QUESTIONS

1. State the harmful ingredients in brick clay

2. Describe briefly the process making or forming the brick

3. Why is drying of bricks an extremely important operation of the

manufacturing process

4. List the factors which influence the selection of brick for a project
explain how does absorption affect the selection of brick

5. What are the environmental issues addressed by the brick which

makes it a sustainable building material

6. What is the suitable other way when the brick will shortage in our
area and explain your answer clearly
 01. State the harmful ingredients in brick clay
1. LIME
 A small quantity of lime is required in brick earth. But if present in excess, it
causes the brick to melt and hence brick looses its shape.
 If lime is present in the form of lumps, then it is converted into quick lime
after burning. This quick lime slakes and expands in presence of moisture,
causing splitting of bricks into pieces.

2. IRON PYRITES
 The presence of iron pyrites in brick earth causes the brick to get crystallized
and disintegrated during burning, because of the oxidation of the iron pyrits.

 Pyrites discolourise the bricks.

3. ALKALIS
 These are exist in the brick earth in the form of soda and potash. It acts as a
flux in the kiln during burning and it causes bricks to fuse, twist and warp.
Because of this, bricks are melted and they loose their shape.
 The alkalis remaining in bricks will absorb moisture from the atmosphere,
when bricks are used in masonry. With the passage of time, the moisture
gets evaporated leaving grey or white deposits on the wall surface (known as
efflorescence). This white patch affects the appearance of the building
structure.

Efflorescence in Brick
4. PEBBLES

Stone in Brick

 Pebbles in brick earth create problem during mixing operation of earth. It

prevents uniform and through mixing of clay, which results in weak and
porous bricks
 Bricks containing pebbles will not break into shapes as per requirements .

5. VEGETATION AND ORGANIC MATTER

 The presence of vegetation and organic matter in brick earth assists in
burning. But if such matter is not completely burnt, the bricks become
porous. This is due to the fact that the gasses will be evolved during the
burning of the carbonaceous matter and it will result in the formation of
small pores.
02.Describe briefly the process making or forming the brick.

Manufacturing of bricks consists of the following 4 operations or steps

1. Preparation of brick clay or brick earth

2. Moulding of bricks
3. Air drying of bricks
4. Burning of bricks

The process of brick making

1. PREPARATION OF BRICK CLAY OR BRICK EARTH
In this step the soil is excavated in steps and then laid on leveled ground. Then the
soil is cleaned of impurities such as vegetation matter, stones or pebbles etc. After
removing impurities it is exposed to weather for few months. This is called the
process of weathering. After completion of weathering process the soil is blended
with other material to prepare good brick earth. Then the mixed soil is tempered by
being thoroughly broken up, watered and kneaded. The tempering is usually done
in pug mill.
2. MOULDING OF BRICKS
Bricks are moulded in many ways depending on the quality of the product to be
made. Generally the moulding is done in the following two ways

 Hand moulding
 Machine moulding

For hand moulding the tempered clay is forced in the mould in such a way that it
fills all the corners of the mould. Extra clay is removed either by wooden strike or
frame with wire. Mould is then lifted up and raw brick is left on ground.
Machine moulding is is used where large numbers of bricks are to be made.
Machines used for moulding is generally of two types.

 Plastic clay machines

 Dry clay machines

In plastic clay machine the clay in plastic state is forced to rectangular openings of
a size equal to the length and breadth of the bricks and are then cut into strips of
thickness of the brick with wires in frames.
In dry clay machines, dry clay is reduced to powder, filled dry into mould by the
machine and then are subjected to high pressure to form hard and well shaped
bricks.

3. DRYING OF BRICKS
Drying is usually done by placing the bricks in sheds with open sides so as to
ensure free circulation of air and protection from bad weather and rains. The bricks
are allowed to dry till they are left with 5 to 7 percent moisture content. The drying
period usually varies from 7 to 14days. The moulded bricks are dried because of
the following reasons.

 If damp bricks or green bricks are directly taken to burning then, they are
likely to be cracked and distorted
 To remove maximum moisture from the brick so as to save time and fuel
during burning
 To increase the strength of raw bricks so that they can be handled and
stacked in greater heights in the kiln for burning without damage.
4. BURNING OF THE BRICKS
It is the very important step in manufacture of bricks. Bricks may be burnt by two
distinct methods given below.

