Lecture - Notes - 2010 - Earth Retaining Structures

EARTH RETAINING
STRUCTURES
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
DR. MOHAMED I. AMER

Professor of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CAIRO UNIVERSITY
D: General/ ‫ اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬/Lecture Note on ERS (H)

Earth Reataining Structures
Ch.1 Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
Prof. Mohamed I. Amer
Table of Contents
1. CHAPTER (1): LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES

1.1 General .....................................................................................................................4
1.2 Types Of Earth Pressure .........................................................................................5
1.3 Earth Pressure Theories .........................................................................................5
1.3.1 Rankine's Theory.............................................................................................5
1.3.2 Coulomb’s Theory ..........................................................................................5
1.4 Assumptions And Analysis Of Rankine's Theory ................................................6
1.4.1 Assumptions ....................................................................................................6
1.4.2 Analysis ...........................................................................................................6
1.5 Active & Passive Shear Planes .............................................................................10
1.6 Effect of wall yielding ............................................................................................11
1.7 Comparison Among The Values of K’s ...............................................................12
1.7.1 Relation Between Wall Movement & K’s ....................................................12
1.7.2 Earth Pressure In Cohesionless Soil..............................................................12
1.7.3 Earth Pressure Distribution ...........................................................................13
1.8 Inclined Cohesionless Ground Surface in Rankine’s Analysis..........................14
1.9 Distribution of Earth pressure .............................................................................15
1.9.1 Lateral Effect Of Ground Water On Earth Pressure .....................................15
1.9.2 Effect of Surcharge .......................................................................................16
1.9.3 Effect of Multilayer Soil System...................................................................16
1.9.4 Effect of Inclination of Wall Back ................................................................17
1.10 Lateral Earth Pressure Against Rough Walls Coulomb’s Analysis ................17
1.11 Earth Pressure Distribution ................................................................................18
1.11.1 Effect of Ground Water on Earth Pressure .................................................18
1.11.2 Effect of Surcharge .....................................................................................19
1.11.3 Effect of Inclined Back & Inclined Backfill ...............................................19
1.12 Graphical Solution “Wedge Method” ................................................................20
1.12.1 Step by Step Procedure ...............................................................................21
1.13 Solved Problems....................................................................................................22
1.14 Problems ...............................................................................................................29
2. Chapter (2): Analysis and Design of Retaining Walls

2.1 General ....................................................................................................................33
2.2 Types of Retaining walls ........................................................................................33
(1 of 102)
2.3 Design Procedure of Retaining Walls ..................................................................34

2.4 Proportioning of Retaining walls .........................................................................34
2.4.1 Gravity Retaining walls ................................................................................34
2.4.2 Cantilever Type Retaining wall ....................................................................36
2.5 Overall Stability of Retaining walls .......................................................................37
2.5.1 Stability of Gravity Wall ...............................................................................37
2.5.1.1 Check of stresses at critical sections of gravity walls ................................39
2.5.2 Stability of Cantilever Wall ..........................................................................40
2.5.3 Design of Critical Sections of Cantilever Walls ...........................................41
2.6 Solved Problems....................................................................................................43
2.7 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls (MSE) .......................................................55
2.6.1 General ..........................................................................................................55
2.8 Problems .................................................................................................................62
3. Chapter (3): Design of Sheetpile Walls

3.1 General ....................................................................................................................66
3.2 Advantages of Using Sheetpiles .............................................................................67
3.3 Types of Sheetpile Materials ..................................................................................67
3.4 Statical Systems of Sheetpiles ................................................................................68
3.5 Design of Cantilever Sheetpile Wall......................................................................69
3.5.1 Cantilever Sheetpile In Sand .........................................................................70
3.5.2 Cantilever sheetpile in clay ..........................................................................73
3.6 Design of Anchored Sheetpile Wall......................................................................75
3.6.1 Condition of Free Earth Support ...................................................................76
3.6.2 Condition of Fixed Earth Support ................................................................79
3.7 Anchors ...................................................................................................................82
3.7.1 Design of Anchor Plates ..............................................................................83
3.7.2 Length of Anchor Rod .................................................................................84
3.7.3 Check Of Stability of Anchoring at Lower Failure Plane: ............................85
3.8 BRACED CUTS.....................................................................................................86
3.8.1 Lateral Earth pressure ...................................................................................86
3.8.3 Stability of Braced Cuts ................................................................................91
3.9 Solved Problems.....................................................................................................96
3.10 Problems .............................................................................................................101
(2 of 102)
CHAPTER (1)
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

THEORIES
(3 of 102)
CHAPTER (1)
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
1.1 GENERAL
It is one of the most important applications of using shear strength parameters in the analysis
of soil-structure interaction. Figure (1.1) presents examples of that applications and they are:
1. Basement walls.
2. Retaining walls.
3. Sheetpile walls.
4. Tunnels.
5. Sewage & water pipelines.
6. Pile foundations.
(1) (2)
(5)
(4)
(3) (6)
Fig. (1.1): Applications of retaining walls-soil-foundations interaction
(4 of 102)
1.2 TYPES OF EARTH PRESSURE

- At-rest earth pressure
When the earth retaining structure has no chance to move.
ex. pile foundations
- Active earth pressure

When the earth retaining structure has the tendency to move away from backfill.
ex. retaining walls
- Passive earth pressure

When the earth retaining structure has the tendency to move towards the backfill.
ex. bridge abutments
1.3 EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES

1.3.1 Rankine's Theory
It deals with equilibrium of a soil element due to lateral movement of soil, see Fig. (1.2).
σ1
σ3 σ3
σ1
Fig. (1.2): Stresses on a soil element due to lateral movement
1.3.2 Coulomb’s Theory
It deals with the equilibrium of a wedge of soil which is about to fail, see Fig. (1.3).
E
R
Fig. (1.3): Equilibrium of a soil wedge due to lateral movement

(5 of 102)
Both theories are dealing with the state of stresses in the soil element or soil mass just at the limit of
equilibrium. Therefore, it called limiting equilibrium (or plastic equilibrium) analysis.
1.4 ASSUMPTIONS AND ANALYSIS OF RANKINE'S THEORY

1.4.1 Assumptions
1. Equilibrium & analysis are for soil element.
2. The back of the retaining wall is smooth (i.e. no friction between the wall & backfill).
3. The back of the retaining wall is vertical.
1.4.2 Analysis
Assume two-dimensional element of soil is stressed to failure under principal stresses σ1 &
σ3. Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion presents the state of stresses at the failure plane as shown
in Fig. (1.4).
σ1 τ
α
σ τ
σ3 σ3
(σ,τ)
α σ
σ1 σ3 σ1
(a) (b)
Fig. (1.4): Failure mechanism of two dimensional element
a) Principal stresses on a soil element,

b) Mohr-Columb failure criterion
The shear strength of the soil element is given by:
s = c + σ tan φ ……………………………………….…… (1)

While the normal & shear stresses on the plane of failure are (σ, τ) and given by:
σ1 + σ3 σ1 − σ3
σ= + cos 2α ………………………………… (2)
2 2
σ1 − σ3
and, τ = sin 2α …………………………..…………… (3)
2
(6 of 102)
at failure τ is equal to s
so, eqn (1) = eqn (3)
∴
σ1 − σ3
2
sin 2α = c + { σ1 +2 σ3 + σ1 −2 σ3 cos 2 α}tan φ ……………………………….… (4)
solving using the trigonometric relations
sin 2 α = 2 sin α cos α

& cos 2 α = 2 cos2 α - 1
resulting in :
c + σ 3 tan φ
σ1 = σ 3 + ……………………….… (5)
sin α cos α − cos 2 α tan φ
α is the angle of inclination of the plane of failure. It happen when the stresses on the
plane of failure is in its limits, i.e. when the value of σ1 cannot be increased any further.
In other words when :
d
(sin α cos α – cos2α tan φ) = 0
dα
cos2α – sin2α + 2 tan φ sin α cos α = 0

from which
φ ………………………. (6)
α = 45˚ +
2
Since the stresses are symmetrical with respect to the major and minor principal axes, we
get two sets of failure planes making angles of (± α) with the major principal plane, see
Fig. (1.5). σ1
+α
σ3 σ3
Fig. (1.5): Failure planes of two
−α
dimensional element
σ1
Assume an element of soil at a depth “h” from ground surface. The element is subjected to a
vertical stress (σy) and a horizontal stress (σx). If the wall a-a is stand still in its position, there is no
shear stress developed on the vertical and horizontal planes on the element. So, those planes are
(7 of 102)
principal planes and (σx) & (σy) are principal stresses. These stresses can be presented by Mohr’s
Circle No. (1) and this case called AT-REST CONDITION.
If the frictionless wall a-a is allowed to move away from the soil mass, the value of σx decreases. If
the deformation continues, σx soon reaches a minimum value at which plastic equilibrium is
attained in the soil.
Any additional movement of the wall away from the soil mass will result in failure of the soil. This
failure is called ACTIVE FAILURE.
σy
h
σx
a (a)
Circle No. (3)

