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Continuous variation – the differences between individuals are slight and merge into
each other. This leads to a wide range of characteristics ranging from one extreme
to another. These characteristics (features) are controlled by polygenic inheritance
i.e. a number of genes interact to produce them.
Discontinuous variation – the differences are usually large and clear cut. There is no
merging or blending. Individuals fit exactly into one group or another.
Mutations
Mutations arise from changes in the DNA of a cell. These changes may occur in the
genes (structure of the chromosome) or in the number of chromosomes in an
organism. Most mutations are harmful. If the mutation occurs in a somatic cell it will
affect only the organism. However if it occurs in a gamete then it will be passed on
to the next generation.
Mutations occur randomly and may have natural or artificial causes. They give rise
to structural, functional or behavioural alterations that reduce an individual’s
chances of surviving and reproducing.
DNA codes for the sequence of amino acids along polypeptides and ultimately the
characteristics of an organism. Each amino acid is coded for by a group of three
bases (triplet) on the DNA. E.g. TTC codes for lysine. A change in this sequence e.g.
TTA would now code for asparagine.
Neutral mutations have no effect on the body. The change in base sequence
brought about by the mutation has no effect on the protein produced or the change
is not significant to the survival of the organism. E.g. earlobe attachment.
Causes of mutations
Types of mutation
Addition – a new triplet is added e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC is changed to CCG TTA CCG
GCC ATC or only one base is added e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC to ATT ACC GGC CAT C
(A added at the start of the sequence)
Deletion – A base or triplet is deleted from the sequence e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC is
changed to TTA GCC ATC or TTA CCG CCA TC (G was deleted from triplet 3)
Inversion – the sequence of a triplet is reversed e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC can be
changed to TTA CCG GCC CTA
Substitution – one base replaces another e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC to TTA CCG GAC
ATC
Translocation – a short base sequence breaks off of one chromosome and attaches
to another
Examples of mutations:
Gene mutation – e.g. sickle cell anaemia. A mutation in a gene causes changes in
haemoglobin which causes red blood cells to become sickle shaped. The sickle
shaped red blood cell cannot carry oxygen very efficiently which is its disadvantage.
Natural selection
There is a constant struggle for survival among organisms. Only those that are best
suited to their environment will survive to maturity and pass on their genes to the
next generation. The advantageous characteristic that these organisms have will be
passed on to their offspring and enhance their chances of survival.
Natural selection provides the mechanism for one species to slowly change into a
new species, a process known as evolution.
Key features:
• Individual organisms of populations are not identical, and can vary in both
genotypes and phenotypes
Selective pressure
Species (brown grasshoppers) which are best adapted to this new environment
(brown grass) will survive and reproduce passing on the advantage (brown colour)
to their offspring which will then have a better chance of survival.
New genes can appear in a population as a result of mutation (note this occurs by
chance). If the new characteristic has some advantage then natural selection will
act on it selecting for organisms with that characteristic (gene). Changes in gene
frequency will eventually lead to an increase in this characteristic and organisms
being “adapted” to their environment.
There is a white form and a black form of these moths in England. Before 1850 the
pale form was more prevalent because it was well camouflaged among the lichen
on the barks of the trees. The dark form was highly visible to its predators and
therefore did not survive to maturity. After the industrial revolution however,
pollution caused the barks of the trees to turn dark. This afforded greater
advantage to the dark form of the moth while the pale ones were more easily seen
and eaten. In unpolluted areas of the country the pale form remained as the
majority of the population. With recent decreases in the levels of pollution the
numbers of the pale form are again increasing.
Antibiotic resistance
When an antibiotic is used on a population of bacteria most of them will die. But
there will be a few that are naturally resistant to the antibiotic and these will
survive. The resistant bacteria will then reproduce to produce a population of
resistant bacteria. This is a growing problem due to the wide use and overuse of
antibiotics.
Natural selection can take many forms. To make talking about this easier, we will
consider the distribution of traits across a population in graphical form. In we see
the normal bell curve of trait distribution. For example, if we were talking about
height as a trait, we would see that without any selection pressure on this trait, the
heights of individuals in a population would vary, with most individuals being of an
average height and fewer being extremely short or extremely tall. However, when
selection pressures act on a trait, this distribution can be altered.
When selective pressures select against the two extremes of a trait, the population
experiences stabilizing selection. For example, plant height might be acted on by
stabilizing selection. A plant that is too short may not be able to compete with other
plants for sunlight. However, extremely tall plants may be more susceptible to wind
damage. Combined, these two selection pressures select to maintain plants of
medium height. The number of plants of medium height will increase while the
numbers of short and tall plants will decrease.
Directional selection
Disruptive Selection
Artificial selection
This is where humans select the organisms with characteristics useful to him for
breeding. Only those organisms with this desirable characteristic are allowed to
produce offspring. Through this process man has been able to develop varieties
with specific to his needs from wild organisms.
High yield
Improved quality
Selecting fruits and vegetables with brighter colours or better flavour e.g. carrots
with brighter orange colour