M.Ham “A qualitative study of pitfalls in FFT,” IEEE
Trans.Aerosp.Electron.Sys, vol.16, PP.434-439, 1980
12. T.S.Sidhu “Accurate Measurement of Power System Frequency Using a
Digital Signal Processing,” IEEE Trans. on power Del ,vol.14, no.1,
pp.75-81, 1999
13. T.Lobos and J.Rezmer “Real-time Determination of power system
frequency” IEEE Trans. On Instrumentation and Measurement, vol.46,
no.4, pp.877-881, 1997
14. Jin Kwon Hwang, Penn N.Markham “Power system frequency
estimation by reduction of noise using three digital filter,” IEEE Trans. on
instrumention and Measurement ,vol.63, no.2, pp.402-409, 2014
15. Tomas Radil, PedroM.Ramos, A.Cruz Serra “New Spectrum Leakage
Correction Algorithm for Frequency Estimation of Power System Signals,”

166
 IEEE Trans.on Instrumentation and Measurement ,vol.58, no.5, pp.1670-
1679, 2009
16. Arghya sarkar and SamarjeetSengupta “Bandpass Second-degree
Digital –integrator based power system frequency estimation under non
sinusoidal conditions,” IEEE Trans.on Instrumentation and measurement,
vol.60, no.3, pp.846-851, 2011
17. H.Karini, M. Ghartemani, M.R.Iravani “ Estimation of frequency and
its rate of change for applications in power systems”Power Engineering
Society General Meeting,IEEE , vol.2, pp. 13-17, 2003
18. P.J.Moore, R.D.Carranza, A.T.Johns “ Model system Test on a new
Numeric Method of power system frequency measurement,” IEEE Trans.
on Power Del, vol.11, no.2, pp.696-701,1996
19. Mohsen Mojiri and Alireza Bakhahai “Robust Adaptive Frequency
Estimation of Three-Phase Power Systems,” IEEE Trans.On
Instrumentation and Measurement ,vol.59, no.7, pp. 1793-1802, 2010
20. WuJiekang, Long Jun, WangJixiang “High-Accuracy Wide-Range
Frequency estimation methods for power system signals under
nonsinusodial Conditions” IEEE Trans.on power Del, vol.20, no.1, pp.
366-374. 2005
21. YiliXia, DaniloP.Mandie “Widely Linear Adaptive Frequency
estimation of unbalanced Three-phase power systems,” IEEE Trans. on
Instrumentation and Measurement, vol.61, no.1, pp.74-83, 2012
22. Bernard Widrow “Thinking about Thinking: The Discovery of the LMS
Algorithm,” IEEE Signal processing Magazine, pp.100-103, 2005
23. A.K.Pradha, A.Routray, Abir Basak “Power System Frequency
Estimation Using Least Mean Square Technique,” IEEE Trans. On Power
Del, vol.20, no.3, pp.1812-1816, 2005

167
24. P.K.Ray, B.D.Subudhi, S.Ghosh “Variable leaky least mean-square
algorithm based on power system frequency estimation,” IET
Sci.Meas.Technol, vol.6, no.4, pp.288-297, 2012
25. Bernard Widrow, John McCool, and Michael Ball “The Complex LMS
Algorithm” Proceeding of the IEEE , Vol.63, no.4, pp.719-720, 1975
26. P.K.Dash, A.K.Pradhan and G.Panda “Frequency Estimation of
Distorted Power System Signals Using Extended Complex Kalman Filter,”
IEEE Trans. on Power Del, vol.14, no. 3, pp. 761-766, 1999
27. B.Subudhi,P.K.Ray,S.R.Mohanty, A.M.panda “ A Comparative Study
of Different Power System Frequency Estimation Technique,” Int. J.
Automation and control,vol.3, no.2, pp.202-214,2009
28. Solim Abdel –Hady, A.M. A1-Kandari, R.A.Alammari “Linear Kalman
Filter Algorithm with Clarke Transformation for Power System Frequency
Estimation,” Global Journal of research in Engineering Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 524-534, 2012
29. Liangliang Li, Wei Xia, Dongyuan Shi and Jianzhuang Li “Frequency
Estimation on Power System Using Recursive-Least-Squares Approach,”
Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Technology
and Software Engineering, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-34522-7_2, Springer
30. P.K.Das, K.R.Krishnanand, M.Padhee, “Fast recursive Gauss-Newton
adaptive filter for the estimation of power system frequency and harmonics
in a noisey environment,” IET Generation,Transmission,Distribution,
vol.5, no.12, pp.1277-1289, 2011
31. M.Gupta, S.Srivastava and J.R.P.Gupta “Power system frequency
estimation using neural network and genetic algorithm,” Proceedings of
Joint International Conference on Power System Technology and IEEE
Power India Conference, POWERCON, pp. 12-15 2008

