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Mesoamerican Obsidian Blades: an Experimental

Approach to Function

Suzanne Lewenstein
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

The experimental replication and utilization of a sample of 165 obsidian blades

is discussed in terms of research design, methodology, and results. Use-wear
observed on the blades provides the basis for I) the identification of wear-pat­
tern ''signatures'' corresponding to particular modes of use and contact mate­
rials, 2) the evaluation of general propositions concerning edge damage on
utilized tools, and 3) the determination of the probable function of a sample of
prismatic obsidian blades recovered from Patarata 52, a Classic Period residen­
tial site located in an estuarine zone of coastal Veracruz, Mexico.
Two levels of functional analysis are discussed: the low-intensity or in-the­
field study, and the high-intensity analysis, which involves tool replication and
use, high-power microscopy, and statistical manipulation with computers. Both
approaches are advocated: the choice of one method over the other must be
made on the basis of availability of time, money, special skills, and equipment.

Introduction a) the general morphology of the specimens, including

The importance of determining the prehistoric function(s)
of chipped stone tools from archaeological contexts has long
been recognized. 1 With increasing frequency lithic analysts
are attempting to identify the tasks performed in the past
with stone implements. 2 Functional studies of stone tools
are potentially invaluable aids in the reconstruction of spe­
cial activity sites. 3
Archaeological tool function has been inferred in a variety
of ways from:
working-edge angles;•
b) the suitability of raw material for specific tasks;�
c) ethnographic analogy and ethnohistorical accounts of
native practices;6
d) the distribution and variability of microflake scars and
edge abrasion, which in most cases can be seen with the
naked eye; 7 and
e) microscopically observed traces of use, usually in the
form of striations, pitting, or polishes. 8

4. A. V. Kidder, The Artifacts of Ua.tactun, Guaremala, Carnegie lnsri­

I. John Evans, The Ancient Stone Implements. Weapons & Ornaments of
Grear Britain (London 1872); E. C. Curwen, "Prehistoric Flint Sickles,"
Antiquiry 4 (1930) 179-186; A. S. Barnes, "Modes of Prehension of Some
Fonns of Upper Paleolithic Implements," ProcPS 7:1 (1932) 43-56; C.
N. Ray, "Probable Uses of Flint End Scrapers," AmAnt 2 ( 1937) 303-305.
2. J. Sonnenfeld, "Interpreting the Function of Primitive Implements,"
AmAnr 28 (1962) 55-65; S. A. Semenov, "The Fonn and Functions of
the Oldest Tools," Quartar 21 ( I 970) 1-20: T. R. Hester and R. F. Heizer,
"Problems in the Functional Interpretation of Artifacts: Scraper Planes
from Milla & Yagul, Oaxaca," UCArchFac 14 (1972) 107-123; Barbara
Stafford. "Burin Manufacmre and Utilization: an Experimental Study."
JFA 4 ( 1977) 235-246: Walter A. Dodd, Jr.. "The Wear and Use of
Battered Tools at Annijo Rockshelter," lithic Use-Wear. Brian Hayden,
ed. (New York 1979) 231-242.
3. Edwin N. Wilmsen, lithic Analysis and Cultural Inference: a Paleo­
Indian Case. Anthropological Papers. Universiry of Arizona No. 16 (Tuc­
son 1970).
tution of Washington, Publication No. 576 (Washington, D.C. 1947); Ed­
win Wilmsen, "Functional Analysis of Flaked Stone Tools," AmAnt 33
(1968) 156-161; Sally R. Binford and Lewis R. Binford, "Stone Tools
and Human Behavior," SAm 220 (1969) 70-87.
5. Sally T. Greiser and Payson D. Sheers, "Raw Materials as a Func1ional
Variable in Use-Wear Studies," Hayden, ed.. op. cit. (in note 2) 289-296.
6. R. A. Gould. D. A. Kastner. and A. H. L. Sontz, "The Lithic As­
semblage of the Western Desert Aborigines of Australia," AmAnt 36 (1971)
149-169; Brian Hayden, "Snap, Shatter, and Superfractures: Use-Wear
of Stone Skin Scrapers," Hayden, ed., op. cit. (in note 2) 207-229.
7. Ruth Tringham, Glenn Cooper, George Odell, Barbara Voytek, and
Anne Whitman, "Experimentation in the Fonnation of Edge Damage: A
New Approach to Lithic Analysis," JFA I (1974) 171-195; Dave Davis,
"Patterns of Early Fonnative Subsistence in Southern Mesoamerica,
1500-1100 B.c.. " Man 10 (1975) 41- 59.
8. S. A. Scmenov, Prehistoric Technology, trans. M. W. Thompson (Bath
176 Mesoamerican Obsidian Blades: an Experimental Approach to Function!Lewenstein
The use-wear associated with (d) and (e) may be compared
to experimentally-produced wear on tool replicas utilized
for specific tasks under controlled experimental conditions. 9
The rich potential of these functional approaches to lithic
analysis has not blinded prehistorians to the problems in­
volved in this type of study. 1° For example, there is no
general agreement as to the proper method of conducting
a microwear study. Most would agree, however, on the
validity of comparing utilized archaeological tools with ex­
perimentally-manufactured tool replicas used to process ar­
guably relevant materials (which ethnographic sources and/
or local ecological conditions indicate probably were im­
portant in the past). 11
Sufficient scientific control is a major problem in exper­
imental microwear studies, particularly in the choice and
proper quantification of functional variables. 12 Improved
scientific control could do much toward the identification
of distinctive wear patterns assignable to specific activities
and raw material classes. Standardization of experimental
and recording procedures, along with the use of a sample
size sufficient for statistical manipulation, are necessary in
order to determine the range of variability in use-wear for
each activity and raw material. These two factors have the
potential to eliminate most of the differences in wear-pattern
descriptions of the. same functional phenomena by different
researchers. 13 In addition, accurate wear-pattern identifi­
cation and description can help prevent the confusion of
manufacturing damage with use damage. 14
This study uses replicas of tools to process a series of
1964) 69-99; J. W itthoft, "Glazed Polish on Flint Tools," AmAnt 32
(1967) 383-388; Lawrence H. Keeley. "The Functions of Paleolithic Flint
Tools," SAm 228 (1977) 108-126; Terry A. Del Bene, "Once Upon a
Striation: Current Models of Striation and Polish Formation,'· Hayden, ed.
op. cit. (in note 2) 167-177; Johan Kamminga, "The Nature of Use-Polish
and Abrasive Smoothing on Stone Tools," ibid. 143-157.
9. Stanley Ahler, Projectile Point Form and Function at Rodgers Shelter,
Missouri, Missouri Archaeological Society Research Series No. 8 (Co­
lumbia 1971); Lawrence H. Keeley, op. cit. (in note 8) 108-126; Daryl
Fedje, "Scanning Electron Microscopy Analysis of Use-Striae," Hayden,
ed., op. cit. (in note 2) 179-187.
10. S. A. Semenov, op. cit. (in note 8) 1-2. 11-12; George Odell,
"Microwear in Perspective: a Sympathetic Response to Lawrence H. Kee­
ley," WA 7 (1975) 226-240.
I I. Lawrence H. Keeley, "Technique and Methodology in Microwear
Studies: A Critical Review," WA 5 (1974) 323-336.
12. Ibid. 323-324, 326-327; Odell, op. cit. (in note 10) 227-228; Mi­
chael B. Schiffer, "The Place of Lithic Use-Wear Studies in Behavioral
Archaeology," Hayden, ed., op. cit. (in note 2) 15-25.
13. Brian Hayden and Johan Kamminga, "An Introduction to Use-Wear:
The First CLUW," Hayden, ed., op. cit. (in note 2) 9-13.
14. J. D. Nance, "Functional Interpretations from Microscopic Analysis,"
AmAnt 36 (1971) 361-366; Payson D. Sheets, "Edge Abrasion during
Biface Manufacture," 38 (1973) 215-218.
materials (many of which were previously untested). The
resulting use-damage establishes a series of wear-pattern
standards against which prehistoric obsidian blades can be
compared. The validity of such comparisons is illustrated
with a sample of blades from a domestic site in Veracruz,
Mexico. Synchronic and diachronic advantages of the use­
wear approach are suggested for the study of prehistoric
subsistence, economy, and social complexity.
Methodology
During 1976 and 1977 I conducted an experimental lithic
study in order to ( l ) identify some wear-patterns resulting
from the use of blades to perform tasks that are probably
represented in the archaeological record; (2) test some gen­
eral propositions concerning tool-edge damage which occur
in the archaeological literature; and (3) compare use-damage
on prehistoric tools with that of the experimental sample in
order to infer the tasks represented archaeologically.
An experimental sample of 165 prismatic blades was
made by applying pressure, through a copper-tipped chest
crutch, to a prepared obsidian core held fast in a wooden
vise. Juan de Torquemada described a similar practice ob­
served among the Aztecs in Central Mexico at the time of
Spanish Conquest; 15 this technology has been successfully
replicated by Crabtree. 16 Prismatic blades of high-quality
obsidian are common at most Mesoamerican archaeological
sites, beginning with the Preclassic." The sample of blades
discussed here approximates specimens of the lithic assem­
blage excavated by Stark 18 at Patarata Island, in an estuarine
zone along the coast of Veracruz, Mexico. At Patarata 52,
a Classic period (300-900 A.C.) habitation site, the entire
lithic assemblage, with one exception, consisted of obsidian;
most stone artifacts were blades or blade segments.
The Patarata artifacts were made of grey obsidian, prob­
ably originating mainly in Altotonga, Veracruz. 19 Since no
15. Juan de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana (Seville 1615), cited in
Evans, op. cit. (in note I) 23-24.
16. Don D. Crabtree, "Mesoamerican Polyhedral Cores and Prismatic
Blades," AmAnt 33 (1968) 466-478.
17. W illiam R. Coe, "Artifacts of the Maya Lowlands," Handbook. of
Middle American Indians, Vol. 3: Archaeology of Southern Mesoamerica,
Part II, Robert Wauchope and G. R. W illey, eds. (Austin 1965) 594-603;
Richard S. MacNeish, Antoinette Nelken-Temer, and Irmgard W. Johnson,
The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley, Vol. 2: Nonceramic Artifacts (Aus­
tin 1967); Paul Tolstoy. "Utilitarian Artifacts of Central Mexico," HMAI,
Vol. IO. R. Wauchope, ed. (Austin 1970) 272-296; Payson D. Sheets,
"The Chipped Stone Industry," The Prehistory of Cha/chuapa, El Sal­
vador, Vol. 2, Payson D. Sheets and Bruce H. Dahlin (Philadelphia 1978)
8-27.
18. Barbara L. Stark, Prehistoric Ecology at Patarata 52, Veracruz, Mex­
ico: Adaptation to the Mangrove Swamp (Vanderbilt University Press,
Publication #18: Nashville 1977).
19. Robert Cobean, cited in Stark, op. cit. (in note 18) 156-157.

