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Keywords: To evaluate the strength of a connection after exposure to fire, the microstructure/property relationships and
T-component influences of these effects on high temperature strength are needed to discuss structural elements exposed to a
Post-fire behavior heat treatment and to determine its mechanical properties. This study focuses on understanding the structural
Moment-rotation curve behavior of the connection under post-fire conditions. The aim of the work is also to provide a moment-rotation
Microstructure curve, failure mechanism and microstructure for a connection whose component is exposed to heat treatment.
This aim was achieved through five tests that were conducted on a full-scale beam-to-column connection using a
T-component obtained from rolled I-profiles by cutting along the web plane. The moment-rotation curves and
failure modes of the connection at ambient temperature were compared to the moment-rotation curves and failure
modes of the connection whose elements were exposed to high-temperature conditions. The material properties of
the specimen element exposed to the heat treatment were also investigated by comparing them to those of the
original specimen. The test results show that there are differences between the mechanical properties and mi-
crostructures of the heated and original specimens. The differences in these specimens are reflected in the
morphology of the fractures. The reason for the fractures is that microstructure-changes contribute to brittle
behavior in members. The experimental tests indicated that, post-fire, steel connections can be subjected to large
deformations at a lower strength and are more likely to fracture early.
1. Introduction There have also been studies on the effects of fire on steel structures
and components in the last four decades because the thermal conduc-
Beam-to-column connections play an important role in the behavior tivity of steel is high. At the same time, the concentration of material
of steel frames. Steel frames are traditionally analyzed and designed by within the connection region and differential temperature distribution
assuming that beam-to-column connections have a significant stiffness should be considered within the connection. When heated, connections
and strength. The effect of the moment on the rotational deformation of and their elements expand and lose both their strength and stiffness,
the connections must be considered. Therefore, the behavior of beam-to- decreasing the load carrying capacity. As a result, some studies [7–10]
column connection is represented by the M-ϴ curves. Various numerical have been conducted to better understand the connection behavior and
[1] and experimental [2–5] investigations have shown that the actual its effects on structures in fire. Fire tests on steel structures have shown
behavior of the joints falls between rigid and pinned behavior when their that the temperature within the partially embedded connections in the
moment-rotation curves have been classified as semi-rigid. Therefore, concrete slab is lower than that of the connected steel members [8]. In
beams are free of end moments only if they have complete freedom of addition to experimental studies, due to the high cost of experimental
rotation at the supports, and conversely, they have end moments if the tests and the limitations in the number of geometrical and mechanical
end rotation is prevented partially, such as in the connections in this parameters, some studies [11–13] have focused on the finite elements
paper. Several moment-rotation relationships [6] have been derived from methods for modeling the behavior of structural connections in some
experimental studies to determine the behavior of semi-rigid connections cases while considering the influence of thermal restraint. Additionally,
and perform computer-based nonlinear analysis [1], which includes the prediction methods [14] for the behavior of connections exposed to fire
effects of the flexibility of the connections that have been developed to use an approach based on numerical methods to simulate complicated
design steel frames with semi-rigid connections using mathematical structures with numerous parameters.
models. To provide structural integrity when beam deflections are high due to
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2018.01.007
Received 27 August 2017; Received in revised form 20 December 2017; Accepted 23 January 2018
Table 1
Test details.
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M. Sagiroglu Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164
Fig. 7. Experimental setup (a) the front view (b) the side view.
response of the connections in post-fire conditions, T-IPE300 ele- 2.2. Test setup and procedure
ments for two test specimens were first heated and then cooled
down. In all test specimens, the materials were S235. Coupon ten- The T-element, which is a connection component, was first heated to
sion tests of the structural steel materials of the column stiffener, T 600 C over 5 h in a furnace, as illustrated Fig. 3, because the critical
profile, flange, and web of the beam and column were performed in temperature is approximately 550–610 C in simple supported beams for
accordance with UNE-EN 10002-1 [24]. The steel grade of the test typical loadings [25]. Then, heating was stopped, and the component
materials is S235. began to cool down slowly in the furnace until it reached ambient tem-
The basic configuration of the test specimens is illustrated in Fig. 2. perature. After cooling, the connection was joined with this connection
The geometric parameter indices of the specimens are summarized in component, and the post-fire connection specimen was loaded at ambient
Table 1. The parameters in Table 1 were defined as the depth between temperature until failure to evaluate the effects of the post-fire connec-
fillets of the beam (h1), height of the T-section (hy), length of the T- tion component on the moment-rotation behavior.
