3 1 LoadFlowStudies Parti

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form without permission of the author.
Copyright © 2012. http:www.fglongatt.org.ve

Seminar:
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation
using DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Modelling, Analysis and Simulation using DIgSILENT PowerFactory (Basic V14)
(Basic V14)
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt, PhD

Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012 1/59
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form without permission of the author. Copyright © 2012. http:www.fglongatt.org.ve
III. Load Flow Studies
PART I
This tutorial is a simple introduction to transient simulation

with PowerFactory
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt, PhD
Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
Systems
Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt PhD, fglongatt@ieee.org .Copyright © 2012, Antofagasta, Chile, August 2012
the Load Flow in Power Systems
This Section Presents a General Overview of
3/59
1. Overview of Load Flow in Power
1. Introduction
• Load flow studies determine the voltage, current, active,
and reactive power and power factor in a power system.
• One of the most common computational procedures used in

power system analysis is the load flow calculation.
• The planning, design, and operation of power systems

require such calculations to analyze the steady-state
(quiescent) performance of the power system under various
operating conditions and to study the effects of changes in
equipment configuration.
[1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Analysis, IEEE Std 399-1997
1. Introduction
• A number of operating procedures can be analyzed,
including contingency conditions, such as the loss of a
generator, a transmission line, a transformer, or a load.
• Load flow studies can be used to determine the optimum

size and location of capacitors for power factor
improvement.
• They are very useful in determining system voltages under

conditions of suddenly applied or disconnected loads.
1. Introduction
• The results of a load flow study are also starting points for
stability studies.
• PowerFactory is used extensively in load flow studies due to

the complexity of the calculations involved.
load flow formulation
2. Load Flow Formulation
This section shows a general overview of the
7/59
2. Power Flow Formulation
• Given the load power consumption at all buses of a known
electric power system configuration and the power
production at each generator, find the power flow in each line
and transformer of the interconnecting network and the
voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus.
• During the basic circuit theory courses, you heard about
“Solve the circuit”:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 50 Ω + 75 Ω + 100 Ω
RT = 225 W
Applying the Ohm Law
VT = IRT
VT = (0.5 amps)(225 Ω)
VT = 112.5 volts
Calculate voltages and currents

based on circuit laws
Algebraic Variables
The solution of this Lineal Problem
problem is EASY
• The load flow is like “Solve the Circuit”, however the circuit to
be solved is a Power System ☺.
Nº Bus Type P Q V
1 Load -0.42 -0.6394 ?
2 Load 0 0 ?
3 Load -0.2 -0.075 ?
4 Slack ? ? 1+j0
Calculate voltages and Powers

based on circuit laws
Complex Variables
NON-Lineal Problem
The solution of this
problem is NOT EASY
load flow calculations
3. Theoretical Background
This section shows a little theoretical

background about the fundamental for the
11/59
Nodal Admittance Matrix [Y]
3.a. Nodal Admittance Matrix
12/59
3.a. Network Performance Equations
• The steady state behaviour of the ac electrical power
system can be described using the network equations.
Vbus = Zbus Ibus
or in admittance form Ybus:
Ibus = Ybus I bus
• Nodal Admittance Matrix Ybus is built to model or represent
the steady-state behavior of an electrical system ac system.
• Most power system networks are analyzed by first forming

the Nodal admittance matrix Ybus.
• The admittance matrix is based upon Kirchhoff's current

law (KCL), and it is easily formed and very sparse.
• Assume and branch element (yij) connected between two
adjacent bus bars “i” and “j” respectively.
• The voltage in each bus bar is known: Vi and Vj
• The current flowing between the buses i and j, assuming
from i to j, is defined as Iij
Bus “i” Bus “j”
Iij
yij
Vi Vj
Vi
Bus “i”
I ij 
zij
Vi  V j
Iij
y ij
Vj
Bus “j”
 yij Vi  V j 
• Ecuation for the current through the impedance:
16/59
• For the k-th bus, the equations for the currents results:
k
I k 0  y k 0 Vk Ik1 1
I k1  y k1 Vk  V1 
yk1
Ik2 2
I k 2  y k 2 Vk  V2  Ik
yk2
.
.
 .
I kn  y kn Vk  Vn 
Ik0 Ikn n
yk0 ykn
Vk
• Let be Ikm the current in out direction from the bus "k" and
going to the bus "m". k
Ik1 1
I k 0  y k 0 Vk yk1
I k1  y k1 Vk  V1 
Ik2 2
I k 2  y k 2 Vk  V2 
yk2
Ik .
.
.
 Ik0 Ikn n
I kn  y kn Vk  Vn  yk0 ykn