lithic materials from this source were available for experi­
mental purposes, the experimentally manufactured blades
were made of (lower quality) grey obsidian from Govern­
ment Mountain, Arizona.
The sample of replicated blades was divided into groups
of 15. Each group was then used to process one of eight
substances chosen to represent some of the basic activities
carried out in prehistoric times in a Mesoamerican riverine
environment. The aim was to test coarse fibers, cotton, fish
scales, animal hide, bone, and wood of several degrees of
hardness. This range of materials is admittedly incomplete:
for example, no experiments were performed with food­
stuffs or with shell working. The intention, however, was
to gain a preliminary understanding of the use-damage
which results from processing some general material cate­
gories, and to determine the extent to which these gross
categories are distinguishable from each other on the basis
of tool-edge damage. When possible, specific contact ma­
terials were selected on the basis of archaeological or eth­
nohistorical evidence: in most cases, however, lack of
suitable material made it necessary to choose general ana­
logs for processed material categories. This option is jus­
tified as a preliminary use-wear study-to be followed later
with more specific materials and combinations of utilization
if the approach yields promising results. In addition, humid
tropical zones host a bewildering array of fauna) and floral
species. I believe it is better to begin by identifying a general
material class (e.g., animal hide) before attempting to dis­
tinguish between the working of specific animal hides, such
as gibnut, wild pig, coatimundi, white-tailed deer, or jaguar.
The substances worked in this study include the
following.
Rough cotton fibers. The Patarata area is known to have
been a producer and exporter of cotton cloth in pre-Colum­
bian times. 20 Seven of the nine spindle whorls recovered by
Stark during excavations at Patarata 52 fall within the range
of cotton fiber whorls in hole diameter, whorl diameter, and
weight, according to Parson's (1972) study. 2 1
Jute fiber. Because of its rough texture and its availability,
jute fiber was used as a representative of the class of rough
fibers suitable for rope and twine manufacture. In nearby
Tabasco a plant fiber called "pita" (probably agave or he­
nequen) was of considerable importance during the 16th
20. F. del Paso & Troncoso, ed., Pape/es de Nueva Espana (Madrid 1905)
5: 1-11; B. L. Stark, "An Ethnohistoric Model for Native Economy and
Settlement Patterns in Southern Veracruz, Mexico," in Stark & Voorhies,
eds. Prehistoric Coastal Adaptations: the Economy and Ecology of Mar­
itime Middle America (Academic Press: New York 1978) 215-217, 224.
21. Stark, op. cit. (in note 18) 96-98; M. H. Parsons, "Spindle whorls
from the Teotitlan Valley, Mexico," in Miscellaneous Studies in Mexican
Prehistory, MichMusAnth 45 (Ann Arbor I 972) 45-79.
Journal of Field Archaeology/Vol. 8, 1981 177
century. 22 I posit that rough fiber processing may have been
an important activity at Patarata as well. Of the nine spindle
whorls from Patarata 52, the two that do not conform to
Parson's whorl dimensions for cotton spinning are similar
in diameter and weight to maguey fiber whorls. It is possible
that rough fiber garments were made and worn by some of
the Classic period residents of southern Veracruz. Agave
fibers could have served also for fish lines and nets; fishing
is a documented activity at the site. 23
Fish scales. The people who lived in the estuarine en­
vironment at Patarata depended heavily on aquatic resources
for food. Wing has found that more than 60% of the ver­
tebrate fauna) assemblage was made up of aquatic species,
including both freshwater and marine forms. 24 At least 16
species of fish are represented in the archaeological record.
For experimental fish-scaling, a sample of mojarra (Chich­
lasoma sp.) was selected. Mojarra was recovered archae­
ologically at Patarata: in addition, it was the most abundant
fish when I visited the fish market at the nearby town of
Alvarado. The degree to which the scales of the mojarra are
similar in hardness to those of other fish in the Patarata area
is unknown at present.
Bone. Use-wear from bone cutting, scraping, and groov­
ing is expected on some of the Patarata obsidian tools. In
addition to animal-butchering activities, there is evidence
for the manufacture of earplugs, pendants, needles, awls,
and spatulate tools made of animal and human long bones. 25
Most of the bone artifacts cannot be identified as to species;
however, dog, white-tailed deer, and turkey are represented.
Turkey occurs in all phases at Patarata: for the bone-grooving
experiments (fresh) chicken bone was used because of its
similarity in hardness and texture to turkey. Of course, it
must be kept in mind that the bones of mammals and small
birds differ in hardness from fowl (F. Bayham, personal
communication).
Hide. Fifteen blades each were used to cut and scrape
cowhide which had not been softened as a result of soaking.
Although cows are not native to the New World, cowhide
was used because of its availability and because its skin
thickness (which varies with animal size) probably approx­
imates the hides of large Central American estuarine animals
such as the crocodile, wild pig, or tapir. In general, smaller
animals are expected to have thinner, softer hides.
Pine, fir, ironwood. These woods were included as rep-
22. Stark, op. cit. (in note 18) 221, 225; Jose de Solis, "Estado en que
se hallaba la Provincia de Coatzacoalcos en el aiio de 1599," Boletin de/
Archivo General de la Nacion 16:3 (1945) 429-479.
23. Stark, op. cit. (in note 18) 98; Parsons, op. cit. (in note 21) 45-79.
24. E. S. W ing, "Vertebrates," in Stark, op. cit. (in note 18) 204-212;
also Stark, op. cit. (in note 18) 20.
25. Stark, op. cit. (in note 18) 158-165.
178 Mesoamerican Obsidian Blades: an Experimental Approach to Function/Lewenstein
resentatives of the multitude of soft and hard wood species
native to Patarata, many of which probably were used by
its prehistoric residents for the manufacture of furniture,
bowls, tools and hafts, houses, and canoes. All of the wood
used in this experiment was seasoned, not freshly cut.
Three distinct use modes were employed. A scraping
motion (i.e., the pulling of the tool toward the tool user)
was used for removing fish scales and for scraping animal
hides. A two-directional sawing motion was used to cut
jute, cotton , bone, hide, pine , and ironwood. Whittling was
performed on pine and fir. A sample of 1 5 obsidian blades
was used, unhafted, to carry out each of the above men­
tioned combinations of motion and contact material. This
was a compromise aimed at testing as many materials as
possible but at the same time obtaining a) the full range of
variability in edge damage for each combination of use mode
and contact material; b) an accurate estimate of the expected
use-life of an obsidian blade for each of these activities; and
c) a sample size suitable for statistical manipulation.
Each blade was utilized until it was no longer effective
at its assigned task. The number of strokes/activity varied
from less than 500 to 2250 in the case of tools used to cut
cotton fibers . For comparative purposes a sample of 15
blades was subjected to accidental edge modification; this
group was carried in a cloth bag for several weeks, after
which the edge damage was examined and compared to the
edge wear patterns of the experimentally utilized tools.
In addition, a random sample of 33 obsidian blades and
blade fragments was chosen from the lithic assemblage re­
covered by Stark from Patarata 52. These artifacts (whose
functions are unknown) were analyzed fo llowing the same
procedures described below for the experimental blades.
This was done in order to assess the comparability of pre­
historic and experimental use-wear and to permit functional
inference concerning the prehistoric blades.
At this point it should be cautioned that the use-wear
described below pertains to obsidian tools only. Wear pat­
terns will vary somewhat for different raw materials, es­
pecially for larger grained rocks such as quartz or basalt.
Even for a single raw material, such as obsidian, experi­
mentation will yield only general guidelines for the inter­
pretation of prehistoric tool use because: I ) no research
design will be able to identify and obtain for experimental
purposes the entire spectrum of worked materials and mo­
tions that were employed by the original owners of the
artifacts; and 2) we cannot safely assume that each tool was
reserved for use on only one type of material, with one
specific grip and use motion. A tool that was used inter­
mittently for several different tasks would probably end up
with a complex microwear pattern that will be more difficult
for the archaeologist to interpret. Tringham, et al . have done
some preliminary testing with multiple use, and offer sug-
gestions on how to identify and decipher superimposed wear
patterns. 26
Later, in my discussion of the sample of Patarata blades,
I will infer multiple use for some tools on the basis of
complex striation orientations. Unlike successive microflake
scar patterns, which occur on tool edges and which tend to
remove or obliterate earlier microflake scars, striations are
formed on surfaces away from tool edges, where micro­
flaking does not usually occur. Thus later striations do not
erase earlier ones. The use of a blade for more than one
activity (for example, sawing and scraping) can result in an
exhausted tool bearing bands of striations oriented both par­
allel and perpendicular or diagonal to the working edge.
The interpretation of superimposed use-wear is tricky. I
believe that more progress will have to be made in isolating
individual wear patterns corresponding to specific contact
materials and modes of use for specific tool materials before
we can successfully unravel the meaning of combined use­
wear patterns.
Wear Analysis
After completion of the experimental use of the blades,
the edges of the blades, both of the archaeological and the
replicated sample, were examined (at 40 x magnification)
for wear patterning in the form of microflake scars, stria­
tions, edge rounding, and abrasive polish or dulling, as
described by Odell . 27 Measurements, in tenths of millime­
ters, were taken on the maximum length of flake scars (i .e.,
the distance from the tool edge), and on the maximum width
of zones showing striations, and abrasive polish or dulling.
These features were recorded on both the dorsal and ventral
sides of each tool . Striations were classified as parallel to
the tool edge, perpendicular, diagonal, or a combination of
the three. Edge rounding was recorded as absent, moderate,
or extreme .
Description of Use-Wear Patterns
I . Scaling fish. Unfortunately, the 15 blades used to per­
form this activity were not uti lized until they were ex­
hausted. Ten kilos of mojarra were purchased in Alvarado,
Veracruz for this experiment. After all of the fish were
scaled only a minimal amount of use-wear was observed
on the blades. At this point I decided that continued ex­
perimentation with fish scaling until all of the tools were
no longer useable for this task would involve a prohibitive
investment of time and money.
The mojarra were scaled by pulling each tool toward the
user, always with the ventral side in contact with the fish .
Very light and discontinuous microflaking (consisting of
26. Tringham el al . . op. cit. (in note 7) 192- 1 94 .
27 . Odell. op. cit. (in note 10).
 Journal of Field Archaeology/Vol. 8, 1981 179