section (X), and height ratio (H), which is equal to hy/h1. Only the T- The tensile tests were undertaken at ambient temperature to pro-
component of the beam was exposed to the listed temperature. vide information on the stress-strain behavior of steel in a T-
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M. Sagiroglu Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164
Fig. 9. (a, e) Photographs of the T-elements in the T300-Hav-PF experiment, (b, c) optical micrograph showing the tempered structure, and (d, f) optical
micrograph showing the tempered structure after lapping and polishing process.
component both before and after exposure to elevated temperatures. ultimate stress and energy-dissipated decreased. The tests [20] showed
Fig. 4 shows the test arrangement. European standards give S235 steel that the steels lost more yield strength at approximately 600 C.
whose chemical composition is 0.2% C, 0.55% Si, 1.4% Mn, 0.3% Ni, In the test, the beam was statically loaded with a mechanical load by a
0.045% P, 0.045% S, 0.3% Cr, 0.08% Mo and 0.02% Al. The 6 tensile 900-kN hydraulic jack with a maximum piston stroke of 300 mm. The
test specimens were obtained from the web of a typical IPE300 profiles jack moved downward and applied a tensile force to the end of the beam.
and were of full thickness of them. Their dimensions were prepared in The applied load strains at the connections were measured from strain
accordance with [26]. Then, 3 specimens were exposed to heat, and gauges (TML YEFLA-5 (a maximum strain of 15%–20%)). The displace-
the procedure described above was performed until it reached the ments (DT) of the connection, beam, T-element, and flange of the column
ambient temperature before the tensile tests. The tests were driven were measured using linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT), as
under displacement control. The stress-strain curves for the specimens shown in Fig. 6. The tests, whose configurations and images are illus-
are shown in Fig. 5. While the post-fire elastic modulus decreased but trated in Fig. 7, were performed under displacement control with a
did not show considerable change, the post-fire yield strength, constant speed of 0.01 mm/s up to the collapse of the specimens. A length
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Fig. 10. An SEM micrograph showing the surface of specimens: (a) unheated specimen and (b) tempered at 600 C.
Fig. 11. Images from the fracture surface of the specimen tempered at 600 C: (a) at 130 X magnification, (b) at 200 X magnification, (c) at 2000 X magnification,
and (d) at 4000 X magnification.
of 1500 mm was chosen for the beam and column [21] because this study Ref. [27]:
aimed at developing a realistic stress pattern at the connection, and the XDT1
3 2
Lload XDT1
fracture of several specimens, i.e., the ultimate load, was attained with a arctanðδDT1 δDT5 EIP 6
2
specific testing machine [27]. θ¼ (2)
L1
The results were collected using a data logging device that recorded
all measurements for the test duration. The rotation and bending moment where I is the moment of inertia and E is the Young's modulus of the
(M) were calculated using the displacements of the T-stub connection beam.
multiplied by the distance between the load application point and beam Moment-rotation curves represent important features, such as
end bolted to the column (Lload), respectively: resistance, stiffness, rotation, and ductility. Further, the knee-range of
this curve is the transition zone between the initial and post-limit
M ¼ PLload (1) stiffness [27]. Its lower and upper boundaries are at MminkR and
The rotational deformation of the connection (Ɵ) is equal to the rotation Ɵ minkR and at MsupkR and rotation Ɵ supkR, respec-
connection rotation. The beam rotation is approximately given by tively. The ductility of a connection (Ψj) is a characteristic parameter
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Fig. 12. SEM micrographs showing (a) the fracture surface of the tempered specimen at 500 X magnification, (b) the surface of the tempered specimen at 500 X
magnification, (c) the fracture surface of the tempered specimen at element 1000 X magnification, and (d) the surface element of the tempered specimen at 1000 X
magnification.