Vk
I k 0  y k 0 Vk
k
Ik1 1
I k1  y k1 Vk  V1 
yk1
Ik2 2
I k 2  y k 2 Vk  V2 
yk2
Ik .
.
.
 Ik0 Ikn n
I kn  y kn Vk  Vn 
yk0 ykn
Vk
• The current Ik, in the bus k can be written as:
I k  I k 0  I k1  I k 2    I kn
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)
• Substituting the definition of each branch (Iij) current results:
I k  I k 0  I k1  I k 2   I kn
I k  yk 0Vk  yk 1 Vk  V1   yk 2 Vk  V2  

 ykn Vk  Vn 
n n
I k  Vk  ykj   ykjV j
j 0 j 1
n
j 1
n
j 1
j k
• Finally the current in the node “k” is:
I k   YkjV j
I k  Vk Ykk   YkjV j
21/59
• Rewrite the equations into the normative form for the
current for the n buses results:
I1  Y11V1  Y12V2  Y13V3   Y1nVn

I 2  Y21V1  Y22V2  Y23V3   Y2 nVn
I 3  Y31V1  Y32V2  Y33V3   Y3nVn
I n  Yn1V1  Yn 2V2  Yn 3V3   YnnVn
• This is a set of n linear equations using algebraic

variables and complex numbers
• Generally, for a n node network, it can establish n linear
node equations can be rewritten using matrix notation:
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1n  V1   I1 

Y Y     
 21 22 Y23 Y2 n  V2   I 2 
     
    
    
Yn1 Yn 2 Yn3 Ynn  Vn   I n 
• Here I is the vector of nodal injection currents and V is the

vector of nodal voltages; Y is called the nodal admittance
matrix:
Ibus = Ybus Vbus
• Here I is the vector of nodal injection currents and V is
the vector of nodal voltages; Y is called the nodal
admittance matrix:
Ibus = Ybus Vbus
V1   I1 
V  I 
 2  2
Vbus   I bus  
   
   
Vn   I n 
• Here I is the vector of nodal injection currents and V is
the vector of nodal voltages; Y is called the nodal
admittance matrix:
Ibus = Ybus Vbus
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1n 

Y Y Y 
Y2 n 
 21 22 23
Ybus  
 
 
Yn1 Yn 2 Yn 3 Ynn 
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1n 
Y Y Y2 n 
 21 22 Y23
Ibus = Ybus Vbus Ybus 



 
Yn1 Yn 2 Yn 3 Ynn 
n Self-admittance of the node
y
k, is equal to the sum of all
kj  Ykk the admittances of the
incident branches of the
j 0 corresponding node.
Mutual-Admittance between
node k and j
-ykj = Ykj
• A nodal admittance matrix reﬂects the topology and
parameters of an electricnetwork,
• It can be regarded as a mathematical abstraction of the

electric network.
• The node equation based on the admittance matrix is a

widely used mathematical model of electric networks.
• The admittance matrix is symmetric if there is no phase-
shifting transformer in the network.
• The admittance matrix is sparse
• Usually, the number of branches connected to one node is
2–4, thus there are only 2–4 nonzero off-diagonal elements
in each row.
• The property that only a few nonzero elements exist in a
matrix is called sparsity.
• This phenomenon will be more remarkable with increase of
the power system scale.

• For instance, for a network with 1,000 nodes, if each node
directly connects three branches on average, the total
number of nonzero elements for the network is 4,000, which
is only 0.4% of the total elements in the admittance matrix.
NUMERIC EXAMPLE

3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix:
29/59
3.b. Nodal Admittance Matrix: Example
• Example: Consider the following on-line diagram which the
represents a three-phase steady-state ac system.
• This is a simple 3-bus test system
• Let us assume that following the circuit represents the
single-phase equivalent of the symmetrical balanced three-
phase test system
• Applying the Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL):
VA  0.20 jI1  1 j  I1  I 2   VB  0
VA  VB  V1  1.2 jI1  1 jI 2  0 I 3 (Loop 1)
• The system equations result:
VA  VB   1.2 1.0 0.0   I1 
V  V    1.00 3.75 2.5  I 
 A B   2
VA  VB   0.0 2.5 3.5   I 3 
This matrix can be used

for short-circuit studies
• Applying the Kirchhoff's current law (KCL):
I1  10 jV1  10 j (V1  V2 )
I1  20V1  10 jV2  0V3 (Node 1)
• The system equations result:
 I1   20.0 10.0 0.0  V1 
 I    10.0 15.0 2.5 V 
 2   2
 I 3   0.0 4.0 5.4  V3 
This matrix is used for