Passive Failure
Circle No. (1)
Circle No. (2)
At-rest cond.
Active Failure
φ
α = 45°+
2
φ
C φ
α = 45° -
2
σX σX σy σX
Min Max
(b)
Fig. (1.6): Mechanism of coefficients of earth pressure

a) principal stresses on a soil element at depth h,
b) Mohr-Columb failure criterion
(8 of 102)
Since failure is obtained by reducing σx, it must be, then, the minor principal stress (σ3), while σy is
the major principal strews (σ1).
The relation between σ1 and σ3 at failure is given by equation no.(7) as :
c + σ 3 tan φ
σ1 = σ 3 + ………………….....……(7)
sin α cos α − cos 2 α tan φ
φ
Substituting α = 45 + into eqn (7), get:
2
φ φ
σ3 =σ1 tan2(45° - ) – 2c tan (45° - )
2 2
φ φ
Or, σX =σy tan2(45° - ) – 2c tan (45° - ) ………………….…. (8)
2 2
In other words 1 − sin φ 1 − sin φ

− 2c
1 + sin φ 1 + sin φ
σh = σv ……………….…. (9)
Where:
1 − sin φ φ
= tan2(45° - ) = constant = K
1 + sin φ 2
Where constant K is called the coefficient of lateral earth pressure
In the case that is represented by circle No (2) in Fig (1.6) it is called the coefficient of active earth
pressure, Ka
1 − sin φ
i.e. Ka =
1 + sin φ
σh = σv Ka – 2c K a
and …………….…..…. (10)
If the wall is moved against the soil, so that, the soil is compressed laterally, the
horizontal pressure (σx) is increased until reaches its maximum value (σ1) just before
failure and still it is a case of plastic equilibrium. Any further movement will result in a
soil failure.
This case is represented by circle No. (3) in Fig (1.7) and the failure is called PASSIVE
FAILURE.
(9 of 102)
Equation (8) becomes:

φ φ
σX =σy tan2(45° + ) – 2c tan (45° + ) ………………….… (11)
2 2
φ 1 + sin φ
tan2(45° + )= = Kp
2 1 − sin φ
1 + sin φ
and is called the coefficient of passive earth pressure =
1 − sin φ
And eq. (11) becomes
σh = σv Kp + 2c Kp ………………….. (12)
Defination of at–rest condition is represented by circle No. (1) in Fig (1.6). The earth pressure, in
this case, is called AT–REST EARTH PRESSURE. And the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, in this
case, is denoted by (K0) and is called At–Rest earth pressure coefficient.
Since the At Rest condition is not a failure condition, K0 cannot be calculated from plastic theory.
K0 is determined experimentally in the laboratory with the aid of Poisson’s ratio. A widely spread
formula of K0 is:
K0 = 1- sin φ ……………………………. (13)
1.5 ACTIVE & PASSIVE SHEAR PLANES
Fig. (1.7): Active and passive shear planes
(10 of 102)
1.6 EFFECT OF WALL YIELDING
Fig. (1.7): Rotation of Frictionless Wall about the Bottom

a) Active failure
b) Passive failure
(11 of 102)
1.7 COMPARISON AMONG THE VALUES OF K’s

1.7.1 Relation Between Wall Movement & K’s
K
6 Kp
5
2
K0
1
Ka
Away from wall Towards the wall
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Fig. (1.8): Relation between Wall Movement and K’s
1.7.2 Earth Pressure In Cohesionless Soil
Referring to eqn. (14):
σh = σv Ka – 2c Ka …………………….. (14)
For cohesionless soil c = 0
∴ σh = σv Ka for active pressure
σh = σv Kp for passive pressure
At any depth inside the soil mass σv

h
σv = γ h
σh
Therefore:
σh = γ h Ka in case of active
σh = γ h Kp in case of passive
In other words:
σe = γ h Ka = active earth pressure
σp = γ h Kp = passive earth pressure
(12 of 102)
1.7.3 Earth Pressure Distribution
φ
-2c tan (45°- )
2
Rankine’s active state
φ
2c tan (45°- )
2
Rankine’s passive state
Fig. (1.9): Distribution of earth pressure
(13 of 102)
1.8 INCLINED COHESIONLESS GROUND SURFACE IN RANKINE’S ANALYSIS
Fig. (1.10): Earth pressure direction in Rankine’s analysis
With inclined ground the Rankine’s method considers static equilibrium of an element at
a depth y. The soil weight acts vertically, and the lateral earth pressure is conjugate to the
weight as in Fig (1.10). Thus, the lateral earth pressure acts parallel to the ground surface.
Note that the Rankine’s method assumes a frictionless wall, therefore, the stresses on the
vertical face of the element are principal stresses. Rankine made an analytical solution of
this case to obtain.
Active pressure:
cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ

Ka = cos β
cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ
Passive pressure :
cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ

Kp = cos β
cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ
(14 of 102)
1.9 DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH PRESSURE
β
ea = γh Ka
γ, φ,
Ea = (Ka)
= γh 2 Ka
2
Ea
h
β
dh
ea
Figure (1.11): Distribution of earth pressure
1.9.1 Lateral Effect Of Ground Water On Earth Pressure
γ, φ,
h1 E1
c=0
e1
=
h2 E2
Ew
e2 ew e2 ew
Fig. (1.12): Effect of Ground Water on Earth Pressure
- Pressures - Forces
e1 = γh1 Ka 1
E1 = e h
2 1 1
e2 = (Σγh) Ka e1 + e 2 e −e
E2 = h2 = e1h2 + 2 1 h2
= (γh1 + γ\h2) Ka 2 2
1 1
= γh1 Ka + γ\h2 Ka Ew = 2 ew h2 = γ h2
2 w 2
= e1 + γ\h2 Ka Et = E1 + E2 + Ew
ew = γwh2
(15 of 102)
1.9.2 Effect of Surcharge

q = (t/m2)
e1 = q Ka
1
e2 = (γh) Ka
γ, φ
e3 = (q+γh) Ka
E1
h
E1 = e1 h
E2
1
E2 = e2h
2
2 Et = E1 + E2
e1 e2
e3
Figure (1.13): Effect of surcharge on distribution

of earth pressure
1.9.3 Effect of Multilayer Soil System
e1 = h
γ1, φ1
h1
e2 = γ1 h1
1 e1
e3 = e2 + γ2 h2 e2
e4 = (γ1 h1 γ2 h2 γ2, φ2
h2
e5 = e4 γ3 h3
2 e3
e4
h3 γ3, φ3
3 e5
Fig. (1.14): Effect of multi layer soil system on earth pressure
(16 of 102)
1.9.4 Effect of Inclination of Wall Back
e = γhKa E
1 R
E = eh h W W
2
= + R
E
Fig. (1.15): Effect of inclination of wall back on earth pressure
1.10 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AGAINST ROUGH WALLS COULOMB’S ANALYSIS

Coulomb (1776) developed a method of determining lateral pressure that includes the effect
of friction between the soil and the wall, see Fig. (1.16). A plane failure surface is assumed,
and the lateral force required to maintain equilibrium is calculated. The procedure is repeated
for several trial failure surfaces, and the one producing the critical force is selected. This
general analysis procedure is a type of limiting equilibrium method. The method readily
accomo a geometrically irregular backfill and sloping wall.
i
Fig. (1.16): Lateral earth pressure against rough

walls Coulomb’s analysis
δ
δ = angle of wall friction

β
sin 2 (β + φ)
Ka = ⎡
2
2 sin(φ + δ)sin(φ − i) ⎤
sin βsin(β − δ) ⎢1 + ⎥
⎢⎣ sin(β − δ)sin(β + i) ⎥⎦
sin 2 (β + φ)
Kp = 2
2
⎡ sin(φ + δ)sin(φ + i) ⎤
sin βsin(β + δ) ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣⎢ sin(β − δ)sin(β + i) ⎦⎥
(17 of 102)
1.11 EARTH PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
δ = angle of wall friction