168
32. M.Gupta “ A Faster Estimation Algorithm Applied to Power Quality
Problems,” International Journal of Engineering science and
Technology ,vol.2, no.9, pp. 4448-4461, 2010
33. A.Soundarrajan, S.Sumathi,G.Sivamurugan “ Hybrid Evolutionary
Algorithm for frequency and voltage Control in power generating System,”
ICTACT Journal on soft Computing, vol.2, pp.88-97, 2010
34. P.K.Ray, B.Subudhi, A.M.Panda “Hybrid Signal processing and soft
computing approaches to power system frequency estimation,”
International Journal of computer and Communication Technology
(IJCCT), vol.2, no.4, pp.16-20, 2011
35. A. K. Deb, Jayadeva, M. Gopal, and Suresh Chandra “SVM-Based
Tree-Type Neural Networks as a Critic in Adaptive Critic Designs for
Control,” IEEE Trans. On Neural network, vol.18, no.4, pp.1016-1030,
2007
36. MaamarBettayeb and UvaisQidwai “A Hybrid Least Squares-GA-Based
Algorithm for Harmonic Estimation” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, vol.18, no.2, pp.377-382, 2003
37. Y. R. Sood, N. P. Padhy and H. O. Gupta “ Discussions of Optimal
Power flow by Enhanced Genetic algorithm,” IEEE Trans. on Power
System, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 1219-1219, 2003.
38. P.K.Ray, B. Subudhi “BFO optimized RLS algorithm for power system
harmonics estimation, Applied soft computing, vol.12, no.8, pp.1965-1977,
2012
39. P.K.Ray “Signal Processing and soft Computing approaches to power
signal frequency and harmonics estimation,” Ph.D Thesis.
40. S.A. Soliman , R.A. Alammari , M.E. El-Hawary ‘Frequency and
harmonics evaluation in power network using fuzzy regression technique’
Electric Power System Research, vol. 66, pp. 171-177., 2003

169
 41. Liu K “Identification of linear time-varying systems” J Sound Vib,
vol.206, no.4, pp.487-505,1997
42. Sp Spiridonakos MD, Fassois SD. “Parametric identification of a time-
varying structure based on vector vibration response measurements”
Mechan SystSignal Process, vol. 23, no.6, pp.2029–2048. 2009
43. Vladimir. V. Terzija “Improved Recursive Newton-Type Algorithm for
Frequency and Spectra Estimation in Power systems,” IEEE Trans. On
Instrumentation and Measurement, vol.52, no.5, pp.1654-1659, 2003
44. Girgis AA, Peterson WL “Adaptive estimation of power frequency
deviation andits rate of change for calculating sudden power system
overloads” IEEE Trans.Power Del, vol.5, pp.585-594, 1990
45. Goursat M, Dohler M, Mevel L, Andersen P “ Crystal clear SSI for
operational modal analysis of aerospace vehicles” In: Structural dynamics,
proceedings of the 28th international modal analysis conference (IMAC),
vol. 3. pp. 1421–30, 2010
46. R. Chudamani, K. Vasudevan, and C. S. Ramalingam, "Real-Time
Estimation of Power System Frequency Using Nonlinear Least Squares,"
IEEE Trans. on Power Del, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 1021-1028, 2009.
47. P. K. Dash, S. Hasan, and B. K. Panigrahi, "Adaptive complex
unscented Kalman filter for frequency estimation of time-varying signals,"
IET Science, Measurement & Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 93-103, 2010.
48. C. Gherasim, J. Van den Keybus, J. Driesen, and R. Belmans, "DSP
implementation of power measurements according to the IEEE trial-use
standard 1459," IEEE Trans. on Instrumentation andMeasurement, vol. 53,
no. 4, pp. 1086-1092, 2004.