Fig. 13. The moment-rotation curves of the T300-Hmax and T300-Hmax- Fig. 14. The moment-rotation curves of the T300-Hav and T300-Hav-PF tests.
PF tests.
θMj:max
ψj:maxload ¼ (4)
θMRd
that represents the length of the yield plateau of the moment–rotation
response. In other words, the ductility of a connection is the difference After testing, heated T-components were removed for examination. In
between the rotation value that corresponds to the connection's plastic this study, microstructural examinations for both the specimens heated at
resistance, ƟMRd, and the total rotation capacity, ƟCd, as illustrated in 600 C and then cooled to room temperature; the unheated specimens
Fig. 8 [21]: were performed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and optical
microscope. The SEM microstructures were examined longitudinally in
θCd the thickness direction of the fracture, after the surface element under-
ψj ¼ (3)
θMRd went polishing, and the lower third of the object was etched. They were
examined in a Quanta FEG250 ultra-high solution field emission scan-
Additionally, the rotation values at the maximum load, ƟMj.max, and
ning electron microscope (UHR-FESEM) at 20 kV at the High Technology
corresponding ductility levels, Ψj.maxload, are given as follows [21]:
Application and Research Center of Erzurum Technical University.
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1.68
1.70
1.36
1.21
0.33
images with magnified views of the T-element fractures, which is illus-
trated in Fig. 9a. A tear around the lower bolt hole is observed by optical
Ψj.max load
specimen after the tests, are shown in Fig. 10. The images show the
surface element of both specimens. While there are almost no precipitates
ӨMj.max
0.114
0.064
0.11
0.0067
0.0085
0.0073
0.0036
0.004
Rotation (rad)
0.068
0.046
0.048
0.021
0.01
specimen are lower than those in the (b) heated specimen, showing that
the deformation capacity is poorer the strength is higher in the original
Sj.pl
0.28
0.39
0.60
0.31
0.24
specimen after testing are shown in Fig. 11. The microstructures were
Sj.ini
8.35
Mj.max
27.54
18.96
18.51
18.44
9.38
8.25
4.82
are decorated with precipitates. Sha et al. reported that the grain
boundary of ferrite sliding begins at 600 C [29]. As a result, the grain
boundary strength weakens when the steel temperature increases.
KR (knee-range)
T300-Hmax
T300-Hmin
T300-Hav
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Table 3
Comparison of moment–rotation characteristics.
Groups KR (knee- Resistance (KN.m) Stiffness (KN m/ Rotation (rad) Ψj Ψj.max Energy Dissipated
range) rad) load (kN.m.rad)
T300-Hmax %- T300- 31.04 64.86 33.04 28.16 8.00 69.12 16.81 8.19 249.44 278.91 27.97
Hmax-PF %
T300-Hav %- T300- 45.32 57.87 55.96 52.72 102.70 78.26 55.06 55.31 105.65 106.72 80.59
Hav-PF%
T300-Hmax %- T300- 49.97 56.73 31.15 31.20 2.25 32.35 57.52 46.72 116.11 133.13 1.20
Hav %
T300-Hmax-PF %- 60.34 41.57 54.72 54.72 91.90 52.38 39.39 39.39 27.19 27.18 72.73
T300-Hav-PF%
T300-Hav %- T300- 37.86 18.80 2.74 4.42 5.62 54.34 25.84 26.25 61.70 62.53 28.82
Hmax-PF %
T300-Hmin %- T300- 55.81 48.61 54.89 51.17 209.33 79.17 44.83 45.58 161.44 164.90 75.73
Hav-PF %
T300-Hmin %- T300- 11.41 12.05 0.38 7.84 61.19 56.25 8.96 10.20 105.55 108.28 11.03
Hmax-PF %
Fig. 15. Simplified T-stub model and failure modes for T-stub [30].