= φ
e = γ h Ka
E = eh
rough wall
Ka = from Coulomb’s formula h
δ
δ
e
Fig. (1.17): Distribution of earth pressure,

rough wall
1.11.1 Effect of Ground Water on Earth Pressure
e1 = γ h1 Ka
e2 = e1 + γsup h2 Ka
ew = γw h2
h1
e1
1 δ
h2
2 δ
ew
e2
Fig. (1.18): Effect of Ground Water on Distribution of Earth Pressure, Rough Wall
(18 of 102)
1.11.2 Effect of Surcharge

e1 q (t/m2)
1
e1 = q Ka
e2 = (q + γ h) Ka
E1 = e1 h
E1
rough wall
E2 = (e2 – e1) h E2
h
Et = E1 + E2
δ
2 e2
Fig. (1.19): Distribution of earth pressure including

surcharge load, rough wall
1.11.3 Effect of Inclined Back & Inclined Backfill

i
e = γ h Ka
1
E = eh h E
2
δ
β δ
e
Fig. (1.20): Effect of inclined back on distribution of

earth pressure, rough wall
(19 of 102)
1.12 GRAPHICAL SOLUTION “WEDGE METHOD”

Coulomb deals with the equilibrium of the wedge of soil as shown:
Active Case – cohesionless soil
Ea
Ea
Datum
B
Ea
R
W
δ φ
Ea R W
A
Free body diagram Force polygon
Fig. (1.21): Graphical solution using wedge method

(Coulomb’s analysis)
(20 of 102)
1.12.1 Step by Step Procedure
1. Assume a trial plane failure surface (A-B)
2. Draw a free-body diagram of the assumed failure mass.
3. Draw a force polygon of the forces acting on the free-body diagram:
• Weight W magnitude & direction are known.
• Resultant R Direction is known
• Active force Ea Direction is known
4. The magnitude of Ea required to close the force polygene is determined and represents
the lateral force that would be required to prevent failure along the assumed failure
plane.
5. Steps 1 to 4 are repeated for other failure surfaces, the surface that yields the maximum
lateral force in the critical failure surface, and this force is the active lateral force.
(21 of 102)
1.13 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (1): For the retaining wall shown in Fig. (1). determine the magnitude, direction,
and point of application of the resultant force acting on it.
Fig. (1)
Solution
(22 of 102)
(23 of 102)
Problem (2): Draw the lateral earth pressure distribution on the wall shown in Fig. (2) and
determine the magnitude, direction, and point of application of the resultant
force acting on it.
Fig. (2)
Solution
(24 of 102)
(25 of 102)
Problem (3): Determine the total active earth pressure forces acting on the gravity type
retaining wall shown in Fig. (3).
Fig. (3)
Solution
(26 of 102)
(27 of 102)
Problem (4): For the same wall of problem (3) determine the intensity of uniformly
distributed surcharge placed on G.S. and extending from the wall back, that
increases the earth pressure by only 65 percent of its intial value
corresponding to case of problem (3).
Solution
(28 of 102)
1.14 PROBLEMS
1) a- Using neat sketches and giving examples from practice, explain the lateral earth
pressure in at rest, active and passive states.
b- For the retaining walls shown in figure (1), draw the active lateral earth pressure
diagrams.
i- Neglecting the wall roughness.
ii- Considering the wall roughness assuming φ = 2/3 φ
Soil conditions: φ = 33°

γ (above G.W.T) = 1.6 t/m3
γ sat = 1.9 t/m3
Fig. (1)
2) a- State the assumptions of Rankine’s theory of earth pressure then derive Rankine’s formula
for earth pressure in case of cohesionless soil mass.
b- calculate and plot the lateral earth pressure distribution on the wall shown in fig. (2)
for the following backfill conditions.
(29 of 102)
layer c (kg/cm2) φ° (cw, φ) γ (t/m3)

I 0.2 20 0.0 1.85
II 0.0 30 0.0 1.82
III 0.0 40 0.0 1.90
Assume the soil above G.W.T in layer II to be fully saturated.
Fig. (2)
3) For the smooth reataining wall shown in Fig. (3), determaine the earth pressure force acting on
the wall. If during a rain storm the tension cracks are considered to be filed with water,
compute the percentage increase in the horizontal load acting on the wall due to the
development of hydrostatic pressure.
Fig. (3)
4) Determine the resultant active earth pressure force acting on the wall shown in Fig. (4).
Fig. (4)
(30 of 102)
Ch.2 Analysis and Design of Retaining Walls
CHAPTER (2)
ANLYSIS AND DESIGN OF

RETAINING WALLS
(32 of 102)
CHAPTER (2)
ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS
2.1 GENERAL
Retaining walls are structures that built for the purpose of supporting a vertical or nearly
vertical backfill which, in turn, may support vertical loads. They may, also, be used to retain
water or other materials.
2.2 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS
There are many types of retaining walls. The most common types are seen in (Fig. 2.1):
I) Gravity type II) Semi – gravity type

III) Cantilever type IV) Counterforted walls
(i) Gravity R.W. (iv) Semi-Gravity (iii) R.C Cantiliver (ii) Counterforted
R.W. R.W. R.W.
Fig. (2.1): Types of retaining walls
(33 of 102)
2.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE OF RETAINING WALLS
Design of retaining walls, generally, follows the following steps:

1. Analyzing the subsoil condition,
2. Establishment of surcharge loads, railways, highways … etc,
3. Select the type and tentative proportion of the retaining wall,
4. Compute earth pressure and other lateral pressures. Subsequently, calculate lateral forces,
5. Compute vertical forces,
6. Check the stability of the wall
i) Sliding stability,
ii) Overturning stability,
iii) Check of bearing capacity and stresses on soil,
7. Design of structural elements,
8. Select drainage system in the wall or backfill,
9. Predict settlement and movement of wall, and
10. Eventually, draw concrete and reinforcement detailing.
2.4 PROPORTIONING OF RETAINING WALLS

2.4.1 Gravity Retaining walls
Gravity walls are generally trapezoidal or with broken back to reduce the quantity of concrete.
The base and other dimensions are to be chosen such that the resultant falls within the middle
one third of the base (see Fig. 2.2). Because of the massive proportions of the wall, the
resulting stresses in concrete are small, and, consequently, low strength concrete may
generally be used for the wall construction. Critical sections will occur along the stem and/or
through the toe. 50 cm h/12
2cm
100 Stem
cm
Fig (2.2): Empirical dimensions of h
gravity walls
D/2 – D
Heel
Toe
D = h/8 – h/6
B = 0.50 - 0.80 h
(34 of 102)
The active earth pressure is to be calculated using either Coulomb or Rankine’s method. If the heel
projection is small (10 – 15 cm), Coulomb method of analysis may be used for evaluating lateral
pressure directly on the back of the wall. Rankine’s Solution may also be used on a vertical section
through the heel. Figure 2.3 (a, b) presents a brief explanation for Coulomb's and Rankine’s
analysis.
a) Coulomb’s Analysis b) Rankine’s Analysis
i i
Eav Ea Eav
Ea i
δ
Eah
Ws
β β
W W
e e
X X
B B
V= W + Eav V= W + Ws + Eav
Eav = Ea sin (90- β +δ) Eav = Ea sin i
Eah = Ea cos (90- β + δ) Eah = Ea cos i
Fig (2.3): Pressures and forces on gravity walls
(35 of 102)
2.4.2 Cantilever Type Retaining wall
20-30 cm
D b
a
D = h/12 – h/10
B/3
B = 0.40 - 0.70 h
Fig (2.4): Proportioning of cantilever wall
The tentative dimensions shown above in Figure (2.4) are considered adequate in the
absence of other data. These dimensions should be checked for structural and stability
requirements. The top of the stem should not be less than (20 – 30 cm), so that proper
pouring of concrete is possible. The base of the stem should be thick enough to resist
excessive outward deformation of the stem and to satisfy the shear requirements without
the use of shear reinforcement. The base slab dimensions are to be chosen in such a way
to allow the resultant of the loads to fall within its middle third. Generally, the base with
(B = a + b) is taken equal to (0.4 -0.7h). There are many combinations of “a” and “b” that
provide successful solution. The location of the resultant force, however, is not sensitive
to the toe distance “a” and, therefore, it is preferable to have a minimum value of “a” that
satisfies the condition of allowable soil pressure at the toe and sliding stability of the
walls as well.
(36 of 102)
2.5 OVERALL STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS

2.5.1 Stability of Gravity Wall
Referring to Fig. (2.3), the following steps are to be followed in order to assess the
stability of Gravity type retaining wall.
a) Compute and locate all forces and weights acting on the wall, than
b) Check stability of the wall to satisfy the sliding condition:
F.S. = ……………… (1)
F.S. = should be ≥ 1.5 if passive forces are neglected, and
≥ 2.0 if passive forces are considered
Sliding underneath the base should be considered in the resisting forces.
In cohesionless soil: Fφ = ΣW’s tan δ ………………. (2)

δ =⅔φ ………………. (3)
In cohesive soil: Fc = cw * B ………………. (4)

cw = ⅔ c ………………. (5)
where:
δ : angle of wall friction
cw: adhesion between soil and wall
c) Check the overturning stability of the wall by taking the moment of the
overturning and the stability forces about the toe of the wall.
F.S. = ……………… (6)
Where
Mr: resisting moment about point “o”.
Mo: overturning moment about point “o”.
F.S = should ≥ 1.5 in case of cohesionless soil.
O
≥ 2.0 in case of cohesive soil.
(37 of 102)
d) Check of Soil Pressure Under the wall base.
W3
Ea
W1 W5
W2
Ep
O
f2
f1
Fig (2.5): Loads that used in calculation of soil pressure under wall base
Referring to Fig. (2.5)
• ΣW’s = N
• ΣMo = M
• eccentricity (e) =
N 6e
• (1 ± ) f1, 2 =
B B
……………………………………………. (7)
ƒ1 should not exceed qall

ƒ2 should not be negative
If ƒ2 is negative, this means that the resultant lies outside the middle third.
In this case the pressure on the soil is to be redistributed as following:
2N
f = ≤ q all ……………………………………………… (8)
on soil 3e
B
&e ≥ ……………………………………………… (9)
6
(38 of 102)
2.5.1.1 Check of stresses at critical sections of gravity walls
a a
b b
d e
c c
d e
Fig (2.6): Critical sections to be checked due to lateral pressures
Selected sections are chosen as shown in fig (2.6). Normal and shear forces are computed
at each section. Then, compressive, tensile and shear stresses are calculated at the critical
section and compared with the allowable values for plain concrete. If are not safe, bigger
dimensions of the wall are to be used.
(39 of 102)
2.5.2 Stability of Cantilever Wall
Same principles & procedures are followed in the stability analysis of cantilever retaining
wall. It follows the following steps:
a) Calculate weights, forces, and pressures acting on the retaining wall as presented
in Fig. (2.7).
i
Eav
Ws Ea
Eah
Ep W2
W1
f1 f2
Fig (2.7): Loads & pressures on cantilever wall
b) Sliding, Overturning and Stresses on soil are to be calculated and checked as

previously shown for gravity walls.
Note: keys may be made to develop passive pressure to increase sliding stability.
(40 of 102)
2.5.3 Design of Critical Sections of Cantilever Walls
Following the stability analysis of the retaining wall, the bearing pressure distribution is also,
plotted. Then, the sections shown in fig (2.8) are designed as reinforced concrete sections.
1. Calculate the straining actions acting on each section as a result of the acting stresses & forces
as shown in Fig. 2.8.
2. Design each section for concrete dimensions and required reinforcement as shown in Fig. 2.9.
3. Draw a neat sketch for detailing the concrete & reinforcement as shown in Fig. 2.10.
E
(3) (2)
(1) (1)
(3) (2)
qheel
qtoe
Fig. (2.8): Sections to be designed and detailed
stresses from
soil and concrete weight of
(3) concrete
(2)
W
(2)
(1) (1) qheel
(3)
Sec (1) – (1): Sec (2) – (2): Sec (3) – (3):
Stem Heel Toe
Fig. (2.9): Critical reinforced concrete sections at stem, heel, and toe to be designed
(41 of 102)
Secondary Rft ≥5φ12/

5 φ 12/
Main Rft.
5 φ 12/
5 φ 12/
5 φ 12/
Fig. (2.10): Concrete dimensions and reinforcement details of cantliver wall
(42 of 102)
2.6 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (1): Check the overall and structural stability of the retaining wall shown in Fig. (1).
Fig. (1)
Solution
(43 of 102)
(44 of 102)
(45 of 102)
(46 of 102)
Problem (2): a- Discuss the realationship between the eccentricity of the resultant force
acting on the base of a retaining wall and the stress distribution under
the reataining wall.
Solution
(47 of 102)
Problem (2): b- For the gravity retaining wall shown in Fig. (2):
i) Determine the minimum distance (x) which satisfies

the following conditions:
- F.S. (overturning) > 2.0.
- F.S. (sliding) > 1.5
ii) For the value of (x) determined in (i), find the normal
stresses underneath the retaining wall.
Fig. (2)
Solution
(48 of 102)
(49 of 102)
Problem (3): Make a complete design for the cantilever retaining wall shown in figure (3).
The minimum factor of safety against sliding is required to be greater than
or equal to 1.8.
Fig. (3)
(50 of 102)
Solution
(51 of 102)
(52 of 102)
(53 of 102)
(54 of 102)
2.7 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALLS (MSE)
2.6.1 General
Modern reinforced soil technology was developed in France by H. Vidal type 1960. This system
is called reinforced earth and is shown in Fig. (2.11). Steel strips are used to reduce the earth
pressure against the wall face. The design and construction of Vidal type reinforced earth walls
are now well established, and many thousands have been successfully built throughout the
world in the last decade. Other similar reinforcing systems have, also, been developed using steel
bar meshes, grids, and gabions. The use of geotextiles as reinforcing elements started in the early
1970,s because of their resistance of possible corrosion over metalic reinforcement. Systems
using sheets of geosynthetics rather than steel strips are shown in Fig. (2.12).
Fig. (2-11): Components of a reinforced earth wall
Fig. (2.12): Typical Geogrids Used as Soil Reinforcements
(55 of 102)
Applications
1. Tunnels and bridges
2. Abutment
(56 of 102)
3. Tunnels
4. Abutment
(57 of 102)
5. Miscellaneous
(58 of 102)
6. Reataining wall
7. Building
(59 of 102)
8. Construction of MSE walls
(60 of 102)
9. MSE Components
(61 of 102)
2.8 PROBLEMS
1) a- Mention four practical uses of retaining walls.
b- For the gravity type retaining wall shown in Fig. (1), make the necessary checks for
the stability of the wall and for the internal stresses that develop along section 1-1.
Suggest practical solution(s) if the stability of the wall is not completely fulfilled.
Fig. (1)
2) a- Differntiate between gravity-type retaining walls and cantilever retaining walls with
respect to material, stability, and dimensions.
b- A gravity-type concrete retaining wall with a 6.0 m high vertical back is shown in Fig. (2)
Data :
Layer (I) : Unit weight = 1.6 t/m3, φ = 30° , c=0
Layer (1I): Unit weight = 1.9 t/m3, φ = 10° , c = 0.32 kg/cm2
Layer (III): Dry unit weight = 1.6 t/m3, Saturated unit weight = 1.85 t/m3,
φ = 33° , E = 275 kg/cm2 c = 0,
qall = 2 kg/cm2 µ = 0.4
required : i) Check the stability of the wall.
ii) Determine the angle of tilt of the wall neglecting the passive resistance.
(62 of 102)
Fig. (2)
3) a- Mention, using clear sketches, four practical solutions to avoid unsatisfactory stability
against sliding in case of cantilever retaining walls.
b- Make a complete design for the cantilever retaining wall shown in Fig. (3) which
retains a dry sand fill.
Data :
φ = 33° , γd= 1.6 t/m3, qall = 1.50 kg/cm2
Coefficient of base friction = 0.5 F.S. against sliding = 1.8
Fig. (3)
(63 of 102)
4) Make a complete design for the cantilever retaining wall shown in Fig. (4).
Fig. (4)
5) a- Discuss the effect of the following on the stability of cantilever retaining walls;
i) Existence of toe in front of the wall.
ii) Increasing the heel length behind the wall.
b- For the retaining wall designed in Problem 3(b), if on the top of the ground runs a
double railway line that can be substituted by a uniform surcharge of 5 t/m2
extending over the heel zone only as shown in Fig. (5). Discuss, without
calculations, its effect on the stability and design of the retaining wall.
Fig. (5)
(64 of 102)
Ch.3 Design of Sheetpile Walls
CHAPTER (3)
SHEETPILE WALLS & STRUTTED EXCAVATION