mostly hinge and some feather tenninations) 28 occurred

along both dorsal and ventral faces. No striae, abrasive
polish or dulling, and minimal edge rounding were noted.
The use-wear on these tools ranges from a) very little dam­
age on eight specimens, b) one tool with dorsal and ventral
surfaces lightly scarred, and c) six blades with bifacial hinge
scars, which are more frequent on the dorsal side.
The maximum length of the microflalcing caused by fish
scaling averaged 0. 1 mm . on the dorsal surfaces (s.d. =
0. 192 mm. ), and 0.23 mm. on the ventral sides (s.d . =
0.29 mm. ) . The microflake pattern, then, is characterized
by more flake removals from the dorsal face, but with a few
ventral scars larger than any on the opposite, or dorsal side.
2. Two-way cutting of rough jute fibers (FIG. t ). The Figure I . Ventral surface of obsidian blade used to cut j ute fiber. Note
knives were dull after 700 strokes. This activity produced striations parallel to edge. Blade fragment is 54 mm. long.
edge damage characterized by the following.
a) Minimal edge rounding.
b) A few small microflake scars, many with snap ter­ slight on these implements. It occurs in the form of a series
mination,29 spread out along both dorsal and ventral sur­ of small hinge fractures bilaterally distributed along the
faces. There is no apparent pattern in the distribution of edge; it is somewhat more extensive on the dorsal surface
micro flake scars . The mean value for the maximum ven­ (mean length = 0.2 mm. , s . d . = 0. 19 mm. ) .
tral flake scar length is 0.26 mm. (s.d. = 0. 12 mm.), Only three o f the blades used on cotton developed stria­
double the mean value for dorsal-flake scar length (mean tions. On these tools striae were noted on the dorsal side;
= 0. 13 mm. , s.d. = 0.49 mm . ) . only one of these specimens also had a striated area on the
c ) Striations. Linear scratches aligned parallel t o the cut­ ventral surface. All striations are oriented parallel to the
ting edge were observed dorsally on all 15 blades: on 1 1 cutting edges of the tools and occur in bands which are
of the 15 they also occur on the ventral side. The striated approximately 0. 8 mm. wide .
areas tend to be wider on the dorsal (mean maximum 4. Two-directional cutting, to make grooves and other
width = 1 . 1 mm. , s . d . = 0 . 45 mm. ) than on the ventral linear incisions on fresh animal bone ( FIG. 2) . After 600
side (mean width = 0.9 mm. , s . d. = 0 . 50 mm .). strokes each of the tools had developed sufficient edge
d) On 14 of these tools jute cutting produced dull bands rounding to inhibit further cutting. This cutting edge abra­
bi laterally along the tool edge. This phenomenon may be sion observed after use ranges from moderate to heavy edge
caused by surface abrasion from contact with the rough rounding. A bilateral, symmetrical pattern of large step and
fibers. The dulled bands are wider than the striated zones, feather terminated microflake scars was observed. Flake
and are asymmetrical, averaging 2.6 mm. on dorsal faces scars are densely distributed along the edges; that is, there
(s.d. = 0.01 mm. ) and 2.9 mm. on ventral sides (s . d .
= 0 . 8 1 mm. ) .
Little variation i n use-wear was observed within this Figure 2. Edge damage on dorsal surface of obsidian blade used to cut
group of 15 tools. All show minimal edge rounding, a bi­ grooves in bone. Blade length is 47 mm.
lateral asymmetrical pattern of microflalce scars, dulled
zones, and striations parallel to the cutting edge.
3. Two-directional cutting of rough cotton fibers. Tools
in this sample were used for more than 2200 strokes each,
after which they were no longer able to cut the fibers . The
resultant use-wear is not as pronounced as that observed on
the jute blades. Cotton caused no edge rounding that is
detectable at low magnification, although the cutting edges
are no longer sharp to the touch. M icroflake damage is very