49. R.Trapero, H.Sira-Ramirez and V.Feliu Batlle “On the algebraic

identification of thefrequencies, amplitudes and phases of two sinusoidal

170
 signals from their noisy sum,” International Journal of Control, vol.81,
No.3, pp.507-518, 2008.
50. Math H.J and Irene Yu-HuaGu “Signal processing of power quality
Disturbances,” A.JohnWiely&Sons, 2006.
51. SachinK.Jain and S.N.Singh “Harmonics Estimation in Emerging power
system: Key Issues and Challenges,” Electric power syste.Res, vol.81,
pp.1754-1766, 2011
52. A.A. Girgis and F.M.Ham “A qualitative study of pitfalls in FFT,’ IEEE
Trans.Aerosp.Electron.Sys, vol.16, no.5, PP.434-439, 1980
53. T.A.George and D.Bones, “Harmonics Power Flow Determination
Using Fast Fourier Transform,” IEEE Trans. Power Del, vol.6, no.2,
pp.530-535, 1991
54. H. C. Lin and C. S. Lee “Enhanced FFT-based Parameter Algorithm for
Simultaneous Multiple Harmonics Analysis,” in Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng.,
Gen. Transm. Distri, vol. 148, pp. 209–214, 2001
55. S.Winograd “On Computing The Discrete Fourier Transform”
Proceeding Natl. Acad.Sci. U.S.A, vol.73, pp.1005-1006, 1976
56. Cichocki. A. and Lobos.T “Artificial neural network for real time
estimation of basic waveforms of voltage and currents” IEEE Trans. power
system, vol.9, no.2, pp.612-618, 1994
57. Bakamidis.S, Dendrinos. M and Carayannis G “SVD Analysis by
synthesis of harmonics signals,” IEEE Trans. Signal process, vol.39, no.2
pp.472-477. 1991
58. Karen Kennedy, Gordon Lightbody, Robert Yacamini, “Power System
Harmonic Analysis Using the Kalman Filter” IEEE Power Engineering
Society General Meeting, Vol.2, pp.752-757, 2003.
59. Mustapha Sara, Kamal Djazia, Abdelmadjid Chaoui and Fatech Krim “
Three-phase active power filter with Integrator-Proptional Cntrol,” Journal
of Electrical System, no.1, pp.79-84,

171
60. Haili Ma, Adly A. Girgis “Identification and Tracking of Harmonic
Sources in a Power System Using a Kalman Filter” IEEE Trans. on Power
Deli, vol.11, no.3, pp.1659-1665, 1996
61. P. K. Dash, A. K. Pradhan , G. Panda, R. K. Jena, S. K. Panda “On Line
Tracking of Time Varying Harmonics Using an Integrated Complex
Kalman Filter and Fourier Linear Combiner,” Proc. IEEE Conference on
Power Engineering Society, Singapore, vol.3, pp.1575-1580, 2000
62. J.A.Rosendo Macias and A.Gomezexposito “ A Comparative between
Kalman filter and STDFT for Harmonics Estimation in Power systems,”
Proc.of the 5th WSEAS/IASME Int.Conf on electric power
systems,Highvoltages, Electricmachines,Tecenfie,Spain, pp.574-578, 2005
63. MaamarBettayeb and UvaisQidwai “Recursive Estimation of Power
System Harmonics,” Electric Power System Research, vol.47, pp. 143-152,
1998
64. S.Osowski “SVD Technique for Estimation of Harmonics Components
in a Power System: A Statisticial Approach” IEE Proc-Gener. Trans.
Distrib, vol.141, no.5, pp.473-479, 1994
65. T.Lobos, T.Kozina and H.J.Koglin “Power system harmonics estimation
using linear least squares method and SVD,” IEE Proc. Generation,
Transmission & Distributions, Vol.148, no.6, pp.567-572, 2001.
66. Huaiwei Liao “Power system harmonic state estimation and Observality
Analysis via Sparsity Maximization, IEEE Trans. on Powersystem,vol.22,
no.1,pp.15-23,2007
67. Ahmet S. Yilmatz, Ahmed Alkan, Musa H. Asyali “Application of
parametric spectral estimation methods on detection of power system
harmonics” Electric Power System Research, vol-78, pp. 683-693, 2008.