(DESIGN METHODS)
(65 of 102)
CHAPTER (3)
SHEETPILE WALLS & STRUTTED EXCAVATION

(DESIGN METHODS)
3.1 GENERAL
Sheetpile walls consist of a series of sheetpiles driven side by side into the ground forming a
continuous vertical wall to retain an earth bank (see Fig. 3.1). They are often used for
waterfront structures that may range from small pleasure-boat launching facilities to large dock
facilities. Also, it is used to support the sides of deep excavations such as basements, tunnels,
and utilities.…etc.
Anchor rod Anchor wall

(plate)
sheetpile
sheetpile
dredge level
driven depth
driven depth
Cantilever sheetpile Anchored sheetpile
Strut
wale From this
analysis
sheetpile
sheetpile
Fill
dry side wet side
Braced cuts (excavation)

Strutted sheetpiles Cofferdam
Fig. (3.1): Uses of sheetpile walls
(66 of 102)
3.2 ADVANTAGES OF USING SHEETPILES
1. In contrast to the construction of other types of retaining wall, the building of sheetpile
walls does not usually require dewatering of the site.
2. They can be used as temporary structures.
3. They may be reusable.
4. Steel sheetpiles have light weights, resist high driving stresses and their length can be
increased.
3.3 TYPES OF SHEETPILE MATERIALS

The most commonly used sheetpiles are
1. Wooden (timber) sheetpiles.
2. Precost concrete sheetpiles, and
3. Steel sheetpiles.
These types are shown in Fig. (3.2)
Fig (3.2): Various types of sheetpiles
(67 of 102)
3.4 STATICAL SYSTEMS OF SHEETPILES

From the point of view of the statical system, sheetpiles can be classified into two types as
following:
1- Cantilever sheetpiles.
2- Anchored sheetpiles.
2-1 free earth support.
2-2 fixed earth support.
The following sections illustrate the principles of the design of each of the previous types of the
sheetpiles.
(68 of 102)
3.5 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SHEETPILE WALL

Cantilever sheetpile walls are recommended for walls of moderate height-about 10 ms or less
measured above the dredge line. In these walls the sheetpiles act as a wide cantilever beam
above the dredge line. The design and stability of the wall depend on the adequate embedded
penetration depth into the soil below the dredge line in order to resist the lateral earth pressure
developed by the backfill. Fig (3.3) shows the behavior and the statical system of this type of
the wall.
Pa
Dredge
Pp
D D Pp
Insufficient
Bigger penetration
penetration Sufficient penetration Penetration Depth
but still insufficient
(a) Earth Movement
P P P P
Pp Pp
to
D D D t
F
P` D
Elastic Line Exact Simplified Idealized
Earth Pressure Earth Pressure Earth Pressure
(b) Resisting lateral loads
Fig (3.3): Behavior and statical system of cantilever sheetpile walls
(69 of 102)
Consider a sheetpile wall loaded with a horizontal concentrated load P as shown in Fig (3.3-b). In
order to fulfill the condition of equilibrium, a certain movement must be permitted by the wall. The
movement of the wall should be in a way such that a point of rotation D is developed. The pressure
at the point D is zero. It is too much simplification if an idealized pressure distribution is considered
in the calculations, i.e. the passive pressure Pp is replaced by a concentrated load F. It is found that
the ratio t / to = 1.2. However this ratio is 1.1 in case of earth and/or water pressure instead of the
load P. The max bending moment was found to be almost identical in both cases of loading. Fig
(3.4) shows the earth pressure and bending moment diagram in case of the sheetpile penetrating a
sand deposite.
3.5.1 Cantilever Sheetpile In Sand

The following is the analysis of the pressures, forces and bending moment on the sheetpile
wall. Analysis will be relating to Fig (4).
L1 e1
z
Sand
L γ, φ, c=0
L2 γsat, φ, c=0
Pa
La
e2
u o
xs Mmax.
t x Pp s
e3 F
D
Fig (3.4): Earth pressure and bending moment diagram
e1 = γ L1Ka
e2 = (γ L1 + γ′L2) Ka γ′ = effective unit weight = γsat - γw
at point o: enet = ep – ea = 0
γ L1Ka + γ′(L2 + u) Ka = γ′u Kp
γ L1Ka + γ′L2Ka + γ′u Ka - γ′u Kp = 0
e2 - γ′u (Kp - Ka) = 0
e
u= 2
γ ′( K − K )
p a
the slope of the line e2-o-e3 is 1: γ′(Kp – Ka )
∴ e3 = xγ′ (Kp-Ka)
x2
∴ Pp = γ′ (Kp-Ka)
2
(70 of 102)
in order to have the system in equilibrium; ΣMD=0

x
Pa (La + u + x) = Pp
3
x3
Pp (La + u + x) = γ′(Kp – Ka)
6
6 Pp ( L a + u + x )
x3 =
γ ′( K p − K a )
solve for x
then: to = u + x
and t = 1.25 to
The maximum bending moment happens at the point of zero shear (s). This point is found to be
below the point of zero pressure (o) with distance x3 .
The point of zero shear has the forces Pa = Pp , i.e. the net force = 0.
x s2
i.e. γ′ (Kp – Ka) = Pa
2
2Pa
xs =
γ ′( K p − K a )
x s2 x
Mmax = Ms = Pa (La + u + xs) - γ′ (Kp – Ka) s
2 3
Allowable flexural stress of steel sheetpile = σall
Section modulus required per unit length of the structure = Z
M max
Z – modulus ≡ section modulus =
σ all
(71 of 102)
3.5.1.1 Summary
- Step-By-Step Procedure (cantilever sheetpile in sand)

1. Calculate Ka, Kp, Kr = (Kp – Ka) using Rankine’s approach
2. Calculate e1, e2
3. Determine the depth u
4. Calculate Pa, La
5. Calculate e3, Pp → in terms of x
6. Take moment about D → to determine x
7. t = 1.25 (u + x)
8. Determine point of zero shear → xs
9. Calculate the maximum moment at point of zero shear Ms
10. Calculate the section modulus Z = Ms / σall
11. Choose the suitable section, using appendix “A”
(72 of 102)
3.5.2 Cantilever sheetpile in clay
L1 e1
z Sand
γ, γ ′, φ, c=0
L
L2
Pa
Fig (3.5): Earth pressure diagram
La
e3 e2
Pp Clay
t to γc, γ ′c , c, φ=0
F
D
e1 = γ L1 Ka
e2 = (γL1 + γ′L2) Ka
The net pressure at the dredge line:
at any distance z > L1 + L2
active pressure = [ γ L1 + γ′ L2 + γ′c (z – L1 – L2)] Ka – 2c K a
in case φ = 0 → Ka = 1
passive pressure = γ′c (z – L1 – L2) Kp + 2c Kp
in case φ = 0 → Kp = 1
∴ the net pressure = passive press – active pressure
e3 = 2c + γ′c (z – L1 – L2) + – γL1 – γ′L2 – γ′c (z – L1 – L2) + 2c
= 4c – (γL1 + γ′L2)
in case of equilibrium
MD = 0
to
Pa (La + to) = Pp
2
t o2
= [4c – (γL1 + γ′L2)]
2
solve for to
and, t = 1.5 to
- From equilibrium in the horizontal direction ΣFH = 0 obtain the value of F.
- Draw the shearing force diagram.
- Calculate the max bending moment at the point of zero shear.
M
- Section modulus Z = max .
σ all
3.5.2.1 Summary
(73 of 102)
Step-By-Step Procedure (cantilever sheetpile in clay)
1. Calculate Ka
2. Determine e1, e2
3. Calculate Pa, La
4. Calculate e3
5. Calculate Pp as a function of to
6. Take the moment about D → get to
7. t = 1.5 to
8. Σ FH = o → get F
9. Draw S.F.D. & B.M.D.