28. "The HoHo Classification and Nomenclature Committee Repon,"

Hayden, ed. , op. cit. ( in note 2 ) 1 33- 1 35 .

29. Ibid. 1 34.

180 Mesoamerican Obsidian Blades: an Experimental Approach to Function!Lewenstein

is little undamaged tool edge between the use scars, whose

mean maximum length is 1 .3 mm. for both dorsal and ven­
tral surfaces. (Standard deviations for this variable are 0.42
mm. dorsal and 0.38 mm. ventral . ) This edge damage is
seen easily without magnification.
No striations or abrasive polish of any kind were noted
at 40 X .
5 . Whittling fir (FIG. 3). Blades used to whittle fir were
exhausted after 500 strokes. For each of the first 1 5-20 of
these strokes, a long wood shaving was removed. After this,
the blades' paring efficiency was reduced, and more force
was required to remove subsequent shavings. (See Keller30
for a discussion of the same phenomenon after whittling
manzanita. )
After use, the blades showed moderate to heavy rounding, Figure 3. Ventral microflake scars resulting on an obsidian blade used
for whittling fir.
which was oriented toward the tool surface in contact with
the wood (usually the ventral side). A continuous band of
large, overlapping flake scars with feather terminations ex­ 7 . Two-directional cutting of hides. After 350 two-di­
tends along this ventral surface. The contact side of the rectional cuts each, this group of tools showed no visible
blade (dorsal) also incurred microflake damage. It is, how­ edge rounding, and no striae or abrasive polish were ob­
ever, less frequent along the edge, and the flake scars, made served at 40 x . Microflaking, characterized by snap and
up of mostly feather terminations but with a few hinges, do feather terminations, occu.rs infrequently on both dorsal and
not overlap. Microflake scars on the contact surface are not ventral surfaces and appears to be symmetrical in flake size
as large as those on the opposing tool face. Mean maximum (mean maximum flake length = 0.53 mm. , s.d. = 0.35
microflake scar length is 2.4 mm. on the side opposite mm. for dorsal , 0.5 mm. = mean, s.d. = 0.58 mm. , for
contact (s.d. = I . 1 8 mm.), 2 mm. on the contact surface ventral . )
(s.d. = 1 . 8 mm. ). Very little damage or microflake scar patterning i s de­
No striae or abrasive polish or dulling were observed on tectable on the hide cutting blades, at least under low power
this group of tools. magnification. ( Five hide-cutting tools were used for a
6. Scraping hides. During use the ventral side of the longer period, as per Odell's suggestion. Even after 2000
blade was in direct contact with the hide: the tool was pulled strokes little damage was observed at 40 x . )
toward me in performing the task. These specimens were 8. Sawing ironwood (FIG. 4). These tools were effective
dull after 325 scraping strokes; the average stroke length on ironwood for IOOO two-directional strokes. As a result
is estimated at 25 cm. (At the suggestion of George Odell , of this activity the edges were heavily abraded. Long, nar­
I used 5 of these blades for additional hide scraping. After row microflakes with feather terminations were removed
2000 strokes each the wear pattern observed at low mag­
nification was essentially the same as that described here
for 325 strokes.)
Figure 4. Obsidian blade used for sawing ironwood. Blade length is 50
Hide-scraping produced very little edge rounding or sur­
mm.
face abrasive polish. One specimen incurred a few short
( 1 .6 mm. ) striations perpendicular to the tool edge, on the
dorsal side. The only other evidence of tool use detectable
at 40 x magnification was the presence of small microflake
scars which appear more frequently on the dorsal surface
(with feather terminations), but tend to be larger on the
opposite, or ventral side, where they sometimes terminate
in hinges. Mean maximum flake scar length is 0.55 mm.
for the dorsal side (s.d. = 0 . 3 mm.), for the ventral side
(s.d. = 0.5 mm. ) .

30. C. M. Keller, "The Development of Edge Damage Patterns on Stone

Tools," Man I ( 1 966) 504-505.