Fig. 16. The failure modes (a) in T300-Hmax (b) in T300-Hav (c) in T300-Hmin.
steel-bolted, beam-to-column connections with a T element are reported Hav-PF specimens are lower than those of the T300-Hmax and T300-Hav
in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 and listed in Table 2 (H ¼ height of beam to height specimens, respectively, due to the post-fire effect on the connections.
of T joint and PF ¼ post fire connection). Table 2 shows that the knee- Additionally, the plastic flexural resistance moment values, maximum
range for the specimens decreased with post-fire effects on connec- bending moments and bending moment capacities for the T300-Hmax-PF
tions. The plastic flexural resistance moments, maximum bending mo- almost are equal to the values for the T300-Hmin specimen. The rate of
ments and bending moment capacities for the T300-Hmax-PF and T300- the increases in the initial stiffness to the post-limit stiffness, for the
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Table 4
Failure modes in tests.
Test name T- element H ¼ hy/h1 Fracture of bolts in top tensile row Bearing failure of T- element Shear failure of T- element
Fig. 17. (a,b) The failure modes in the flange of T300-Hmax-PF and (c) the failure modes of the bolts connected to the beam web.
T300-Hmax-PF and T300-Hav-PF specimens are higher than those of the the Ψj and Ψjmax load values for the T300-Hmax and T300-Hav speci-
original ones (T300-Hmax and T300-Hav). Meanwhile, the rate of the mens increased with post-fire exposure, the energy dissipation for the
increase in the initial stiffness to the post-limit stiffness increases with the T300-Hmax and T300-Hav specimens decreased. Additionally, the en-
heat effect, which exposes the connections. The rotations of the plastic ergy dissipations for T300-Hmax-PF were almost equal to those for the
flexural resistance of the T300-Hmax-PF and T300-Hav-PF specimens T300-Hmin specimen.
decreased in comparison with those of the T300-Hmax and T300-Hav Figs. 13 and 14 show that the moment values generally decrease
specimens. Additionally, the rotations of the plastic flexural resistance whereas the rotation values increase with heat treatment. Table 3 gives a
for T300-Hmax-PF are smaller than those for the T300-Hmin specimen. comparison of the moment-rotation characteristic values between the
While the maximum rotations and rotation capacities increase with heat original specimens and heated specimens. For example, in the first line of
treatment for the T300-Hmax-PF and T300-Hmax specimens, they Table 3, the knee-range and energy dissipation of T300-Hmax was
decrease with heat treatment for the T300-Hav-PF and T300-Hav speci- 31.04% and 27.97% greater, respectively, than that of T300-Hmax-PF.
mens. The maximum rotations and rotation capacities for the T300- However, the moment-rotation curve of T300-Hav-PF is shorter than
Hmax-PF are almost equal to those for the T300-Hmin specimen. While that of the original specimen because the fracture of the web plate in the
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T300-Hav-PF specimen is easily started from the hole and the specimen better understanding of the behavior; microstructures and failure
failed from this fracture before the end of loading. However, while this mechanisms of steel connections jointed with a T-element after a fire.
situation is not observed in the test of the T300-Hav specimen, it is Many factors can affect the post-fire behavior of structural steel. When
observed in the test of T300-Hav-PF. It is believed that the failure heated, the specimen exceeds the stress limit, its flexibility decreases, and
occurred in response to vulnerability around the hole during loading plastic deformation starts earlier; this outcome occurs because the
because the material flakes and resistance decreased with heat treatment. modulus of elasticity decreases, and deformation increases with tem-
Additionally, the mechanism and some moment and rotation values in perature. Although plastic deformation increases with temperature, en-
the T300-Hav-PF specimen look similar to those in the T300-Hmin ergy dissipation decreases due to lower stress, as demonstrated in the
specimen. The plastic flexural resistance moment values, maximum moment-rotation curves and in the stress-strain curves of the specimens
bending moments and bending moment capacities for T300-Hmax-PF are in this study. The rotation in post-fire specimens is higher due to the
almost equal to the values for the T300-Hmin specimen. Additionally, the increase of the dislocation density, as is demonstrated in the moment-
maximum rotations and rotation capacities for T300-Hmax-PF are almost rotation curves and in the microstructures of the heat-treated speci-
equal to those for the T300-Hmin specimen. As a result, Hmin can also be mens in this study.