172
68. Jan Mandel “Efficient Implementation of the Ensemble Kalman Filter,”
Center for Computational Mathematics report, University of Colorado at
Denver and HealthSciences Center, Denver, pp.1-7, 2006.
69. M. Joorabian, S.S. Mortazavi, A.A. Khayyami “ Harmonics estimation
in a power system using a novel-hybrid Least Square –Adaline algorithm”
Electric Power System Research, vol.79, no.1, pp. 107-116, 2009
70. Ray, P.K. and Panda, G “ Harmonics estimation using KF-Adaline
algorithm and elimination using hybrid active power filter in distorted
power system signals,” International Journal of Modeling, Identification
and Control, vol. 16, no. 2, pp.149–158, 2012
71. Tadeus Lobos, AndrzejCichocki, PawelKostyla, ZbigniewWaclawek
“Adaptive On-Line Learning Algorithm for Robust Estimation of
Parameters of Noisy Sinusoidal Signals,” Artificial Neural Networks-
ICANN, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, vol.1327/1997, pp.1193-1198,
72. S. Ghodratollaht, M.Razzaz, M.Moghaddasian and M. Monadi“
Harmonics Estimation in Power System Using Adaptive Perceptions based
on a Genetic Algorithm,” WSEAS Trans. on Power Systems, vol.2, no.11,
2007
73. M.Bettayeb and U. Qidwai “A Hybrid Least Squares-GA-Based
Algorithm for Harmonic Estimation,” IEEE Transactions on Power Del,
vol.18, no.2, pp.377-382, 2003
74. S.Mishra “A Hybrid Least Square-Fuzzy Bacterial Foraging Strategy
For Harmonic Estimation,” IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary
Computation, vol.9, no.1, pp.61-73, 2005
75. De Arruda, N.Kagan and P. Ribeiro “Harmonics Distortion State
Estimation Using an Evolutionary Strategy,” IEEE Transactions on. Power
Del, vol.25, no.2, pp.831-842, 2010

173
76. Aziz Boukadoum and Tahar Bahi “ Fuzzy Logic Controlled Shunt
Active Power Filter for harmonics Compensation and power quality
improvement,” Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review,
vol.7, no.4, pp. 143-149, 2014
77. V. Ravikumar Padhi and B.k.Panigrahi “Comparative Study of
Evolutionary Computing Methods for Parameter Estimation of Power
Quality Signal,” International Journal of Applied Evolutionary
Computation, vol.1, no.2, pp.28-59, 2010
78. S.A. Soliman , R.A. Alammari , M.E. El-Hawary ‘Frequency and
Harmonics Evaluation in Power Network Using Fuzzy Regression
Technique,” Electric Power System Research, vol. 66, pp. 171-177, 2003

79. Fujita H. Akagi H “A Practical approach to harmonic Compensation in

power systems-Series connection of passive and active filters,” IEEE
Trans. On Ind Appl, vol.27, no.6,pp.1020-1025, 1991

80. Girgis. A, Chang, W.B and Makram.E.B “A digital recursive

measurement scheme for on-line trackingof power system
harmonic,”IEEE Trans.power Del, vol.6, no.3, p p.1153-1160,
1998