along both dorsal and ventral surfaces. The end result is a
serrated edge. Mean maximum length = 1 .2 mm . (s.d.
= 0.4 mm.) and 1 . 3 mm. (s.d. = 0.5 mm.) for dorsal and
ventral sides, respectively.
At low magnification no striae or polish were noted.
9. Whittling pine, with ventral surface pulled toward the
tool user. Moderate to heavy edge rounding was observed
after subjecting these tools to 350 to 400 paring strokes on
seasoned pine . This task produced a microflake pattern sim­
ilar to that described above under 5, but with smaller flake
scars. The pattern consists of a dense row of short overlap­
ping scars with feather terminations on the tool edge (ven­
tral) in contact with the wood. These scars have a mean
maximum length of 1 .5 mm. (s.d. = I mm . ) . The dorsal
surface has fewer flake scars, some with snap termination:
mean maximum length for this side is 0 . 3 mm. (s.d. =
0.66 mm.). It was not possible to detect any striations or
polish with the method of observation used.
10. Sawing pine. Although the tools in this group were
no longer razor sharp after performing 1 500 two-directional
cutting strokes, no rounding was visible along the cutting
edges.
Hinge- and feather-terminated microflake scars are dis­
tributed bilaterally and symmetrically along the edges, re­
sulting in a slightly serrated edge. Mean maximum flake
scar length is 0.6 mm. (dorsal s.d. = 0.48 mm . , ventral
s.d. = 0.32 mm. ) for both dorsal and ventral surfaces. One
blade incurred a band of striations along its dorsal side, 2.4
mm. wide. No other striae or polish were noted .
1 1 . Jostling, or bagwear. These specimens showed min­
imal edge rounding, and no striations or polish. The only
edge damage to occur as a result of this intentional jostling
is a random distribution of microflake scars along both dor­
sal and ventral sides of each tool edge. These scars vary in
�I length from tiny to more than 4 mm. from point of impact
to termination: feather, hinge, and snap terminations are all
represented . These flake scars do not overlap, and could
never be mistaken for wear resulting from whittling, or for
any heavy scraping or cutting task.
The 1 1 wear patterns observed above are not all suffi­
ciently distinctive to insure correct identification on ar­
chaeological specimens. In the cases of pattern duplication,
future analysis with greater magnification, including the
scanning electron microscope, may lead to the detection of
more types of striations and abrasive polishes, some of
which may be characteristics of specific contact materials
and modes of use. 3 1
3 1 . George Diamond, "The Nature o f So-Called Polished Surfaces on
Stone Anifacts," Hayden, ed. , op. cit. (in note 2) 1 59- 1 66; L. H . Keeley
and M. H. Newcomer, " Microwear Analysis of Experimental Flint Tools:
a Test Case." /AS 4 ( 1 977) 29-62.
Journal of Field Archaeology/V ol. 8, 1981 181
General Propositions About Wear Patterns and Tool
Function
Proposition 1
Tringham et al. 32 found that the relative hardness of the
raw material processed was highly correlated with the size
of microflakes removed during use from the utilized edge
of a flint flake. If this is the case, one would expect a
distribution of progressively larger flake scars (both dorsal
and ventral) from small microflaking along the edges of
blades used to process softer, resilient materials such as
cotton or jute fiber, to those used on the hardest materials.
Evaluation
In Figure 5 the contact materials used in the experiments
are arranged from left to right on the x-axis according to
increasing hardness. Plotted along the y-axis are the cor­
responding mean values of the ' ' maximum length of dorsal
flake scars" and "maximum length of ventral scars" ; these
figures were obtained for each material through SPSS
BREAKDOWNS by raw-material type, performed on the
Univac 1 1 1 0 at Arizona State University. 33 The bagwear
column was assigned to its position in Figure 5 (i.e . , be­
tween pine and fresh animal bone in hardness) after in­
spection of the scar-width table.
Examination of this graph indicates strong support for
Proposition I , with the exception of the blades used to
whittle fir. These tools have an unexpected amount of dam­
age, considering the difference in density between fir and
the extremely hard wood, ironwood . Two possible expla­
nations for this anomaly are I ) the sample utilized on fir
was used to whittle, a task possibly more damaging to a
tool than the activity of sawing hardwood, even wood as
dense as ironwood; and 2) use on hard materials, such as
ironwood, tend to break off the tool margin until the edge
becomes stable. This causes large flake scars to become
"shorter". 34 Note also that edge damage from bagwear is
more prominent than the wear patterns resulting from the
use of most raw materials (5 of 8).
Two one-way analyses of variance were calculated in
order to determine if the means for dorsal and ventral flake
scar length are significantly different for the eight contact
materials. I would also like to know if there is as much
variability in microflake size within each contact-material
category as occurs between the groups. Table I contains the
32. Tringham et al . , op. cit. (in note 7) 1 88 .
33. Norman H . N i e , C. Hadlai H u l l , e t al . , Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences: Second Edition (New York 1 975).
34. Keller, op. cit. (in note 30) 507. I thank George Odell for reminding
me of this phenomenon.
182 Mesoamerican Obsidian Blades: an Experimental Approach to Function!Lewenstein

distributed more or less evenly on both sides of the blade;

a scraping function, however, creates pressure mainly on
the side of the implement opposite the zone of contact with
the worked material; i.e. , the dorsal side. 36 Therefore, it is
expected that:
a) blades used for cutting will have flake scars of equal
length on both dorsal and ventral faces;
b) any striations or abrasive polish or dulling occurring
on cutting implements as a result of utilization will be
distributed evenly on the two sides of the blade;
c) scraping tools will be scarred more severely on the
dorsal side than on the ventral ;
.5 d) striae or abrasive polish or dulling on a scraper will
be more likely to occur on one side only, rather than
bilaterally.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Evaluation

1 - cotton • = . 19 X = . 19 a) The maximum length of dorsal scars for experimental

2 - jute . 13 . 17 cutting tools has a mean of 0. 62 mm. and a standard de­
3 - fish scales .21 .33 viation of 0.54 mm. Maximum length of ventral scars for
4 - hide .42 .58
5 - pine .72 .82
36. Semenov, op. cit. (in note 8) 83- 1 07.
6 - bagwear . 94 1 ,02
7 - chicken bone 1 . 29 1 . 17
8 - fir 1 . 84 2.39
9 - ironwood 1 .15 1 .27

Figure 5. Relationship between raw material hardness and width of

Table I . Analysis of variance tables for the relationship
microflaking. • = x dorsal scar length in mm. x = x ventral scar between length of dorsal scars and raw material, and between
length in m m . ventral scars and raw material.
ANOVA TABLE
Dorsal Scars by Contact Material Type
Sum of Degrees of
two AN OYA tables that summarize the distribution of var­
Squares Freedom Mean Square
iability in microflake length. The between-material group
variation is judged significant if the F ratio is sufficiently BETWEEN
high , given the degrees of freedom involved and the level GROUPS 44 .69 1 9346 9) 4.96577048
of significance chosen. For both tables, the degrees of free­ WITHIN
dom associated with the F values are: 9 degrees of freedom GROUPS 70. 742607 1 ( 1 88) 0.376290463
in the numerator and 1 88 df in the denominator. 35 The F TOTAL 1 1 5 . 434542 ( 197)
distribution indicates that both are significant at the .0 I level
(the critical value is less than 3). This statistic, therefore, F = 1 3 . 1966 ETA SQRD = . 3872
is supportive of the presence of microflake scar patterns that
ANOVA TABLE
are significantly different in size from one worked material Ventral Scars by Contact Material Type
to the next. The specific nature of this relationship was Sum of Degrees of
shown above to consist of a strong positive correlation be­ Squares Freedom Mean Square
tween raw material rigidity and size of microflakes.
BETWEEN
Proposition 2 GROUPS 62 .4357052 9) 6.93730056
Cutting activities should be distinguishable from scraping WITHIN
GROUPS 103.603487 ( 1 88) 0.55 108237
motions. In the former, pressure on the cutting edge is
TOTAL 166.039 192 ( 197)

35. D. F. Morrison, Multivariate Statistical Methods: Second Edition. F = 1 2. 5885 ETA SQRD = .3760
(New York 1976) 28-32.

