The Vedic Period

The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred
texts
of the Indo-Aryans, were being composed. Scholars place the Vedic period in the second and
first millennia BCE continuing up to the 6th century BCE based on literary evidence.
The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centered in the northern
and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Its early phase saw the formation of various
kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from ca. 600 BCE), it saw the rise of the
Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE), the golden age,
classical age of Sanskrit literature, and the Middle kingdoms of India.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Overview
 2 Rigvedic period
o 2.1 Political organization
o 2.2 Society and economy
 3 Vedic religious practices
 4 The later Vedic period
o 4.1 Kingdoms
 5 See also
 6 Notes
 7 References
 8 Further reading
 9 External links
[edit] Overview
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically,
the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:
1. Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains
many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any
other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart from that
of the youngest books (first part of 1 and all of 10), would have been complete by 1000(?) BCE.
Archaeologically, this period may correspond with the Gandhara Grave Culture, the Cemetery H
culture of the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. There is no
widely accepted archaeological or linguistic evidence of direct cultural continuity from the Indus
Valley civilization.
2. Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the
Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita
(containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Many of
these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by
linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by
sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early
Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and
the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th century BCE.
3. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic
canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive. The Brahmana part
('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this
period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds,
and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges.
4. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as
the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and the oldest Shrautasutras
(BSS, VadhSS).
5. Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE,
comprising the bulk of the Śrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (e.g. KathU, MaitrU).
All but the five prose Upanishads are post-Buddhist[1]). Videha (N. Bihar) as a third political
center is established.
6. Epic and Pāṇinian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, and the
Classical Sanskrit described by Pāṇini is considered post-Vedic, and belongs to the time after
500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of
northern India corresponds to this period. The earliest Vedanta, Gautama Buddha, and the Pali
Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period.
Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain scarce throughout the
Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political
changes. The grammar of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the
same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the
early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of
the Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira, Shaka), Kushan and
ultimately the Islamic Sultans. The most important historical source of the geography of post-
Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian whose report is based on the Mauryan time
ambassador to Patna, Megasthenes.
[edit] Rigvedic period

See also Rigvedic tribes
The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley civilization, Indo-Aryan
migration and Gandhara Grave culture related cultures remains controversial and politically
charged in Indian society, often leading to disputes on the history of Vedic culture. The Rigveda
is primarily a collection of religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various
myths and stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books
2–7, although some hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain many
elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it is difficult to
define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as it emerges seamlessly from the era
preceding it. Also, due to the semi-nomadic nature of the society described, it cannot be easily
localized, and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move.
RigVedic Aryans have a lot in common with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms
as well as with early Iranians. The Andronovo culture is believed to be the site of the first horse-
drawn chariots.
[edit] Political organization
The grama (wagon train), vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. A vish was
a subdivision of a jana or "krishti", and a grama was a smaller unit than the other two. The
leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a vish was called vishpati.
The rashtra (polity) was governed by a rajan (chieftain, 'king'). The king is often referred to as
gopa (protector) and occasionally as samrat (supreme ruler). He governed the people with their
consent and approval. He was elected from a restricted class of 'royals' (rajanya). There were
various types of meetings such as the vidhata or "Sabhā". Gana was the non-monarchial
assembly that is a parallel one to the monarchial assemblies of that period headed by Jyestha the
same was referred in Buddhist text named Jettaka. The Sabhā, situated outside of settlement, was
restricted to the Vratyas, bands of roving Brahmins and Kshatriyas in search of cattle, with a
common woman (pumscali) [2] while the vidatha was the potlatch-like ritual distribution of
bounty [3].
The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries,
including the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena: army). The former not only
gave advice to the ruler but also was his chariot driver and practiced spells and charms for
success in war. Soldiers on foot (pattis) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow,
were common. The king employed spaś (spies) and dutas (messengers). He collected taxes
(originally ceremonial gifts, bali), from the people which he had to redistribute.
[edit] Society and economy

Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE.
The concept of varna (class) and the rules of marriage were rigid as is evident from Vedic verses
(RV 10.90, W. Rau 1957). The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas was higher than that of the
Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins were specialized in creating poetry, preserving the sacred
texts, and carrying out various types of rituals. Functioning as intellectual leadership, they also
restricted social mobility between the varnas, as in the fields of science, war, literature, religion
and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses in ritual was considered essential for
prosperity and success in war and harvests. Kshatriyas amassed wealth (cattle), and many
commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Kshatriyas helped in administering the polity,
maintained the structure of society and the economy of a tribe, and helped in maintaining law
and order.
In the Early Vedic Period all the three upper classes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were
considered as —relatively— equal Arya, but in the Later Vedic Age the Brahmins and
Kshatriyas became upper class. The Vaishyas were pastoralists and farmers; the Shudras were
the lower class; they included artisans and were meant to serve the upper three classes [4]. As the
caste system became deep-rooted there were many restrictions and rules which were to be
followed.
Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often
compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the
community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times. The economy was based on
bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or metals.
Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for the abundance of sons. The Society was strictly
organized in a system of four varna (classes, to be distinguished from caste, jati)
[edit] Vedic religious practices
Main articles: Historical Vedic religion, Vedic astrology
The swastika is a major Hindu iconic symbol.
The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts considered to date to the
Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the older Upanishads
as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy
connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the
purohitas.
The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers
(in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, Śrauta means "what
is heard").
The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices which included the chanting of Rigvedic
verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of offering mantras (Yajus) . The
priests executed rituals for the three upper classes (varna) of Vedic society, strictly excluding the
Sudras. People offered for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.
The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma and
some deities of social order such as Mitra–Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature
deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas
(the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers,
especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful.
The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial
fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian
religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are
preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd
millennium BC Andronovo culture, in Rome and old Ireland, was continued in India until at least
the 4th century AD and revived under Jai Singh II of Amber in 1716 AD.
Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering
itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe
with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman.
These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita
of Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The
ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition, in part
with the exception of animal sacrifice, which was mostly abandoned by the higher castes by the
end of the Vedic period, partly under the influence of the Buddhist and Jain religions, and their
criticism of such practices[citation needed].
[edit] The later Vedic period