 Burning in a clamp or Pazawah known as clamp burning

 Burning in a flame kiln or Bhatta known as kiln burning

In clamps, one batch of green bricks is heaped along with firewood, coal etc. and
sealed with clay. It is then fired slowly to intense heat which may take many days.
Modern kilns, however, permanent structures consisting of many chambers. There
are intermittent and continuous kilns. Moulded clay is stacked in the chambers.
They are then slowly dried and burned to high temperature and cooled. One cycle
of loading, drying, burning, cooling and emptying may take as much as two weeks.
These processes are carried out intermittently in intermittent kilns and in cyclic
order in continuous kilns.
03.Why is drying of bricks an extremely important operation of the
manufacturing process.

 After molding process the bricks contain some amount of moisture

in it. So, drying is to be done otherwise they may cracked while
burning. The drying of raw bricks is done by natural process. The
bricks are laid in stacks. A stack consists 8 to 10 stairs. The bricks in
these stacks should be arranged in such a way that circulation of air
in between the bricks is free. The period of drying may be 3 to 10
days. It also depends upon the weather conditions. The drying yards
are also prepared on higher level than the normal ground for the
prevention of bricks from rain water.
04. List the factors which influence the selection of brick fora
projectexplain how does absorption affect the selection of brick.

Aesthetics
The use of brick as a building material dates back centuries. Because of brick's
enduring qualities and limitless appearances, designers can satisfy their creative
styles with brick. Brick is readily available in many sizes, colors, textures and
shapes. These can be adapted to achieve virtually any desired style or expression.
A variety of common brick sizes are shown in Figure 1. Brick's small module can
be related to the scale of the wall. These sizes can be combined in such a way as to
create different appearances and patterns. Not only does brick size influence scale
and appearance, but the size of brick influences wall cost because larger units
require fewer brick, normally resulting in less labor. When specifying the size of
units, dimensions should be listed in the following order: thickness (width) by
height by length. Brick manufacturers also offer a wide variety of colors to choose
from. Units whose colors range from reds and burgundies to whites and buffs are
manufactured today. Many manufacturers produce over 100 colors. Many of these
color variations are created during the firing process. Temperature variations and
the order in which the units are stacked in the kiln determine shades of light and
dark. Ceramic glazes, slurries or sand coatings can be applied to the surface to
achieve colors not possible with some clays. The possibilities of using units of
contrasting colors in bands or other patterns are endless. Sample panels, or
mockups, can aid in selecting the desired color by showing the finished,
appearance. Another aesthetic feature to consider when selecting brick is the
texture. Textures on brick can be smooth, wirecut (velour), stippled, tumbled,
brushed, rolled, and more. The texture interacts with light and creates differing and
interestingshadows. Unique design features can easily be achieved by using special
brick shapes. Brick can be molded and formed into any shape, from simple sloped
sill shapes to fancy watertable brick. For most manufacturers, molded shapes are
easier to produce than extruded shapes, because the molded, or soft-mud process is
more adaptable to making brick shapes than the extruded process. Making very
large shapes can be difficult in either process because of problems with proper
drying and firing.
Physical Properties

There are many physical properties which may influence the selection of brick.
Some of these include durability, absorption, compressive strength and abrasion
resistance. This Technical Notes will provide a basic understanding of these
properties to aid in selection of the proper brick. Physical properties required for
proper performance are given in the appropriate American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) specification for brick.

Durability. Currently, there are two accepted methods for demonstrating durability
under ASTM standards: 1) durability as predicted by compressive strength,
absorption, and saturation coefficient, or 2) durability as determined by
compressive strength and passing 50 cycles of the freeze and thaw test. Criteria in
each ASTM specification determine grade or class designations. Because of the
varying climates and applications of brick, specific physical properties are
Required. Brick are classified into these grades or classes according to their
resistance to freezing when wet. Table 1 gives the recommended grade of facing,
building and hollow brick, based on weathering index and exposure. Most
manufacturers make brick to meet the designation for the most severe weathering
exposure, SW or SX, so they may ship brick to all parts of the country. Some
manufacturers produce brick complying only with the designation for moderate
weathering, MW or MX. Grade NW or NX brick are typically confined to interior
applications, or where they are protected from water absorption and freezing. Brick
manufacturers can furnish certification that their product will meet a certain grade
or class.