M max
10. Calculate Zreq =
σ all
11. Choose the suitable section from Appendix “A”
(74 of 102)
3.6 DESIGN OF ANCHORED SHEETPILE WALL

When the height of the backfill material behind a cantilever sheetpile wall exceeds about 10m,
it becomes more economical to tie the sheetpile wall near the top to anchor plates, anchor
walls, or anchor piles. This is referred to as anchored sheet piling or anchored bulkhead.
Anchors minimize the lateral deflection and, in turn, the bending moment and the depth of
penetration of the sheetpiles.
There are two basic methods of analyzing the anchored sheetpile walls:
(i) the free earth support method

& (ii) the fixed earth support method
Anchor Tie Anchor Tie

Rod Rod
deflection deflection
Moment Moment
dredge line dredge line
(a) free-earth support (b) fixed-earth support
Fig (3.6): Basic methods of analyzing the anchored sheetpile walls
(75 of 102)
3.6.1 Condition of Free Earth Support

This condition takes place in case of:
1. the driven depth is relatively short.
2. the soil is relatively compressible, or
3. the sheetpile is relatively stiff.
i) In sand
F l1
L1
e1 = γ L1 Ka o` e1 l2
z
e2 = (γL1 + γ′ L2) Ka
L
e2 L2
L3 = Pa
γ ′( K p − K a ) z ez
La
e2
e3 = γ′ L4 (Kp – Ka) L3
L24 to
Pp = γ′ (Kp – Ka)
2 L4 Pp
∑Mo′ = 0 e3
2 Fig (3.7): Earth pressure distribution in
Pp( L4 + L3 + L2 + l2)
3
sand, (free earth support)
– Pa (L2 + l2 – La) = 0
γ ′L24 2
( L4 + L3 + L2 – l2) – Pa (L2 + l2 – La) = 0 → f ( L34 ) → L4
2 3
to = L3 + L4
Actual depth (t) = 1.25 theoretical depth (to)
∑ Horizontal load = 0
F + Pp – Pa = 0 → determine F (force/unit length)
It was found that the maximum bending moment occurs at point z which located at a depth z from
the ground surface such that
L1 < z < (L1 + L2)
∴ point z is the point of zero shear
1 γ′
∴ e1 L1 + e1 (z – L1) + (z – L1)2 Ka = F → determine z
2 2
maximum moment = Mmax = Mz
M max
Section modulus =
σ all
(76 of 102)
ii) In Clay
F l1
e1, e2 → are as before L1
O`
e1 l2
e3 = net pressure z
= passive pressure – active pressure L

L2
Pa Sand
= 2c + ( γ ′2 to) × 1 z ez
φ, γ1
La
e3 e2
– [γ1L1 + γ1′ L2 + γ ′2 to) – 2c]
Clay
= 4c – (γ1L1 + γ1′ L2) to Pp c, γ2
for static equilibrium e3

Fig (3.8)
∑ M′o = 0
to
Pa (L2 + l2 – La) = Pp ( + L2 + l2)
2
to
Pa (L2 + l2 – La) = to × e3 ( + L2 + l2)
2
Solve for to → Pp = to (e3)
∑ Horizontal forces = 0
F = Pa – Pp → get F
Max. moment occurs at a distance3907hsd z at which L1 < z < (L1 + L2) from ground surface.
z is the joint of zero shear at which:

1 1
F= e1 L1 + e1 (z - L1) + γ1′ (z – L1)2 Ka → solve for z
2 2
Mz is the max bending moment, and
Mz
Section modulus =
σ all
(77 of 102)
3.6.1.1 Summary
- Step-by-step design procedure (Free-earth support)
In sand In clay
1. Calculate Ka , Kp 1. Calculate Ka
2. Calculate e1 , e2 2. Calculate e1 , e2
3. Calculate L3 3. Calculate e3
4. Determine Pa , La 4. ∑ M ′o = 0 → get to
5. Determine Pp in terms of L4 5. ∑ FH = 0 → get F
6. Take moment about o′ → get L4 6. Forces = 0 at z (P.O.Z. shear) → get z
7. ∑ FH = 0 → get F 7. Mmax = Mz
8. Force = 0 at z → get z 8. Choose sec. having modulus =

M max
σ all
9. Max. moment = Mz 9. Design the anchorage
10. Choose the section according to

M
section modulus = max
σ all
11. Design the anchorage
(78 of 102)
3.6.2 Condition of Fixed Earth Support
When using the fixed earth support method, one assumes that the toe of the sheetpile is
restrained from rotation. This condition takes place if:
1. The piling is driven to a sufficient depth.
2. The soil under the dredge line is strong enough to assure the condition of fixation, or
3. The piling is relatively flexible.
A
F l1
L1
O` l2
e1
z
L
L2 z ez
Pa
La
e2
L3 I e3 L5
t L4
H
H`
B
BMD
Fig (3.9): Earth pressure distribution in sand, (fixed earth support)
e1 = γ L1 Ka
e2 = e1 + γ′ L2 Ka
e2
L3 =
γ ′( K p − K a )
L5
According to φ → get → get L5
L1 + L 2
e 2 (L 3 − L 5 )
e3 =
L3
(79 of 102)
Divide the pressure diagram into two parts at point I. Internal force P1 will appear. Neglecting the
part of the diagram below point H, its resultant P2 shall be applied at H.
For the upper part of the diagram A-I:

z
Taking moment about o′
P1 (L5 + L2 + l2) = Pa (L2 – La + l2)
Solve for P1 → get F = Pa – P1 z
L5
1
For the lower part of the diagram I-H: L3
1
F1 = e3 (L3 – L5)
2
1 1
F2 = e4 L4 = γ′ L24 (Kp – Ka)
2 2
Taking moment about H Fig (3.10): Analysis of sheetpile wall,

(fixed earth upport)
2 L
∴P1 (L3 – L5 + L4) + F1 ( (L3 – L5) + L4) = F2 4
3 3
solve for L4
t = 1.25 (L3 + L4)
maximum bending moment will occur in the upper part (A-I), z is the point of zero shear at a depth
z from ground surface.
1 1
At z : F = e1 L1 + e1(z – L1) + γ′ (z – L1)2 Ka → Solve for z
2 2
Max moment = Mz
M max
Section modulus =
σ all
(80 of 102)
3.6.2.1 Summary
- Step-by-step Procedure: Fixed Earth Support
(Equivalent beam solution)
1. Estimate Ka, Kp.

2. Calculate e1 , e2.
3. Calculate L3.
4. From Fig. (3.11), according to φ → get L5.
5. Calculate e3.
6. Divide the pressure diagram into two parts at the point of inflection (I).
7. For the upper part ∑ M′o = 0 → get P1.
8. For the upper part ∑ FH = 0 → get F.
9. For the lower part ∑ MH = 0 → get L4.
10. T = 1.25 (L3 + L4).
11. Determine the point of zero shear at the upper part.
12. Calculate Mmax ,
M max
13. Section modulus =
σ all
Fig (3.11)
(81 of 102)
3.7 ANCHORS
The general types of anchor used in sheetpile walls presented in Fig. 3.12 and they are as
follows:
1. Anchor plates and beams (dead man).
2. Tie backs.
3. Vertical anchor sheetpiles.
4. Anchor beams supported by batter piles (compression & tension).
wale Anchor rod Anchor plate
Tie rod
or Cable
(strand)
grout
1. Anchor plate 2. Tie back
Tie rod Tie rod

Anchor beam
sheetpile
compression tension
pile pile
3. Sheetpile 4. Pile
Fig (3.12): Types of anchors used in sheetpile wall
(82 of 102)
3.7.1 Design of Anchor Plates
a) As a continuous wall
Force acting on the plate are: d
i. Tension in the tie rod F / unit length.
ii. Active earth thrust. F h
iii. Passive earth thrust.
Assuming the depth d is known for equilibrium of the wall; ep en ea
The net thrust ( → ) = the force F ( ← ) at depth “d”.