Table 2. Breakdown of microflake length by type of motion.
Maximum Length: Maximum Length:
Dorsal Scars Ventral Scars
(in mm . )
(in mm.)
Scrape: x = 0.35 Scrape: x =0.51
s.d. = 0.42 s . d . = 0.65
Saw: x = 0.62 Saw: x = 0.63
s.d. = 0.54 s.d. = 0.56
Bagwear: x = 0.94 Bagwear: x = 1 .02
s.d. = 0.36 s.d. = 0.54
Whittling: X = 1 . 36 Whittling: x = I .77
s.d. = 1 . 33 s.d. = 1 .27
the same sample has a mean of 0.63 mm. and a standard
deviation of 0.56 mm. There is almost identically sized scar
damage on each side of the cutting tools (TABLE 2 ) . Thus,
the test implication is supportive of Proposition 2. During
the course of the wear-pattern evaluation, I noted a tendency
toward differences in microflake-scar termination between
the cutting and scraping modes. Blades used for cutting and
sawing have more hinge and snap terminations; the scraping
tools are more likely to have sustained feather-terminated
microflake damage. For example, compare the use-wear
observed on blades used to saw pine versus those used to
whittle pine.
b) Striations and polish were observed on only 2 1 of the
experimental blades used for cutting . All striae are parallel
to the tool edge, and most are distributed bilaterally. One
blade used to scrape hide has striations perpendicular to the
edge, but no polish. There is a tendency for striae to occur
more often on the dorsal (n = 22) than on the ventral side
(n = 1 1 ) of the tools. Also, the mean value for the maximum
width of dorsal striae is larger, x = 1. 1 mm. (s.d. = 0.57
mm. ) , than for ventral striae, whose mean is 0 . 9 mm. (s .d.
= 0.56 mm. ) . This nonsymmetric distribution of striation
zone widths may be a result of variations in the angle be­
tween the blade and the contact material. In most cases the
cutting activities were performed with the long axis of the
tool perpendicular to the contact material. This angle, how­
ever, probably varied somewhat because both the tools and
the contact materials were hand-held, and the emphasis was
on cutting efficiency, not on maintaining a 90° angle be­
tween blade and worked material.
No luster was observed on any of the utilized tools. A
dull band was seen along the edge of 13 blades, all asso­
ciated with striations parallel to the edge of tools used to
cut jute fibers. The mean value for maximum width of this
dull zone on the dorsal side is 2. 1 mm. (s.d. = 0. 78 mm. );
for ventral dulling the mean width is 2.7 mm. (s.d. = 0.82
mm. ). As is the case for striations , more dorsal than ventral
sides have abrasive dulling along the edges. The dulled
Journal of Field Archaeology/Vol. 8, 1 981 183
zone, however, is wider on the ventral than on the dorsal
sides, unlike the striation width pattern . No explanation for
this lack of symmetry of dulled zones is apparent. The
overall distribution of striations and dulling supports the
proposition of cutting as an activity that causes bilateral,
but not necessarily equally extensive, wear on both sides
of a knife (FIG. 6) .
c) As can be seen from Table 2, the relationship predicted
(larger flake scars on the tool edge opposite the applied
force-i.e., the dorsal face) was reversed for the experi­
mentally used scrapers, including the whittling tools. Many
of the scrapers sustained edge damage on both dorsal and
ventral faces. In spite of this failure in prediction, the data
indicate a considerable difference in the size of microflaking
between the two opposing sides of scrapers. This asymmetry
in edge damage can be a useful criterion for distinguishing
Figure 6. Patarata 52 obsidian blade fragment with striations and dull
band along edge. Length of blade fragment is 23 mm.
scraping from cutting tools. An alternative method of gaug­
ing use-damage on scrapers would be to record the density
of microflaking: that is, the number of flakes removed per
linear centimeter, instead of measuring the length of the
largest flakes along the scraping edge. Although flake scar
distribution was not recorded in a quantitative manner, there
appears to be a positive correlation between whittling and
a continuous band of flake scars: this correlation contrasts
with other scraping activities (such as working hide or scal­
ing fish) that inflict an intermittent pattern of microflaking
along the edge of the tool.
d) There was no polish or dulling on any of the scraping
blades and only one has striations: at least none was visible
under 40 x magnification. Therefore , no determination of
the bilateralness of these variables can be made in regard
to scraping or whittling tools.
Proposition 3
The cutting of non-woody plants has been found to leave
a dull band and "comet-shaped" pits along both dorsal and
184 Mesoamerican Obsidian Blades: an Experimental Approach to Functionllewenstein
ventral faces of a blade, when viewed under a high power
microscope . 37 These phenomena are expected to occur on
tool specimens used for cutting jute and rough cotton fiber.
Evaluation
No "comet-shaped" pits were visible at 40 x on either
surface of any of the fiber-cutting blades. Striations parallel
to the working edge of the tools occur on all specimens
used to process jute. Striae were also observed on dorsal
faces of four implements used to cut cotton fiber. The only
other occurrence of this type of edge alteration is found on
two of the pine-cutting blades. In addition , the only type
of surface abrasive polish or dulling observed, characterized
as a dull band along the cutting edge, occurs on the tools
used to cut jute, and is absent from all other blades. Thirteen
of 1 5 knives used to cut jute have dorsal dulling; 1 2 of these
have a dulled zone on the ventral side as well . There appears
to be ome validity to the reports by Semenov38 and Keeley 39
that the cutting of non-woody plants results in a unique wear
pattern. With higher magnification (approximately 400 x )
it may be possible to discern the predicted pitting also.
Proposition 4
Tools used for cutting hide are expected to suffer high
attrition along the cutting surface, resulting in a rounded
edge. 40 Also believed diagnostic of hide-cutting are stria­
tions diagonal to the working edge and a band of luster
along the ventral surface of the implement."
Evaluation
At low magnification only one case of striae and no evi­
dence of ventral luster or heavy edge attrition were found
to support the prediction that hide-cutting tools develop this
wear pattern. Again, this failure to identify a specified pat­
tern of edge damage may be because of the relatively low
magnification used to view the experimental tools. Edge­
rounding level was low to moderate on all 1 5 hide-cutting
tools.
Proposition 5
Whittling has been found to produce "intense polish"
(visible at high power magnification) on the ventral face of
37. Ibid . 1 1 5 ; Keeley, op. cit . (in note 8) 1 1 6.
38. Semenov. op . cit. (in note 8) I I 5 .
39. Keeley. op. cit. (in note 8) 1 1 6.
40. Ibid. 1 1 3.
4 1 . Semenov, op. cit. (in note 8) 1 68, 1 72.
a blade, along with striations perpendicular to the working
edge. In addition , a few striae are expected to occur parallel
to and diagonal to the edge. Microflaking occurs mainly on
the ventral side. No damage should be observable along the
dorsal surface. 42
Evaluation
None of the 30 whittling knives in this experiment de­
veloped any type of abrasive polish that is detectable at
40 x . Nor were any striations observed perpendicular or
diagonal to the edge, as has been previously reported for
utilized whittling tools. Dorsal scar length averages 1 .36
mm. , ventral scars measure an average 1 .77 mm. in length,
and both edges of a whittling implement clearly show mi­
croflaking. Inspection of these blades, however, revealed
a very distinctive wear pattern, which is not reflected in the
way the edge damage was recorded, except in the high level
of edge rounding noted. A whittling knife typically has a
dorsal surface with large and small flake scars more or less
randomly distributed along the working edge, while the
ventral surface is rounded, because of a continuous band
of overlapping feather-terminated flake scars. The ventral
side at first glance looks as though it has been intentionally
retouched. This "retouch " , however, has considerably
dulled the edge, rather than readying it for some scraping
task.
Proposition 6
Scaling fish is expected to cause a rounded, abraded tool
edge, with striations perpendicular to the edge, and a zone
of polish along both dorsal and ventral faces of the
implement. 43
Evaluation
Fish-scaling experiments using mojarra (Chichlasoma
sp.) from coastal Veracruz did not cause the rounded , much­
abraded implements predicted . I believe that this is attrib­
utable to two factors. ( I ) Because of the expense involved
in the purchase of large quantities of fish, only 1 0 kg. of
mojarra were used, and each experimental blade was used
for only 350 strokes, an amount insufficient to exhaust the
tool . (2) Wet fish scales are quite soft and non-abrasive and
they cause very little microflaking on a blade. In a prehis­
toric situation a single tool would probably be used to scale
a fish and also to clean the animal . Dismembering, espe­
cially cutting off the head, would result in much more edge
damage than scaling activities. The final , exhausted, tool
would have the wear pattern of a butchering knife, rather
than a fish scaling (scraping) implement.
42. Ibid. 107- 1 1 3 .
43. Ibid. 1 06- 1 07 .