The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of
agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of
cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms
arose because of the increasing importance of land and long distance trade. The late Vedic
period, from ca. 500 BCE onward, more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle
kingdoms of India known from historical sources.
[edit] Kingdoms
The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas referred to in some
of the literature. The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly increased. Rulers gave
themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhauma (ruler of all the earth) and
chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya (royal
consecration), vajapeya (including a chariot race) and, for supreme dominance over other kings,
the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several
functionaries, in addition to the purohita and the senani, took part. The role of the people in
political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such was greatly decreased.
Mahavira
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This article is about the Tirthankara of Jainism. For the Jain mathematician Mahavira Acharya, see
Mahavira (mathematician).
Mahāvīra
24th Jain Tirthankara
Miniature painting of Mahāvīra
Details
Alternate names: bhopal
Historical date: 599 – 527 BCE
Family
Father: Siddaratha
Mother: Trishala (Priyakarni)
Dynasty: Ikshvaku
Places
Birth: Kundalagrama near Vaishali
Nirvana: Pavapuri
Attributes
Colour: Yellow
Symbol: Lion
Height: 6 Feet
Age At Death: 72 years old
Attendant Gods
Yaksha: Matang
Yaksini: Siddhayika
Mahavira (Sanskrit महावीर, Kannada ಮಹಾವೀರ and Tamil அருகன்("Arugan") lit. "Great
Hero", traditionally 599 – 527 BCE[1]) is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian
sage Vardhamana (Sanskrit: वर्धमान "increasing") who established what are today considered to
be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24th and the last
Tirthankara. In Tamil, he is referred to as Arugan or Arugadevan. He is also known in texts as
Vira or Viraprabhu, Sanmati, Ativira,and Gnatputra. In the Buddhist Pali Canon, he is referred
to as Nigantha Nātaputta.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Life
o 1.1 Birth of Prince Vardhaman
o 1.2 Early years
o 1.3 Spiritual pursuit
o 1.4 Later years
 2 Previous births
 3 Philosophy
 4 Texts
 6 Quotes
 7 See also
 8 Notes
[edit] Life
[edit] Birth of Prince Vardhaman
Queen Trishala and her fourteen dreams from Kalpasutra
In a place called Kshatriyakunda in the ancient kingdom of Lachuar in Jamui District in modern
day Bihar, India, Mahavira was born to King Siddartha and Queen Trishala on the 13th day
under the rising moon of Chaitra (12 April according to the Gregorian calendar). While still in
his mother's womb it is believed he brought wealth and prosperity to the entire kingdom[citation
needed]
, which is why he was also known as Vardhaman. An increase of all good things, like the
abundant bloom of beautiful flowers, was noticed in the kingdom after his conception. Queen
Trishala had 14 (14 in Swetambar Sect, 16 in Digambar Sect) auspicious dreams before giving
birth to Vardhaman, signs foretelling the advent of a great soul.
Jain tradition states that after his birth, Indra bathed him in celestial milk with rituals befitting a
future Tirthankar and he was returned to his mother, Trishala.
Vardhaman's birthday is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti, the most important religious holiday of
Jains around the world.
[edit] Early years
As King Siddartha's son, he lived as a prince. However, even at that tender age he exhibited a
virtuous nature. He started engaging in meditation and immersed himself in self-contemplation.
He was interested in the core beliefs of Jainism and began to distance himself from worldly
matters.
[edit] Spiritual pursuit
India at the time of Mahavira
At the age of thirty Mahavira renounced his kingdom and family, gave up his worldly
possessions, and spent twelve years as an ascetic. During these twelve years he spent most of his
time meditating. He gave utmost regard to other living beings, including humans, animals and
plants, and avoided harming them. He had given up all worldly possessions including his clothes,
and lived an extremely austere life. He exhibited exemplary control over his senses while
enduring the penance during these years. His courage and bravery earned him the name
Mahavira. These were the golden years of his spiritual journey, at the end of which he achieved
Kaivalya Gyan. He was now a person of infinite harmony, knowledge and self-control.
[edit] Later years
Mahavira devoted the rest of his life to preaching the eternal truth of spiritual freedom to people
around India. He traveled barefoot and without clothes, in the hardest of climates, and people
from all walks of life came to listen to his message. At one point Mahavira had over 400,000
followers. Mahavira's preaching and efforts to spread Jain philosophy is considered the real
catalyst to the spread of this ancient religion throughout India and into the mainstream.
At the age of 42 years and 4.5 months, he attained Nirvana in the area known as Pawapuri on the
last day of the Indian and Jain calendars, Dipavali. Jains celebrate this as the day he attained
liberation or Moksha. Jains believe Mahavira lived from 599-527 BCE, though some scholars
prefer 549-477 BCE.[2]
[edit] Previous births