Fig (3.13)
At depth “d”:
ea = γ d Ka
Kp
ep = γ d n is a factor of safety = 1.5
n
Kp
en = γ d ( - Ka)
n
Kp
net thrust = γ d h ( - Ka)
n
Kp
F=γdh( - Ka)
n
F
h=
Kp F = [force]/unit length
γd( − Ka )
n
Maximum bending moment = MI-I
Kp h h
MI-I = γd ( - Ka) * *
n 2 4
F*h
=
8
where F is the force/unit length
b) As isolated wall
The proper spacing between anchor rods = 2.5 → 4 ms

The force in the rod = F (force/unit length) × spacing
At depth d;
Kp
the net pressure = γd ( - Ka)
1.5
Fig (3.14)
assuming square plate of dimensions h × h
(83 of 102)
at equilibrium
Kp
γd ( - Ka) h2 = F
n
F
h=
γ d(
Kp
− Ka ) F = [force]
n
3.7.2 Length of Anchor Rod
A C E
IV safe
II F
H I III
partly safe
D φ
t
Fig (15)
45+(φ/2)
B
Zone I: wedge ABC
is define by the plane surface of rupture behind the sheetpile. This wedge will move
causing the active earth pressure acting on the wall. If the anchor wall is constructed
in this Zone it will move with the sheetpile and consequantly gives no resistance.
Zone II
is the wedge defined by the plane of the natural slope and the plane of rupture which
is kept in place through the existance of the sheetpile wall. The resistance of the
anchor plate in this zone will be considerably reduced.
Zone III
if the anchor plate is constructed in this zone the passive rupture surface CF will
interfere with the active rupture surface CB and resistance of the anchor plate will be
reduced.
Zone IV
is the safe zone in which the anchor plate possess full capacity.
(84 of 102)
3.7.3 Check Of Stability of Anchoring at Lower Failure Plane:
A E C
P
FEXIST δ
D
δ
W
φ
PA 1 W2
RA
φ
45+(φ/2)
B Fig (16)
The soil wedge ABE with dead weight W1 and rupture surface BE loads the sheet piling and
supports itself on the anchoring section BECD with force Ra. The anchoring section BECD is
defined by the rupture surface BE and a failure plane extends from the lower edge of the anchor
plate to the lower edge of the sheetpile. This section is being held in place by the reaction R. The
anchoring is stable when the average force F acting on the anchoring section BECD in the direction
of the anchor is greater than the actual or existing anchor force that results from the calculation of
the sheetpile.
Fpossible From this analysis
F.S. = ≥ 1 .5
Fexist
From sheet pit analysis
If this is not the case, the anchor should be lengthened. Fpossible
FORCE MAGNITUDE DIRECTION
W1 + W2 known known
Pa known known
P known known
R unknown known
F unknown known
Fig (17)
(85 of 102)
3.8 BRACED CUTS

Sometimes construction work requires ground excavation with vertical or near-vertical force; for
example, basements of building or underground transportation facilities at shallow depth below the
ground surface. The vertical forces of cuts need to be protected by temporary bracing systems to
avoid failure that may be accompanied by considerable settlement or by bearing capacity failure of
nearby foundations.
Strut
wale
sheetpile strut
sheetpile wale
1 1
Section Plan 1-1

Elevation
Fig (18)
3.8.1 Lateral Earth pressure
a) Retaining wall b) Braced cut
Fig (19)
(86 of 102)
The nature of yielding of braced cuts is different than that of the retaining wall. Therefore, the
expected earth pressure diagram developed on the wall of the braced cut is much different from that
applied on a retaining wall.
3.8.1.1 One-Layer System: Peck (1969)
0.25H 0.25H
H 0.50H
0.75H
ea
0.25H
ea ea
ea = γH-4c ea = 0.2γH → 0.4γH
ea = 0.65γHKa
or = 0.3γH ≅ 0.3γH
which ever higher
a) Moist or Dry Sand b) Soft to Medium Clay c) Stiff Clay

(γh/c)>4 (γh/c) ≤ 4
Fig (20)
(87 of 102)
3.8.1.2 Two-Layer System: Peck (1943)
If layers of both sand and clay are encountered, they can be replaced by one clayey layer has an
equivalent value of cohesion (φ = 0 concept);
1
σeq = [ γs Hs2 Ks tan φs + Hc n qu]
2H
Where:
H = total height of the cut
γs = unit weight of sand

Hs Sand
Hs = height of sand layer γs
H
Ks = coefficient of lateral earth Clay
pressure of sand layer ( ≈ 1) γc
Hc
φs = angle of friction of sand
Hc = height of clay layer
n = coefficient of progressive
failure (ranges from 0.5 → 1; Fig (21)
average value 0.75)
qu = unconfined compression
strength of clay
Also, an average unit weight γav is expressed as follows:

1
γav = [γs Hs + γc Hc]
H
where γc is the saturated unit weight of clay layer
Once the equivalent values of cohesion and unit weight are determined, the pressure envelopes in
clay can be used to design the cuts.
(88 of 102)
3.8.1.3 multi-layer system

Clay
In a similar manner, when a number of clay layers H1
γ1
are encountered in the cut, the average undrained
H2 Clay
cohesion can be expressed as: γ2
H
1
cav = [c1 H1 + c2 H2 + … + cn Hn]
H
and the average unit weight can be determined from:
1
γav = [γ1 H1 + γ 2 H2 + … + γ n Hn] Clay
H Hn
γn
then, the previous procedure will be applied.
Fig (22)
3.8.2 Design of various components of braced cuts
(A) Struts
Struts are actually horizontal columns subject to bending. The load carrying capacity of columns
l
will depend on the, slenderness ratio . The slenderness ratio can be reduced by providing vertical
r
and horizontal supports at intermediate points.
In case of braced cuts in clayey soils the depth of the first strut below ground surface should be less
than the depth of tensil cracks Zc.
2c 2c
Zc = or Zc =
γ
γ Ka
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig (23)
(89 of 102)
The force in struts are calculated s follow:

1. Draw the pressure envelope for the cut with the proposed positions of the struts are
indicated.
2. Divide the vertical cut into two simple cantilevers and a simple beam
3. Solve each individual beam and cantilever to determine the reaction A, B1, C1, C2,
D1, and D.
4. Strut loads are:
PA = A(s)
PB = (B1 + B2) (s)
PC = (C1 + C2) (s)
PD = D (s)
Where s is the horizontal spacing between struts
5. Choose the proper section from the steel manual.
(B) Sheetpiles
1. For each section (beam and cantilever) shown in fig (23.C) determine the maximum bending
moment.
2. Determine the maximum value of the maximum bending moment (Mmax) obtained in
step 1.
3. Obtain section modulus
M
Z= max
σall
4. Choose the proper section.
(C) Wales
1. Wales can be treated as continuous horizontal members if they are spliced properly.
2. Conservatively they may be treated as simple beams pinned at the struts.
A(s)2
at level A Mmax =
8
(B1 + B2 )s 2
at level B Mmax =
8
(C + C2 )s 2
at level C Mmax = 1
8
2
D(s)
at level D Mmax =
8
3. Determine the section modulus for each wale
M
Z= max
σall
4. Choose proper section from steel manual.
(90 of 102)
3.8.3 Stability of Braced Cuts
3.8.3.1 Heave of the bottom of the cut in clay
Braced cuts in clay may become unstable as a result of the heaving of the bottom of the
excavation.
L
i) Terzaghi’s analysis: (1943)
Load/unit length of the cut causing the

bottom heave = Q
Q = B1 Hγ - cH
where, B1 = 0.7 B
c = cohesion
The load Q can be treated as a load per
unit length on a continuous foundation
at the level bd (and a f) having a width
Fig (24)
of B1 = 0.7B.
According to Terzghi’s bearing capacity theory, the net ultimate load-carrying capacity per unit
length of this foundation can be given by:
Qu = cNc B1 , Nc = bearing capacity factor
in case of φ = 0 → Nc = 5.7
∴ Qu = 5.7 c B1
Qu 5.7cB1 5.7c
F.S. = = = = F.S = 1.25 → 1.5
Q H(B1 γ − c) c
H(γ - )
0.7B
(91 of 102)
ii) Bjerrum and Eide analysis: (1956)