LOAD FLOW studies
• This is the admittance matrix of the 3-bus test system:
 20.0 10.0 0.0 
Ybus   10.0 15.0 2.5
 0.0 4.0 5.4 
There is not
connection
between
these buses
 I1   20.0 10.0 0.0  V1  z13  

 I    10.0 15.0 2.5 V 
 2   2
 I 3   0.0 4.0 5.4  V3 
HOMEWORK
37/59
HOMEWORK
• Considering the following on-line diagram.
• Calculate step-by-step the elements of the Nodal Admittance
matrix Ybus.
• Express literally the terms of the admitance matrix (yij) and

the evaluate each one.
1 Source: Brown H. “Solutions of Large Network by Matrix Methods”. Wiley.
Hint: You can use the following matlab code: http://www.fglongatt.org.ve/Archivos/Archivos/SP_II/YbusMakerV2.00.m
3.c. Power Equations
39/59
• Consider the k node, it has n branches where each branch
has a current going out the node k.
n
I k  Vk Ykk   YkjV j
j 1
j k
• The electrical power fed in the node k is:
Sk  Vk I k*
Sk*  Vk* I k
 n

Sk*  Vk*  Vk Ykk   YkjV j   Pk  jQk
 j 1

 j k 
• The electrical power can be written in terms of active an
reactive power:
 n

 j 1

 j k 
  
 
n
* 
Pk  Re  Vk Vk Ykk   YkjV j 
 
 j  1 
  
j  k
  
Qk   Im  Vk*  Vk Ykk   YkjV j  
n
 
 j 1 
  j  k 
3. Power Equations
 
n
 j 1

 j k 
• The equation used for electrical power can be written in
terms of voltage
 
1  Pk  jQk n

Vk    Y V
Ykk  Vk*
j 1
kj j

 j k 
• Equations in Rectangular form:
Vk  ak  jbk
n V j  a j  jb j
Pk  jQk  Ykk Vk  Vk*  YkjV j
2
Ykk  Gkk  jBkk
j 1
j k Ykj  Gkj  jBkj
Pk  Gkk Vk   ak  Gkk a j  Bkk b j    bk  Gkj b j  Bkj a j 

n n
2
j 1 j 1
j k j k
Qk  Bkk Vk   ak  Bkj a j  Gkj b j    bk  Gkj a j  Bkj b j 

n n
2
j 1 j 1
j k j k
• Equations in Polar Form
Vk  Vk  k
n
Pk  jQk  Ykk Vk  Vk*  YkjV j V j  V j  j
2
j 1
j k
Ykj  Ykj  kj
Pk   Vk V j Ykj cos  kj   j   k 
n
j 1
j k
Qk   Vk V j Ykj sin  kj   j   k 
n
j 1
j k
 
1  Pk  jQk n

Vk    YkjV j
Ykk  Vk *
j 1

 j k 
• This equation create a Systems of nonlinear equations.
• Cannot (except in rare cases) be solved by closed-
form techniques.
• Direct simulation was used extensively for many years;

• Essentially all power flow analyses today are performed
using iterative techniques on digital computers.
Formulation
.
3.d. Load Flow: Problem
46/59
3.d. Load Flow: Problem Formulation
• Generally speaking, the power flow problem consists in
finding the zero of a set of nonlinear equations starting from
an adequate initial guess (demonstrated in 4).
  S = VI *
1  Pk  jQk n

Vk 
Ykk  Vk*
 
j 1
YkjV j

 j k  P  jQ = VYV*
• Thus, the most general form of the power flow equations is a

set of Differential-Algebraic-Equations (DAE) in steady-state,

as follows:
f  x, y  = 0
g  x, y  = 0
f  x, y  = 0
DAE MODEL
g  x, y  = 0
• where differential equations f model dynamic devices such
as, for example, under load tap changers, and algebraic
equations g define the power balance at network buses.
• Considering the algebraic equations g define the power
balance at network buses.
g ( x, y)  0
• The power balance equations are:
n n
P
k 1
gen   Pload  LosesP
k 1
n n
Q
k 1
gen   QPload  LosesQ
k 1
• Uncontrolled Variables: Those variables that depend on
the users, such as the power consumed by the loads Pload
and Qload.
• Independent or Controlled Variables: Those variables that
can be manipulated for the economic or technical
performance of the power system. The power generation are
controlled variables Pgen and Qgen.
• Dependent Variables: Those variables that depend on the
changes of the power, such as voltages: module and angle.
.
3.e. Load Flow Solvers
51/59
g ( x, y)  0
• The power balance equations produce an nonlinear
equations system and has no analytical explicit solution.
•
• Not even the simple loss-less system can be solved by hand.
• Actually, the analytical solution of the power flow