Absorption.Absorption can be broken into two distinct categories absorption

and initial rate of absorption (IRA). Both are important in selecting the appropriate
brick. Absorption of a brick is expressed as a percentage, and defined as the ratio
of the weight of water that is taken up into its body divided by the dry weight of
the unit. Water absorption is measured in two ways: 1) submerging the test
specimen in room temperature water for a period of 24 hours, and 2) submerging
the test specimen in boiling water for five hours. These are known as the 24 hour
cold water absorption, and the 5 hour boiling water absorption, respectively. These
two are used to calculate the saturation coefficient by dividing the 24 hour cold
water absorption by the 5 hour boiling. The saturation coefficient is used to help
predict durability.
The initial rate of absorption (IRA) or suction is the rate of how much water a
brick draws (sucks) in during the first minute after contact of the bed surface with
water. The suction has a direct bearing on the bond between brick and mortar. It
has been shown by test results that when a brick has high suction (over 30
grams/min/30 in2 [30 grams/min./194 cm2]), a strong, watertight joint may not be
achieved. Therefore, high suction brick should be wetted prior (3 hrs to 24 hrs) to
laying to reduce the suction and allow the brick's surface to dry. Very low suction
brick should be covered and kept dry on the jobsite. Brick manufacturers can
furnish values of IRA and saturation coefficient of the selected units. The material
specifier or supplier should inform the mason contractor about the suction of the
brick prior to construction.

Compressive Strength. The strength of a unit is used to determine durability and

also compressive strength of the resulting brick masonry. Typically, most materials
are judged on the basis of strength. However, it is important not to sacrifice
properties of durability and bond for higher compressive strengths. Most brick
currently produced have strengths ranging from 3,000 psi (20.7MPa) to over
20,000 psi (138 MPa), averaging around 10,000 psi (68.9 MPa). Achieving
sufficient compressive strength with brick is seldom a problem.

Abrasion Resistance. This property is important when brick is used as paving.

The resistance to abrasion is affected by the degree of firing and by the nature of
the raw material. Abrasion resistance is predicted in two manners. It is evaluated in
terms of cold water absorption and compressive strength. These two properties
produce an abrasion index which is used to determine the type of traffic which is
suitable for a particular brick. Alternately, volume loss isdetermined by sand
blasting the paver surface.

Application

A building must perform the functions for which it is designed. The materials
selected for a project must also perform as intended. The designer must consider
all factors which a wall or material must withstand. Some of the more important
factors include moisture penetration, temperature variations and structural loads.
No one standard assembly is suitable for all localities, occupancies, or designs;
therefore, the designer must evaluate each factor and its relative effect on the
selection of a material or assembly.
Moisture Penetration. The use of quality materials and workmanship is essential
in obtaining a satisfactory degree of water resistance. When water passes through
brick masonry walls, it invariably does so through separations or cracks
between the brick units and the mortar. It is virtually impossible for significant
amounts of water to pass directly through a brick unit. Therefore, brick units which
develop a complete bond with mortar offer the best moisture resistance. Brick
and mortar properties should be compared to provide compatible materials which
result in more watertight walls. Currently, there are no requirements for the degree
of water resistance of a wall.

Temperature Variations. Brick must withstand daily temperature cycles and

seasonal extremes (-30°F to 120°F [-34°C to 49°C]) depending on location,
throughout its life. Thermal expansion and contraction of brick is not critical to
the selection of brick, but it is important to designers and this movement should be
provided for in design and construction. Brick also withstands temperature
extremes in fires. Since brick is a fired material, it will not burn and acts as an
excellent barrier to fire because it is non-combustible.

Structural Loads. Ability to withstand either gravity or lateral loads relies heavily
on brick strength, mortar strength and dimensions of the wall assembly.
Compressive strength requirements found in the ASTM specifications for brick are
based on durability performance. Structural analysis may require a higher
compressive strength in order to resist the applied loads. Compressive strength of
masonry may be a governing criterion in loadbearing or reinforced brickmasonry
projects.