They proposed the following formula:
cN c
FS =
γH
The bearing capacity factor Nc varies with the ratio of H/B

and L/B (where L= Length of the cut).
Nc can be estimated from Fig. (25) (at H/B & L/B)
Fig (25)
Variation of Nc with L/B and H/B

Based on Bjerrum and Eid’s Rquation
(92 of 102)
3.8.3.2 Stability of the bottom of the cut in sand
Sheetpiles are sometimes driven for excavations that need dewatering. In such cases, the factor of
safely against piping should be checked.
“Piping is another term for failure by heave”
Failure of the bottom (piping) may occur when high

hydraulic gradient is set up as a result of the flow of D
water into the excavation.
The factor of safety should be checked by drawing

h
flow nets and determining the maximum exit
gradient [i max (exit)] that will occur at points A and B
Fig (26) L1
h/N d A B L2
i max (exit) =
a
L3
where,
Flow of water
a ≡ length of the flow element at point A (or B)
Fig (27) Impervious Layer
Nd ≡ number of head drops in Fig (27) = 9 drops
Fig (26)
The factor of safety against piping
i cr
F.S. = ≥ 1.5
i max(exit )
where,
Gs −1
icr = critical hydraulic gradient = icr =
e +1
Gs = specific gravity of the solid particles of the soil
e = void ratio of the soil
Generally, critical hydraulic gradient for most soils ranges between 0.9 and 1.1 and
usually taken as 1.0.
(93 of 102)
1
a
9
2
8 3
7 4
6 5
Impervious Layer
Fig (27)
i) Harr (1962) method of analysis

Referring to fig (26)
For L3 = ∞ , knowing L1, L2
The maximum exit hydraulic gradient can be determined from figures (28), (29) as follows:
1. Determine the modulus, m, by obtaining 2L2/B (or B/2L2) and 2L1/B.
2. With the known modulus and 2L1/B, determine L2*i max (exit)/h.
3. Having L2 & h, i max (exit) can be calculated.

i cr 1
4. The factor of safely against piping = =
i max (exit)
i max (exit)
(94 of 102)
Fig (28): Variation of modulus (from Groundwater and Seepage,

by M. E. Harr. Copyright © 1962 by McGraw-Hill. Used with the permission
of the McGraw-Hill Book company)
L2* imax. exist
h
Fig (29): Variation of maximum exit gradient with modulus

(from Groundwater and Seepage, by M. E. Harr, Copyright © 1962
by McGraw-Hill. Used with the permission of the McGraw-Hill
Book company)
(95 of 102)
3.9 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (1): Fig. (1) shows a profile of the original ground surface abc where an anchored
sheetpile wall will be constructed. After driving the sheetpiles and before
fixing the anchorage, the wall will be backfilled by dredged sand ( φ = 32°, γ
= 1.6 t/m3).
i- Find the maximum height of sand fill behind the sheetpile wall that satisfies
the statical requirements for stability of the wall without any temporary
supports and before fixing the anchorage.
ii- For this height of sand, determin the maximum bending moment in the
sheetpile wall.
iii- Make a complete deign of the anchored sid support system.
Fig. (1)
Solution
(96 of 102)
(97 of 102)
Problem (2): For the anchored sheetpile wall shown in Fig. (2), no embedment is possible
into the hard rock base. In order to provide stability for this wall, a
compacted fill is to be placed in front of the wall. Two soils are available
for such fill with the following properties.
° 3Cost of 1 m3 of soil including transportation and

Soil φ γ (t/m )
compaction to the required density (L.E.)
A 33° 1.7 4
B 36° 1.8 5
Find which soil is more economical to be used in this project
Fig. (2)
(98 of 102)
Solution
(99 of 102)
(100 of 102)
3.10 PROBLEMS
1) a- Sketch four cases in which sheet pile walls are used.
b- Make a complete design of the cantilever sheet pile wall shown in Fig. (1).
Fig. (1)
2) a- What are the different materials used in sheet pile walls? What are the advantages of
steel sheet piles over other materials?
b- Redesign the sheet pile wall shown in Fig. (1) if the groundwater table rises behind
the wall to 3.0 m below the ground surface and is maintained at the excavation level
in front of the wall.
3) a- Sketch the elastic lines and bending moment diagrams for the maximum height of
backfill that can be safely retained behind it.
b- For the sheep pile wall shown in Fig. (2), find the maximum height of backfill that can be
safely retained behind it.
Fig. (2)
(101 of 102)
4) Make a complete design for the free earth support wall shown in Fig. (3).
Fig. (3)
5) a- Describe using clear sketches the possible modes of failure of anchored sheet pile wall.
b- Redesign the sheet pile wall shown in Fig. (3) considering fixed earth support condition.
Comment on the differences between the two solutions with regard to:
i) Penetration depth.
ii) Maximum bending moment in the sheet pile wall.
iii) Force in tie rod.
iv) Length of tie rod.
6) Find the forces in the struts for the strutted excavation shown in Figure (4) for the following
cases (Spacing = 3.0 m).
i) Dense Sand (f = 33° , γ = 1.8 t/m3 ).

ii) Clay having an unconfined compressive strength = 60 kPa , γ = 1.9 t/m3).
For Case (ii), check the stability of the strutted excavation due to bottom heave.
Fig. (4)
(102 of 102)

Lecture - Notes - 2010 - Earth Retaining Structures

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EARTH RETAINING

DR. MOHAMED I. AMER

D: General/ ‫ اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬/Lecture Note on ERS (H)

1. CHAPTER (1): LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES

2. Chapter (2): Analysis and Design of Retaining Walls

2.3 Design Procedure of Retaining Walls ..................................................................34

3. Chapter (3): Design of Sheetpile Walls

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Fig. (1.1): Applications of retaining walls-soil-foundations interaction

1.2 TYPES OF EARTH PRESSURE

- Active earth pressure

- Passive earth pressure

1.3 EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES

Fig. (1.2): Stresses on a soil element due to lateral movement

1.3.2 Coulomb’s Theory

Fig. (1.3): Equilibrium of a soil wedge due to lateral movement

1.4 ASSUMPTIONS AND ANALYSIS OF RANKINE'S THEORY

Fig. (1.4): Failure mechanism of two dimensional element

a) Principal stresses on a soil element,

The shear strength of the soil element is given by:

s = c + σ tan φ ……………………………………….…… (1)

solving using the trigonometric relations

sin 2 α = 2 sin α cos α

cos2α – sin2α + 2 tan φ sin α cos α = 0

Circle No. (3)

Fig. (1.6): Mechanism of coefficients of earth pressure

In other words 1 − sin φ 1 − sin φ

Equation (8) becomes:

And eq. (11) becomes

K0 = 1- sin φ ……………………………. (13)

1.5 ACTIVE & PASSIVE SHEAR PLANES

Fig. (1.7): Active and passive shear planes

1.6 EFFECT OF WALL YIELDING

Fig. (1.7): Rotation of Frictionless Wall about the Bottom

1.7 COMPARISON AMONG THE VALUES OF K’s

Fig. (1.8): Relation between Wall Movement and K’s

1.7.2 Earth Pressure In Cohesionless Soil

Referring to eqn. (14):

For cohesionless soil c = 0

∴ σh = σv Ka for active pressure

σh = σv Kp for passive pressure

At any depth inside the soil mass σv

σe = γ h Ka = active earth pressure

σp = γ h Kp = passive earth pressure

1.7.3 Earth Pressure Distribution

Rankine’s active state

Rankine’s passive state

Fig. (1.9): Distribution of earth pressure

1.8 INCLINED COHESIONLESS GROUND SURFACE IN RANKINE’S ANALYSIS

Fig. (1.10): Earth pressure direction in Rankine’s analysis

cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ

cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ

1.9 DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH PRESSURE

Figure (1.11): Distribution of earth pressure

1.9.1 Lateral Effect Of Ground Water On Earth Pressure

Fig. (1.12): Effect of Ground Water on Earth Pressure

1.9.2 Effect of Surcharge

Figure (1.13): Effect of surcharge on distribution

1.9.3 Effect of Multilayer Soil System

Fig. (1.14): Effect of multi layer soil system on earth pressure

1.9.4 Effect of Inclination of Wall Back

Fig. (1.15): Effect of inclination of wall back on earth pressure

1.10 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AGAINST ROUGH WALLS COULOMB’S ANALYSIS