problem can be found only for a loss-less two-bus

system.
• We have to use a numerical iterative technique for solving
the power flow problem.
• The solution of the simultaneous nonlinear power flow
equations requires the use of iterative techniques for even
the simplest power systems.
g ( x, y)  0
• There are several methods for calculation the numerical
solution of nonlinear equations:
– Bisection
– Regula Falsi
– Modified Regula falsi
– Newton Methods
– Secant Method
– Steepest descend
– Etc..
• Although there are many methods for solving nonlinear
equations, the following methods are typically used for the
numeric solution of load flow problems.
– Jacobi
– Gauss-Seidel
– Newton-Raphson
.
solution techniques
3.f. Comparison of load flow
55/59
3.f. Comparison of solution techniques
• Although it is useful to understand how load flow solution
techniques work, it is more important to understand the
characteristics they exhibit.
• Their convergence characteristics are dependent upon

network, load, and generator conditions, each of the
iterative techniques discussed has its own strengths and
weaknesses.
• Gauss-Seidel methods generally exhibit poor convergence

characteristics when compared to Newton methods and thus
are no longer widely used for load flow studies.
3.f. Comparison of solution techniques
• Most of the research into load flow solution techniques has
centered on Newton methods.
• Variations of the Newton methods have been developed to

overcome the weaknesses of the original methods,
especially the ability to converge from a poor initial
voltage estimate.
• The modified Newton methods employed by commercial

load flow programs combine good convergence

characteristics and solution algorithm robustness
Questions
Any Question?
58/59
Please visit:
fglongatt@fglongatt.org
http://www.fglongatt.org.
http://www.fglongatt.com
Comments and suggestion are welcome:
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form without permission of the author.

Copyright © 2012. http:www.fglongatt.org.ve

Francisco M. Gonzalez-Longatt, PhD

This tutorial is a simple introduction to transient simulation

• One of the most common computational procedures used in

• The planning, design, and operation of power systems

• Load flow studies can be used to determine the optimum

• They are very useful in determining system voltages under

conditions of suddenly applied or disconnected loads.

• PowerFactory is used extensively in load flow studies due to

This section shows a general overview of the

Calculate voltages and currents

1 Load -0.42 -0.6394 ?

3 Load -0.2 -0.075 ?

Calculate voltages and Powers

This section shows a little theoretical

• Most power system networks are analyzed by first forming

• The admittance matrix is based upon Kirchhoff's current

I kn  y kn Vk  Vn  yk0 ykn

• The current Ik, in the bus k can be written as:

I k  yk 0Vk  yk 1 Vk  V1   yk 2 Vk  V2  

I1  Y11V1  Y12V2  Y13V3   Y1nVn

I n  Yn1V1  Yn 2V2  Yn 3V3   YnnVn

• This is a set of n linear equations using algebraic

Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1n  V1   I1 

• Here I is the vector of nodal injection currents and V is the

Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1n 

n Self-admittance of the node

• It can be regarded as a mathematical abstraction of the

• The node equation based on the admittance matrix is a

the power system scale.

Nodal Admittance Matrix [Y]

This matrix can be used

This matrix is used for

 I1   20.0 10.0 0.0  V1  z13  

• Express literally the terms of the admitance matrix (yij) and

Nodal Admittance Matrix [Y]

Pk  Gkk Vk   ak  Gkk a j  Bkk b j    bk  Gkj b j  Bkj a j 

Qk  Bkk Vk   ak  Bkj a j  Gkj b j    bk  Gkj a j  Bkj b j 

• Direct simulation was used extensively for many years;

• Thus, the most general form of the power flow equations is a

set of Differential-Algebraic-Equations (DAE) in steady-state,

• Actually, the analytical solution of the power flow

problem can be found only for a loss-less two-bus

• Their convergence characteristics are dependent upon

• Gauss-Seidel methods generally exhibit poor convergence

• Variations of the Newton methods have been developed to

• The modified Newton methods employed by commercial

load flow programs combine good convergence

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