Striations perpendicular to the scraping edge and a zone
of polish along both the dorsal and ventral faces were pre­
dicted results of fish-scaling tasks. Neither of these phe­
nomena was observed on any of the 15 blades used for this
activity. Again , this failure to discern the predicted wear
pattern may be the result of the low power microscopy used.
Summary of Proposition Evaluation
As a result of this experimental study it has been possible
to determine the following regarding utilized blades.
1 ) The size of microflake edge damage is directly cor­
related with contact material hardness.
2) Scrapers are generally distinguishable from cutting
tools by the asymmetrical dorsal/ventral wear pattern re­
sulting from scraping tasks. Microflake scar termination
also may vary between cutting and scraping modes . Saw­
ing and cutting produced a higher incidence of non-feather
terminations than scraping.
3) A distinctive wear pattern occurs on implements
used to cut jute fiber. This consists of very little micro­
flaking, an abraded dull zone, and striations parallel both
to dorsal and ventral faces of the cutting edge. Success
at discovering a use-wear pattern for this fiber suggests
the advisability of further experimentation with cotton,
and the collection of and experimental processing of ad­
ditional fibers which are known from ethnohistorical
sources to have been used in ancient Mesoamerica. Two
such products are maguey fiber and henequen; undoubt­
edly there are many other plants that should be tested for
wear damage on blades.
4) Whittling tools are identifiable by heavy ventral
microflaking (with feather terminations) and a very
rounded edge. Striae perpendicular to the edge were not
observed at 40 x , but a more powerful microscope might
permit their detection .
5) Obsidian blades used for cutting bone suffered
heavy edge abrasion. Although no polish or striations
were detected at 40 x , a bilateral row of continuous flake
scars is visible without magnification. The microflakes
removed from these tools were larg e , with step
terminations.
6) Based on experimentation with three varieties of
wood and two distinct modes of use (sawing and whit­
tling) some general characteristics of use-wear resulting
from woodworking include moderate to heavy edge abra­
sion and large microflake scars, usually with feather ter­
minations. These are distributed densely and continuously
along the edge of scrapers and are scattered intermittently
along cutting edges.
Edge damage associated with some of the contact ma­
terials was not distinctive enough to allow identification of
the task performed . Tools used for cutting hide and scraping
Journal of Field Archaeology/Vol. 8, 1981 185
fish suffered sufficiently light damage that subsequent tool
use of a different nature or any accidental flaking in the
archaeologists' screen or artifact bag could mask the original
wear pattern. In light of these difficulties in discovering
distinctive use-wear patterns I feel that it is advisable, wher­
ever possible, to rely on striations, polish or dulling, and
edge rounding in addition to microflaking in order to identify
specific raw materials contacted by obsidian tools . 44
In some cases the use-wear observed on the experimental
obsidian tools differs from that reported for tools made of
cryptocrystalline materials such as jasper or chert. •5 In part,
this difference may be because of the relative fragility of
an obsidian tool's edge. Obsidian blades tend to break or
suffer crushed edges under heavy use-especially scraping
activities; for this reason they may have a use-life consid­
erably shorter than a chert implement with the same basic
morphology and edge angle. If a cryptocrystalline tool is
sturdier and can be used longer and more strenuously, then
it is reasonable to expect that this tool will sustain use­
damage that is somewhat different from that observed on
an obsidian equivalent.
Assigning Possible Functions to Archaeological Tools
Given an archaeological assemblage and a set of exper­
imental wear-pattern data, a functional analysis can proceed
on one of two levels: preliminary or intensive . An intensive
functional study is, of necessity, time consuming and is best
carried out with high power microscopy ( I 00 x -400 x ) and
the scanning electron microscope for depth of field photog­
raphy. In many cases, experimental replication and tool use
is called for in order to obtain experimental wear patterns
that match those expected for a particular archaeological
assemblage. In addition, multivariate statistics such as dis­
criminant analysis are valuable in assigning artifacts to
known functional categories. This type of in-depth analysis
is relatively new in lithic research, but promises eventually
to enable identification of activities performed in the past
with stone tools.
A preliminary, non-intensive study, however, is appro­
priate a) when time and funding for lithic analysis are lim­
ited, or b) for initial field study involving functional sorting
to segregate collections that subsequently will be investi­
gated in greater detail. Preliminary study can also help de­
termine whether or not experimental replications of tool use
on additional substances are warranted. A non-intensive
lithic study involves the identification of use-wear with low­
level magnification (up to 40 x ). Use-wear on each tool is
compared with published experimental wear pattern ' 'stan-
44. Newcomer and Keeley. op. cit. (in note 3 I ) 3.5-36.
45. Hayden, op. cit. (in note 6) 2 1 3 . 224.
186 Mesoamerican Obsidian Blades: an Experimental Approach to Functionllewenstein
dards" . Such preliminary functional designations can be
made relatively quickly, without the aid of complicated
statistical techniques or high-speed computers.
In order to illustrate what can be done with this low­
intensity level of functional analysis, I chose a random sam­
ple of obsidian blades from Patarata 52 to analyze and I
interpreted the observed prehistoric use-wear on the basis
of comparisons with the experimental wear patterns. My
observations are offered as an example only. Given the
limited array of materials and tasks tested, this is obviously
not a comprehensive analysis of prehistoric activities at
Patarata. Nor is the archaeological sample adequate for valid
interpretation of Classic Period lifeways at this coastal site:
a functional lithic study should deal with the use-wear on
the entire assemblage of 500 + obsidian blades. My aim
here is to demonstrate that the use-wear on some obsidian
blades can be interpreted by analogy to experimentally uti­
lized replicas. The more varied and comprehensive the ex­
perimental standards of comparison, the more precise and
complete will be the resultant functional assignments.
Some basic data on the sample of 33 utilized blades are
presented in Table 3 . As a group, the mean maximum length
of microflake scars on these blades is 1 . 1 mm. ( s . d . = 0.54
mm . ) for the dorsal side; the corresponding figure for the
ventral scars is 1 . 8 mm. ( s . d . = 1 . 1 3 m m . ) . The blades
from Patarata have more extensive edge damage than the
experimental sample, whose mean maximum length for
flake scars is 0. 73 mm. (s.d. = 0. 78 m m . ) for the dorsal
side, and 0 . 86 mm. (s.d. = 0.88 mm. ) for the ventral side .
This difference may indicate that a) the experimental tools
(especially the fish-scaling tools) were not used as long or
as hard as the prehistoric artifacts; b) the use-experiments
were not extensive enough to include all of the activities
for which the archaeological blades were used; or c) many
of the blades were used to perform more than one activity.
For example, blades used until dull for cutting could sub­
sequently be converted into scrapers .
Striations that are parallel, perpendicular, or diagonal to
the tool edge were noted on 32 of the 33 archaeological
blades . These are distributed as follows:
a) I O specimens with parallel striations only;
b) I spec imen with perpendicular striations only;
c) 1 1 specimens with diagonal striations on one side (all
occur in combination with parallel and perpendicular
striae. No diagonal striae were noted on any of the ex­
perimental tools. Semenov has described this phenome­
non as a characteristic of meat knives;46 diagonal striae
may also occur on tools used for working bone and
antler. 47);
46. Semenov. op. cit. (in note 8) 1 04- 1 06.
47. L. H . Keeley, Experimental Determination of Stone Tool Uses: A
Microwear A nalysis (Chicago 1 980) 44-46, 58-59.
d) 10 specimens having a combination of both parallel
and perpendicular striations on one or both sides.
The presence on a blade of striations with two or more
different orientations indicates the probability of ( l ) mul­
tifunctional or sequential use , (2) heavier use, or (3) use
with contact materials or modes of use not yet experimen­
tally tested for wear patterns.
Based on the use-wear patterns described in a previous
section of this paper and the evaluation presented above,
I have attempted to assign probable function(s) to as many
as possible of the Patarata sample blades . The results of this
effort can be seen in Table 4. In most cases I feel comfortable
in specifying the mode of use and the general hardness of
worked material . In about half of the cases, a probable
contact-material type is indicated. Approximately half of
the blades incurred complex use-wear that suggests multiple
function implements, usually a combination of cutting and
scraping. Further experimentation is needed to determine
the effects of using a tool for more than one activity, and
of performing more than one mode of use on a single contact
material ( i . e . , such as scraping and cutting a hide). Also,
many more materials, such as additional fibers , woods , non­
animal foods , bark , and shell need to be experimentally
processed in order to determine the damage that results on
stone tools used to process them . I must caution that rein­
terpretation of the Patarata blades and comparison with a
more comprehensive set of experimental data may result in
changed functional assessments for some of the tools, es­
pecially in regard to contact material .
I f tools can be assigned to functional classes, i t i s then
possible to begin interpreting the archaeological record in
terms of activities carried out with stone tools. Individual
specimens found in close association can be grouped into
"tool kits " suitable for woodworking, rope-making, fish­
ing, bone-carving, etc . Differences in the relative propor­
tions of various functional classes and • 'tool kits ' ' can be
studied between temporal phases, between different vil­
lages, or between several loci at a single site .
These distributions enable the prehistorian to identify
changes over time in the activities carried out at a site . For
example, if the blade sample described in Tables 3 and 4
were large enough for interpretive purposes and if sufficient
experimental data were available for use-wear comparisons,
then the distribution of functions illustrated in Table 4 might
indicate a sharp increase in heavy-fiber cutting during the
Lim6n phase. On this basis one might hypothesize more
dependence on ropes and twine, perhaps associated with an
increase in riverine canoe transport . Similar changes in sub­
sistence activities (such as increase or decrease in the im­
portance of fishing or hunting) can be detected from the
differing proportions of scaling, butchering, and hide-work­
ing tools represented. Likewise, it should be possible to
compare and contrast the types of activities performed at
 Journal of Field Archaeology/Vol. 8, 1981 187

Table 3. Functional data recorded for Patarata 52 blade sample.