used instead of Hmax-PF models. Furthermore, the height in the web of In the study, there are differences in the morphology and size of the
the T element has a more important role post-fire than the flange of the T- precipitates between the heated and original specimens. It was observed
element or the bolts in the plates. that the dislocation density was lower, and the dimples were smaller in
the original specimen than in the specimen with a tempered T-element;
3.3. Failure modes this outcome shows that the deformation capacity is poorer, and the
strength is higher in the original sample than that in the heated sample.
Similar to the connections in this study, in Eurocode 3 Part 1.8 [30], The differences in these specimens are reflected in the fracture
three different failure modes that depend on the ratio between the flex- morphology. One of the post-fire tests failed due to a fracture in the T-
ural resistance of the flanges and the axial resistance of the bolts have element web. The reason for this fracture is from changes in the material
been specified for simplified T-stub connections, which are joined with of the heated element, such as the dimples, the dislocation density, and
an extended endplate, as shown in Fig. 15. According to Eurocode 3 Part the precipitates. Because these changes cause brittle behavior in mem-
1.8 [30], there is Mode 1-complete yielding of the flanges, Mode bers, the member is exposed to heat fractures earlier before reaching
2-yielding of flange and bolt fracture and Mode 3-bolt failure without end normal failure loading point. The shear capacity can degrade in steel
plate yielding. For T-stub connections that are not exposed to the heat beams that are exposed to fire, which can lead to the early failure of the
treatment, their final failure modes at the end of the test were illustrated beams. The results show that heating causes earlier fracture, although the
in Fig. 16. The final deformation states of all connections at the end of maximum connection capacity under post-fire conditions increases. As a
both post-fire tests and normal tests are comparatively given in Table 4, result, failure depends on the changes in the materials due to heating and
while images of failure at the end of the post-fire tests are illustrated in heating does not directly affect the failure mechanism. A larger
Fig. 17 and Fig. 18. While T300-Hmax, T300-Hav and T300-Hmax-PF maximum rotation capacity could not be observed in this connection
specimens failed in tests due to bolt fracture in top tensile rows of the because of early failure, although the heated specimen shows lower
T-element flange, T300-Hmin and T300-Hav-PF failed because of shear strength and higher rotation under normal conditions.
failure in the web of the T-element. Additionally, all specimens except The experimental tests have demonstrated that steel connections can
T300-Hav-PF experienced the bearing failure of the T-element, as illus- be subjected to large deformations under smaller loads and fracture
trated in Table 4. However, this failure did not lead to failure of the under post-fire conditions. As a result, the proposed study may be used as
connections. the basis for further investigations on evaluating the behavior of post-fire
It can be found that after cooling from 600 C, the failure mode of the steel connections.
T300-Hmax-PF test is the same as its original failure mode (T300-Hmax
test) without fire exposure. Both of the tests failed due to the flange of the Acknowledgments
T-element yielding and due to the fracture of the bolts at the top row in
tension, which is a Mode 2 failure, as shown in Fig. 17. However, after The author wishes to thank High Technology Application and
cooling from 600 C, the failure mode of the T300-Hav-PF test is not the Research Center (YUTAM) in Erzurum Technical University, Turkey, and
same as its original failure mode (T300-Hav test) without fire exposure. Ataturk University, Turkey, for using its Structural Laboratory, as well as
While the failure mode of the T300-Hav test is due to the flange of the T- the support given by Prof. Dr. A. Cüneyt Aydın, Dr. Mahyar Maali, Dr.
element yielding and the fracture of the bolts at the top row in tension, Mahmut Kılıç and the Gençler Metal steel company for making the test
the failure mode of the T300-Hav-PF test is a shear failure in the web of specimens available.
the T-element, as illustrated in Fig. 18. This failure state is demonstrated
in the T300-Hmin test in Fig. 16, although the flange of the T-element References
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