Cost
Material selection is often based on cost, usually initial cost only. Although initial
cost is important, lifecycle cost is a better tool for making critical decisions. When
deciding between different materials, all costs involved including labor and
maintenance costs, future value and life expectancy should be considered.
The selling price of brick is governed by many factors, including manufacturing
methods and appearance of the unit. When considering different brick, one must
take into account shipping costs. Since most prices quoted are plant prices,
distance between the manufacturing plant and the jobsite is a major determinant of
these shipping costs. Brick manufacturers and distributors can supply brick prices
and shipping prices. Brick price is only one part of the in-place costs. Labor and
overhead costs are approximately twice the brick and mortar costs. Many of the
Masonry Institutes throughout the country provide cost comparisons between
different materials.
Availability
The availability of brick fluctuates with the time of the year and current
construction trends and demands. On the average, brick production time runs about
5 days, from pugging of the clay to the finished, fired product. This can change
depending on many factors such as variations in raw materials, forming process,
and kiln types. Many brick manufacturers have stockpiles of brick, but usually
only a small quantity of each brick type. This may satisfy smaller jobs, but for
large projects requiring large quantities of brick, a special production run must be
made for the job. Most manufacturers have a set schedule as to when they produce
a certain brick shade. It is at this time that the size of the run will be increased to
accommodate the large order. It is wise to determine the brick's availability from
the manufacturer.

05.What are the environmental issues addressed by the brick which

makes it a sustainable building material?
Brick manufacturing is a highly efficient process. From raw material acquisition to
production, brick manufacturers incorporate many sustainable practices.
Raw Materials
Brick is made primarily from clay and shale, which are abundant natural resources
[Ref. 7], and most brick manufacturing facilities are located near the clay and shale
mining sites — many less than a mile away. Once the clay is mined, it is ground to
suitable particle size, mixed with water and formed into brick. Recycled materials
frequently are incorporated into the clay/shale mixture. Recycled waste from other
industries — such as bottom ash and fly ash from coal-fired generators, glass,
stone dust and ceramic tile — may be incorporated. Reclaimed industrial metallic
oxides can be used as colorants in brick. Because fired brick are inert, brick can
safely encapsulate many materials.

Sustainable Practices in Manufacturing

Manufacturing of brick is an efficient process in many ways. On average, only
about 5 percent of all material mined to make brick is lost in the mining process.
About 3.5 percent of the manufactured product ends up as scrap, most of which is
returned to the manufacturing process or recycled for secondary uses such as
structural fill. Water used in brick production and heat from kilns are both recycled
and reused.
The manufacture of clay brick requires the use of energy to transform raw
materials into a durable, sustainable, long-lasting quality building material. Clay
brick manufacturers and distributors nationwide operate in a sustainable manner,
while minimizing environmental risk and protecting employee health and safety.
The clay brick industry understands the importance of reducing greenhouse gas
(GHG) and other air emissions and is committed to measures advancing this goal.
This includes minimizing energy consumption, pursuing alternative energy sources
and improving manufacturing processes and technologies. The clay brick industry
encourages balanced policies that protect the environment while allowing for
responsible economic growth. Accordingly, the industry will continue to seek ways
to reduce emissions in a manner consistent with the affordable production and
distribution of quality clay brick.

06.What is the suitable other way when the brick will shortage in
our area and explain your answer clearly?
a.we can use concrete block instead of bricks:- It made from a mixture of
Portland cement, blended cement, various type of aggregates and water also retread
to as concrete masonry units . it is inexpensive, light weight, durable, easy to
install, fire proof, low maintenance and could be ornamented.

Typical uses for concrete block include,

1. Foundation walls – typically rock faces.

2. Basement walls
3. Partition walls – usually plain faces
4. Exterior walls

b. calcium silicate brick:- These bricks are also called sand lime and sometimes
flint lime bricks. These are made from fully selected clean sand and /or crust lined
mixed with control quantities of lime and water. These bricks are very accurate in
size and shape but do not have the individual character of clay bricks. these are
strong and homogenous.