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26 36 f n I 1.8 I 0.6 s n 3 3.0
2 41 35 - f,s y 4 2. 1 I 2 2.5 0.9 f,s n I 1 .4
3 29 31 I .7 f,s n I 2.5 I 1 .7 h,f n 5 1 .0
4 54 35 0.8 h n I 1 .2 I 2.0 s,h n 3 1 .9
5 31 30 1 .0 h n I 1 .9 2 0.5 h,f n I 0.9
6 33 40 0.8 f,h n 3 2.0 2 0.6 f,h n 5 1 .2
7 34 29 1 .0 h n 2 1.8 I 0.6 h n 3 1 .2
8 28 28 0.9 s n 3 1 .6 I 0.5 h n 5 2 .3
9 20 41 0.4 h n I 0.9 I 0.2 s, f n - -
10 22 47 I.I s y I 1 .0 2 1 .4 s n 2 1 .8
II 47 26 0.9 f,h y 3 1 .7 I 0.5 h n 4 3.7
12 23 32 0.5 h n 2 1 .0 I 1 .5 f n 5 1 .2
13 20 21 0.9 h n I 1 .5 2 0.7 s n - -
14 20 38 0.9 f n 2 1 .5 2 0.6 f y 5 1.9
15 39 48 1 .0 h n I 0.9 2 2.2 f y 2 1 .4
16 35 30 1 .4 s n I 0.8 2 2.2 s,f y 4 1 .9
17 29 27 2.0 f y 3 2.7 2 0.9 h n I 0.9
18 22 28 0.4 f n 3 1 .3 I 2 1 .4 0.8 s n 5 1 .6
19 34 31 1 .0 f n 2 2.4 2 1 .5 s n 4 1.7
20 24 39 0.5 f,h n I 1 .9 I 0.8 s n 3 1 .2
21 50 30 2.0 h,f y I 1 .0 I 0.6 f n 3 1 .8
22 60 35 1 .6 h n I 3. 1 2 2 5.0 2. 1 s y I 2.5 2 3.0
23 32 34 1 .9 s y I 1 .7 2 2 1 .4 1 .3 s n I 1 .7
24 29 34 1 .0 f n I 0.7 I 0.6 h n I I.I
25 23 41 I.I s n I 2.6 2 I 2.6 0.5 h n I 2.3 2 3.5
26 20 34 0.3 f y 2 1 .3 I 0.4 f n 2 0.4
27 23 36 0.5 h n - - I 0.5 s n I I.I
28 25 41 0.7 s n I 1 .4 I 0.6 s n 5 I.I
29 21 29 - f n - - 0 0.4 f n - -
30 26 31 2.3 h,f n 3 1 .9 2 0.5 f n I 0.8
31 56 38 1 .0 h n I 1 .3 I 1 .0 s,f n I 1 .5
32 21 27 I.7 h,f n I 1 .0 I 0.8 h n 3 1 .2
33 49 47 I .9 st n I 2.6 2 2 2.6 2. 1 s,f n I 2.9 2 1 .7
Notes. ( I ) edge angle measured in degrees (2) terminations = f feather, s snap, h hinge, st step (3) distribution = y
continuous, n discontinuous along edge (4) stria type = I parallel to edge, 2 perpendicular, 3 combination of parallel and
perpendicular, 4 diagonal to edge, 5 diagonal and parallel (5) edge rounding type = I slight, 2 moderate, 3 heavy (6) types of
abrasive polish = I luster, 2 dulled zone along tool edge.
(2) through (6) are measured in millimeters.

two adjacent sites in the same environmental setting, or
between communities located in different natural environ­
ments, i.e. , coastal estuarine versus upland lacustrine sites.
Functional lithic data can generate behavioral hypotheses
that are testable with other types of archaeological evidence,
such as bone tools, pollen, shell and fauna} remains, and
non-perishable manufacturing debris, such as coral, jade,
and stone. Likewise, the use-wear on stone tools can provide
an independent line of evidence for testing hypotheses for­
mulated elsewhere.
 /88 Mesoamerican Obsidian Blades: an Experimental Approach to Function!Lewenstein

Table 4 . Hypothesized function(s) o f Patarata blade sample. of fractures per linear centimeter of working edge;48
b) polishes and minute striations that can only be ob­
Tool
served under high power microscopy;49
Number Phase Hypothesized function(s)
cut, scrape
c) experimental use of obsidian blades to do multiple
I Cameron I
2 cutting rough fiber such as tasks . This type of experimentation should clarify the
henequen ropes extent to which particular combinations of use-mode and
3 cut, scrape contact material mask earlier wear patterns.
4 cut, scrape hides It may never be possible to identify with certainty the
5 Cameron 2 sawing softwood function(s) for which all lithic artifacts were used , but with
6 combination cutting and more and better designed experimentation it should be pos­
whittling tool , usep for a sible to determine I ) which edges and surfaces of a tool
lengthy period on softwood were utilized , 2) the mode or modes of use , such as whit­
7 cut, scrape
tling, cutting, etc . , and, most difficult of all, 3) the specific
8 cut, scrape
contact material processed by the implement . so The results
9 cutting soft fiber such as cotton
10 cut, scrape thus far are encouraging.
II cut, scrape
12 Cameron 3 scrape soft material Acknowledgements
13 saw softwood I thank Barbara Stark for her encouragement throughout
14 whittling softwood this project , especially for her comments on several drafts
15 cut and groove bone of this paper. Thanks are also due to Marie Aigner for
16 cut and groove bone assistance with some of the experimental utilization and to
17 cut, scrape
Glen Hanson for introducing me to lithic technology.
18 cutting and scraping of rough
fibers, rope manufacture
19 scrape bone 48. Hayden. op. cit. (in note 6) 2 1 7.
20 Limon cut, scrape
21 cut, whittle softwood 49. Diamond. op. cit. (in note 3 I ) 1 60- 1 63; Fedje . op. cit. ( in note 9)
22 cutting ropes 1 80- I 8 I . I 86- 1 87.
23 cutting rough fiber such as 50. Keeley and Newcomer. op. cit . (in note 3 1 ) 60-6 1 .
henequen rope
24 cutting (cotton?) fibers
25 cutting rough fibers such as
henequen rope (see FIG. 6)
Suzanne M. Lewenstein is a doctoral candidate in
26 scraping soft material Mesoamerican archaeology at Arizona State University,
27 cutting soft material, (cotton?) Tempe, Arizona. Her dissertation, the research for which
28 cut, scrape is supported by the Social Science Research
,,,,--.._ Council-Latin American Section. involves a functional
29 bagwear, not utilized
30 butchering knife , animal and analysis of the chipped stone from Cerros, northern
fish Belize, Central America. She has been associated with
31 sawing pine the Cerros Project since 1977 ; prior to that she did
32 cut, scrape archaeological field work in Mexico, Belize, and the
33 cutting rough fiber such as United States.
henequen rope

Summary Comments
Despite the difficulties involved in experimental repli­
cative work, this approach appears to be one of the most
promising avenues of inquiry into the function of prehistoric
stone tools. Future use-wear studies will benefit from ob­
servation of several variables in addition to those described
in this paper. Of special import are:
a) the intensity of fracture wear; that is, the mean number