81. Mori.H,Uematsu.Hand Tsazuki.S “An Artificial Neural Network based

method for predicting power system voltage harmonics,” IEEE
Trans.Power Del, vol.7, no.1, pp.402-409, 1992

82. Benventiste A. “Design of adaptive algorithms for the tracking of time

varying systems,” Int J Adaptive Control Signal Process, vol.1,pp.31–39,
1987

174
 83. Cai Tao, DuanShanxu, Ren Ting and Liu Fangruli “ A robust parametric
method forpower harmonics estimation based on M-estimators,”
Measurement, vol.43, no.1,pp. 67-77, 2010

84. J. C. Das, “Passive Filters – Potentialities andLimitations,” IEEE

Trans. on Industry Applications ,vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 232-241, 2004

85. K. K. C. Yu, N. R. Watson, and J. Arrillaga, "An adaptive Kalman filter

for dynamic harmonic state estimation and harmonic injection tracking,"
IEEE Transactions on Power Del, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 1577-1584, 2005.

86. D. J. Simon, Optimal State Estimation: Kalman, “H Infinity, and

Nonlinear approaches” Hoboken, N.J: Wiley-Interscience, 2006.

87. V. A. Bavdekar, A. P. Deshpande, S. C. Patwardhan “Identification of

process and measurement noise covariance for state and parameter
estimation using Extended Kalman filter,” Journal of Process Control,
vol.21, pp. 585-601, 2011

88. Julio Barros and Enrique Pérez “Automatic Detection and Analysis of
Voltage Events in Power Systems,” IEEE Transactions on
Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 55, no. 5, pp. 1487-1493, 2006

89. T. P. Tsao, R. C. Wu, and C. C. Ning “The optimization of spectral

analysis for signal harmonics,” IEEE Trans. Power Del, vol. 16, pp. 149–
153, 2001

90. P.K.Ray and B. Subudhi “ Ensemble Kalman Filter based Power System
Harmonics Estimation,” IEEE Trans. on Instrumentation and
Measurement, vol. 61, no. 12, pp. 3216-3224, 2012

175
 91. Dong Hwa Kim, Ajith Abraham, Jae Hoon Cho “A hybrid genetic
algorithm and bacterial foraging approach for global optimization,”
Information Science, vol.177, pp.3918-3937, 2007

92. K. Mayyas K. and T. Aboulnasr, “Leaky LMS Algorithm: MSE

Analysis for Gaussian Data,” IEEE Trans. Signal Processing, vol. 45,
no.4, pp. 927-934, 1997

93. M. Kemenetsky and B. Widrow “A Variable Leaky LMS Adaptive

Algorithm,” Proceedings, 38th IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals,
Systems and Computers, pp. 125-128,.2004

94. T. Hoya, Y. Loke, J. A. Chambers and P.A. Naylor “Application of

Leaky Extended LMS (XLMS) Algorithm in Stereophonic Acoustic Echo
Cancellation,” Signal Processing, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 87-91, 1998

95. A.Klepka and T. Uhl, “Identification of modal parameters of non-

stationary systems with the use of wavelet based adaptive filtering,”
Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 21-37,
2014

96. M.D. Spiridonakos and S.D. Fassois, “Parametric identification of a

time-varying structure based on vector vibration response measurements,”
Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 2029-2048,
2009

97. Hirofumi Akagi, “New Trends in Active filters for power

conditioning,” IEEE Trans. On Industry Application, vol.32, no.6, pp.
1312-1322, 1996

176
98. H.Fujita and H.Akagi “The Unified Power Quality Conditioner: the
Integration of Series and Shunt Active Filters,” IEEE Trans. Power
Electronics, vol.13, no. 2, pp. 315-322, 1998

99. B Singh, K.A1-Haddad, A.Chandra “Performance Comparison of Two

Current Control Technique Applied to an Active Filter,” Eigth
International Conference on Harmonics and quality of Power, vol.1, pp.
133-138, 1998