Mahavira’s previous births are discussed in many Jain texts like Trisastisalakapurusa Charitra
and Uttarapurana. While a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in transmigratory cycle of
samsara, the births of a Tirthankara are reckoned from the time he secures samyaktva or
Tirthankar-nam-and-gotra-karma. Jain texts discuss 26 births of Mahavira prior to his incarnation
as a Tirthankara.[3] They are: [4]
1. Nayasara – A village headman who secured samyaktva or partial enlightenment in this birth on
account of preaching of true dharma by Jain monks.
2. Demi-god in First Saudharma (Name of Heaven as per Jain cosmology)
3. Prince Marichi – Grandson of Rsabha, the first Tirthankara.
4. Demi-god in Fifth Brahma (Name of heaven as per Jain cosmology)
5. Kaushika – A Brahmin
6. Pushyamitra – A Brahmin
7. Demi-god in First Saudharma
8. Agnidyota – A Brahmin
9. Demi-god in Second Ishana (Name of heaven as per Jain cosmology)
10. Agnibhuti – A Brahmin
11. Demi-god in Third Saudharma
12. Bharadwaja – A Brahmin
13. Demi-god in Fourth Mahendra (Name of Heaven as per Jain cosmology)
14. Sthavira – A Brahmin
15. Demi-god in Fifth Brahma
16. Prince Vishvabhuti
17. Demi-god in Seventh Mahashukra (Name of heaven as per Jain cosmology)
18. Triprishtha Vasudeva – First Vasudeva of this half-time-cycle
19. Naraka in the seventh hell
20. A lion
21. Naraka in the fourth hell
22. A human being (Name unknown)
23. Priyamitra – A Chakvartin (The universal ruler of seven continents)
24. Demi-god in Seventh Mahashukra (Name of heaven as per Jain cosmology)
25. Prince Nandana – Accepted the vow of self control and gained Tirthankara nama karma.
26. Demi-god in tenth Pranata (Name of heaven as per Jain cosmology)
27. Vardhamana Mahavira (The final birth)
[edit] Philosophy
Mahavira
The Jina, or Mahavir, as Guru folio from a manuscript, Gujarat, India, c. 1411
Mahavira's philosophy has eight cardinal principals – three metaphysical and five ethical. The
objective is to elevate the quality of life.
Mahavira preached that from eternity, every living being (soul) is in bondage to karmic atoms
accumulated by good or bad deeds. In a state of karmic delusion, the individual seeks temporary
and illusory pleasure in material possessions, which are the root causes of self-centered violent
thoughts and deeds as well as anger, hatred, greed, and other vices. These result in further
accumulation of karma.
To liberate one's self, Mahavira taught the necessity of right faith (samyak-darshana), right
knowledge (samyak-gyana), and right conduct (samyak-charitra'). At the heart of right conduct
for Jains lie the five great vows:
 Nonviolence (Ahimsa) - to cause no harm to any living being;

 Truthfulness (Satya) - to speak the harmless truth only;
 Non-stealing (Asteya) - to take nothing not properly given;
 Chastity (Brahmacharya) - to indulge in no sensual pleasure;
 Non-possession/Non-attachment (Aparigraha) - to detach completely from people, places, and
material things.
These vows cannot be fully implemented without accepting the philosophy of non-absolutism
(Anekantvada) and the theory of relativity (Syādvāda, also translated "qualified prediction").
Monks and nuns adhere strictly to these vows, while the laypeople observe them as best they can.
Mahavira taught that men and women are spiritual equals and that both may renounce the world
in search of moksh or ultimate happiness.
Mahavira attracted people from all walks of life, rich and poor, men and women, touchable and
untouchable. He organized his followers into a fourfold order; monk (Sadhu), nun (Sadhvi),
layman (Shravak), and laywoman (Shravika). This order is known as Chaturvidh Jain Sangh.
Replica of Pavapuri temple at Pansara. Mahavira attained Nirvana at

Pava. Gautama Buddha
"Buddha" and "Gautama" redirect here. For other uses, see Buddha (disambiguation) and Gautama
(disambiguation).
Siddhārtha Gautama Buddha

A statue of the Buddha from Sarnath, 4th century CE
c. 563 BCE or 623 BCE

Born
Lumbini, today in Nepal
c. 483 BCE or 543 BCE (aged 80)