100. B Singh, K.A1-Haddad, A. Chandra “A Review of Active Filters for

Power Quality Improvement,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol.46, pp. 960-
971, 1999

101. Salem Rahmania,∗, Kamal Al-Haddad a, Hadi Youssef Kanaan b1 “A

comparative study of shunt hybrid and shunt active power filters for single-
phase applications:Simulation and experimental validation,” Mathematics
and Computers in Simulation, vol.71, pp.345–359, 2006

102. Ambrish Chandra, Bhim Singh, B. N. Singh and Kamal Al-Haddad,

“An Improved Control Algorithm of Shunt Active Filter for Voltage
Regulation, Harmonic Elimination, Power-Factor Correction, and
Balancing of Nonlinear Loads,” IEEE Trans. On Power Electronics,
vol.15, no. 3, pp.495-507, 2000

103. D. A. Torrey and A. M. A. M. Al-Zamel “Single-Phase Active Power

Filters for Multiple Nonlinear Loads,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron, vol.
10, no. 3, pp. 263–272, 1995

177
104. J. Miret, M. Castilla, J. Matas, J. M. Guerrero, Luis Garcia de Vicuna
“Design of an Analog Quasi-Steady-State Nonlinear Current Mode
Controller for Single Phase Active Power Filter,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron, vol. 56, no. 12, pp. 4872-4881, 2009

105. H. Komurcugil and O. Kukrer “A New Control Strategy for Single-

Phase Shunt Active Power Filters Using a Lyapunov Function,” IEEE
Trans. Ind. Electron, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 305–312, 2006.

106. P. Kumar and A. Mahajan, “Soft computing techniques for the control
of active power filter,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 24, no. 1, pp.
452–461, 2009

107. J. Dixon, J. Contardo, L. Moran “DC link fuzzy control for an active
power filter, sensing the line current only,” in Proc. IEEE Power Eng.
Soc. Com, pp. 1109–1113, 1997.

108. L. H. Tey, P.L.So and Y. C. Chu “Improvement of power quality using

adaptive shunt active power filters,” IEEE Trans. on power Del, vol.20,
pp. 1558-1568, 2006.

109. H. Akagi, Y. Kanazaya, and A. Nabae “Instantaneous reactive power

compensators compromising switching devices without energy storage
component,” IEEE Trans. IndustryApplication, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 625–
630, 1984

110. J. Matas, Luis Garcia de Vicuna, J. Miret, J. M. Guerrero, M. Castilla,

“Feedback linearization of single phase active power filter via sliding

178
 mode control,” IEEE Trans. power. Electron, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 116-125,
Jan 2008

111. M. Kale, E. Ozdemir, “ An adaptive hysteresis band current controller

for shunt active power filter” Electric Power System Research, vol. 73,
no.2, pp. 113–119, 2005.

112. M. Angulo, D.A. Ruiz-Caballero, J.Lago, M. L. Heldwein, S.A. Mussa

“Active power filter control strategy with implicit closed-loop current
control and resonant controller,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol.60, no. 7,
pp. 2721-2730, 2013.

113. Wu CJ, Chiang JC, Yen SS, Liao CJ, Yang JS, Guo TY. Investigation
and Mitigation of harmonics amplification problems caused by single-
tuned filter, IEEE Trans Power Del 1998:800-6.

114. Abbas Ketabi, Mohammad Farshadnia,MajidMalekpour, ReneFeuilet “

A new control strategy for active power line conditioner (APLC) using
adaptive notch filter,” Electrical Power and energy systems,vol.47, pp31-
40, 2013

115. Sushreesangita Patnaik and Anup Kumar Panda “Optimizing current

harmonics compensation in three-phase power systems with an
Enchanced Bacterial Foraging approach,” Electrical Power and Energy
system, vol. 61, pp. 386-398, 2014

116. R. Pavlanin1, P. Spanik1 and B. Dobrucky “ Comparison of Multi-

Resonant- and Hysteresis Band Controllers used in Current Control Loop
of Shunt Active Power Filter,” International Conference on Renewable

179
 Energies and Power Quality (ICREPQ’12) Santiago de Compostela
(Spain),pp.1-5 2012

117. N. Gupta1*, S. P. Singh1, S. P. Dubey2 “DSP based adaptive hysteresis-

band current controlled active filter for power quality conditioning under
non-sinusoidal supply voltages,” International Journal of Engineering,
Science and Technology vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 236-252, 2011

118. Abdelhafid Semmah , Ahmed Massoum , Patrice Wira “Improvement of

PWM Rectifier Performances Using Direct Power Control and Fuzzy
Logic Theory,” Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, vol.7,
no.4, pp.297-303, 2013

119. L.Moran, P.Godoy, R.Wallace, and J.Dixon. “ A new current control

strategy for active power filters using thrre PWM Voltage source inverter,”
IEEE PESC 93 Seattle,24th annual IEEE, pp.3-6, 1993

120. R. C. Dugan, M. F. McGranaghan, S. Santoso, and H. W. Beaty

“Electrical Power Systems Quality,” McGraw-Hill, 2002.

121. P . K. Dash, D. P. Swain, A. Routray, A. C. Liew “Harmonic Estimation

in a Power System using Adaptive Perceptrons,” IEE Proceedings of
Generation, Transmissions & Distributions, vol.143, no.6, pp.565-574,
1996

122. Saini, M.K. and Kapoor, R “ Classification of power quality events – a

review,” Intl. Journal of Electric Power and Energy Systems, vol. 43, no.
1, pp.11–19, 2012

180
123. M. Routimo, M. Salo, H. Tuusa “Comparison of voltage-source and
current-source shunt active power filters,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron,
vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 636–643, 2007

124. J.L.Dominguez, J.Arguelles, M.. Arrieta, B. Jaurieta, M. Benito and I.

Zugazaga“ New Quick Convergence Invariant Digital Filter for Phasor
Estimation,” Electric Power System Research, vol.79, no.5, pp. 705-713,
2009

125. P K Dash, A C Liew, D P Swain and B Mishra “Fast tracking of

transient power system signals using fuzzy LMS algorithm,” Electrical
Power & Energy Systems, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 555–561, 1998

126. D. A. Gonzalez and J. C. McCall “Design of Filtersto Reduce Harmonic

Distortion in Industrial PowerSystems,” IEEE Trans. on Industry
Applications, vol.1, no.23,pp. 504-512, 1987

127. A. Ludbrook “Harmonic Filters for Notch Reduction,” IEEE Trans. on

Industry Applications, vol. 24, no.5, pp. 947-954, 1988

128. L. Saribulut, A. Teke, M. Tumay “Artificial neural network based

discrete fuzzy logic controlled active power filter,” IET Power
Electronics, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 1536–1546, 2014.

129. S. Bhattacharaya, D. M. Divan, B. Banarji, “Synchronous reference

frame harmonic isolator using series active filter,” Proc. 4th EPE,
Florence, vol. 3, pp. 030–035, 1991

130. S. Reyes, P. Salmeron, H. Kim “Instantaneous reactive power theory

applied to active power filter compensation: different approaches,

181
 assessment and experimental results,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol. 55,
no. 1, pp. 184–196, 2008

131. G. H. Bode, D. G. Holmes “Implementation of three level hysteresis

current control for single phase voltage source inverter,” Power Electron
Specialists conference, 2000. PESC 00. 2000 IEEE 31st Annual vol.1,
pp.33-38, 2000.

132. Kuo-Kai Shyu, Ming-Ji Yang, Yen-Mo Chen, Yi-Fei Lin, “Model
reference adaptive control design for shunt active power filter system,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 97–106, 2008.

133. Siew-Chong Tan, Y.M. Lai, C.K. Tse “A unified approach to the design
of PWM-base sliding mode controller for basic DC-DC converters in
continuous conduction mode,” IEEE Trans. circuits and systems, vol.53,
no.8, pp. 1816-1827, 2006.

134. A.Abrishamifar, A.A.Ahamad, M, Mohamadian “Fixed switching

frequency sliding mode control for single-phase unipolar inverter,” IEEE
Trans. power Electron, vol.27, no.5, pp. 2507-2514, may 2012.

135. S. Oucheriah, L. Guo “ PWM based adaptive sliding mode control for
boost DC-DC converters,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol. 60, no. 8, pp.
3291–3300, 2013

136. F. Betin, D. Pinchon, Gerard-Andre Capolino “A time-varying sliding

surface for robust position control of a DC motor drive,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 462–472, 2002.

182
137. E. Bianconi, J. Calvente, R. Giral, E. Mamarelis, G. Petrone, C. A.
Ramos-Paja, M.Vitelli “ A fast current based MPPT technique employing
sliding mode control,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 1168-
1178, 2013

138. M. A. Mahmud, H. R. Pota, M. J. Hossain “Dynamic stability of three

phase grid connected photovoltaic system using zero dynamic design
approach” IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 564–571, 2012

139. Wu CJ, Chiang JC, Yen SS, Liao CJ, Yang JS, Guo TY “Investigation
and Mitigation of harmonics amplification problems caused by single-
tuned filter,” IEEE Trans Power Del . vol.13, no.3, pp.800-806, 1998

140. Smitha Krishnan’ Lathika B.S “Shunt Active Power Filter Based on
Fuzzy-Hysteresis Controller,” for Electric Traction System 10th National
Conference on Technological Trends (NCTT09) , pp.161-166, 2009

141. S. W. Sohn, Y. B. Lim, J. J. Yun, H. Choi, and H. D. Bae “A Filter Bank

and a Self-Tuning Adaptive Filter for the Harmonic and Interharmonic
Estimation in Power Signals,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas, vol. 61, no. 1,
pp. 64-73, 2012

142. S. K. Jain and S. N. Singh, “Fast Harmonic Estimation of Stationary

and Time-Varying Signals Using EA-AWNN,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas,
vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 335-343, 2013

143. S. K. Jain and S. N. Singh, “Exact Model Order ESPRIT Technique for
Harmonics and Interharmonics Estimation,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas,
vol. 61, no.7, pp. 1915-1923, July 2012

183
144. Ray, P.K. and Panda, G “ Harmonics estimation using KF-Adaline
algorithm and elimination using hybrid active power filter in distorted
power system signals,” International Journal of Modeling, Identification
and Control, vol. 16, no. 2, pp.149–158, 2012

145. P.S.Puhan, P.K.Ray & G.Panda “ Development of real-time

implementation 5/5 rule based fuzzy logic Controller Shunt active Power
Filter for Power quality Improvement, International journal of Emerging
Electrical Power System, vol.17.no.6,pp.607-617,2016

146. P.K.Ray, P.S.Puhan & G.Panda “Real time Harmonics Estimation of

Distorted Power System Signal” International journal of Electrical Power
and Energy System. Vol.78, pp.91-98, 2016

147. P.S.Puhan, P.K.Ray & G.Panda “AComparative Analysis of Shunt

Active Power filter and Hybrid Active power filter with Different Control
Technique applied forHarmonic Elimination in a Single phase System”
International Journal of Modeling, Identification and Control, vol.24,
no.1, pp.19-18,2015

148. P.K.Ray, P.S.Puhan & G.Panda “Improved Recursive Newton Type

Algorithm based power system frequency estimation” International
journal of Electrical Power and Energy System. vol.65, pp.231-237, 2015

149. G.Panda, P.K.Ray & P.S.Puhan “Harmonic estimation of distorted

power system signals employing two hybrid strategies” International
Journal of Modeling, Identification and Control, vol.22, no.1, pp.20-32,
2014

184
150. G.Panda, P.K.Ray, P.S.Puhan & S.Das “Novel schemes used for
estimation of power system harmonics and their elimination in a three-
phase distribution system International Journal of Electrical Power and
Energy Systems” vol.53, pp.842-856, 2013

Thank you

185