Died
Kushinagar, today in India
Ethnicity Shakya
Known for Founder of Buddhism
Predecessor Kassapa Buddha
Successor Maitreya Buddha
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v • d • e
Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual
teacher from ancient India who founded Buddhism.[1] In most Buddhist traditions, he is regarded
as the Supreme Buddha (P. sammāsambuddha, S. samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age, "Buddha"
meaning "awakened one" or "the enlightened one." [note 1] The time of his birth and death are
uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE[2], but
more recent opinion may be dating his death to between 411 and 400 BCE.[3]
Gautama, also known as Śākyamuni ("Sage of the Śākyas"), is the key figure in Buddhism, and
accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been
summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings
attributed to Gautama were passed down by oral tradition, and first committed to writing about
400 years later.
Some Hindu texts say that the Buddha was an avatar of the god Vishnu, who came to Earth to
delude beings away from following the Vedic religion.[4] The Buddha is also regarded as a
prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community[5][6] and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í
faith.[7]
Contents
[hide]
 1 Life
o 1.1 Conception and birth
o 1.2 Early life and marriage
o 1.3 Departure and Ascetic Life
o 1.4 Enlightenment
o 1.5 Formation of the sangha
o 1.6 Travels and teaching
o 1.7 Mahaparinirvana
 2 Physical characteristics
 3 Teachings
 4 See also
 5 References
Life
The primary sources of information regarding Siddhārtha Gautama's life are the Buddhist texts.
According to these, the Buddha and his monks spent four months each year discussing and
rehearsing his teachings, and after his death his monks set about preserving them. A council was
held shortly after his death, and another was held a century later. At these councils the monks
attempted to establish and authenticate the extant accounts of the life and teachings of the
Buddha following systematic rules. They arranged the teachings into distinct but overlapping
bodies of material, and assigned specific monks to remember allocated portions.[8] In some cases,
essential aspects of the teachings were incorporated into stories and chants in an effort to
accurately preserve them.[9]
For some hundreds of years, the memorized teachings were transmitted orally. From internal
evidence it seems clear that the oldest texts crystallized into their current form by the time of the
second council or shortly after it. The scriptures were not written down until three or four
hundred years after the Buddha's death. By this time, the monks are thought to have added,
altered or developed some material, in particular magnifying the figure of the Buddha.[8]
The ancient Indians were generally not concerned with chronologies, being more focused on
philosophy. The Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what
Shakyamuni may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain
descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain
scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant
accounts exist.[10] According to Michael Carrithers, there are good reasons to doubt the traditional
account, though, according to Carrithers, the outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search,
awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[11]
Conception and birth
Queen Māyā miraculously giving birth to Prince Siddhārtha. Sanskrit manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar, India.
Pāla period.
Infant Siddhartha Gautama in Lumbini after his birth. Picture of a painting in a Laotian Temple.
Siddhartha is thought to have been born in Lumbini[12] and raised in the small kingdom or
principality of Kapilvastu, both of which are in modern day Nepal.[13] At the time of his birth, the
area was at, or beyond, the boundary of Vedic civilization, the dominant culture of northern India
at the time. It is possible that his mother tongue was not an Indo-Aryan language.[14]
Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his
time until he left on his religious search, which is said to have been motivated by an existential
concern with the human condition.[15] At the time, many small city-states existed in Ancient
India, called Janapadas. Republics and chiefdoms with diffused political power and limited
social stratification, were not uncommon amongst them, and were referred to as gana-sanghas.[16]
The Buddha's community does not seem to have had a caste system. It was not a monarchy, and
seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[17] The more
egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical
kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana type Jain and Buddhist
sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[18]
According to the most traditional biography, the Buddha's father was King Suddhodana, the
leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the
growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime; Gautama was the family name. His
mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. On the
night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya is said to have dreamt that a white elephant with
six white tusks entered her right side,[19] and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the
Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her
father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at
Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.
The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[20] Various
sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant
was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhatta), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the
birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that
the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[21] By traditional
account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the
birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight brahmin
scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great
king or a great holy man.[21] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondanna), the youngest, and later to be the first
arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that
Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[22]
While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the
descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that
Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.
Early life and marriage
Siddhartha, said to have been destined to a luxurious life as a prince, had three palaces (for
seasonal occupation) especially built for him. His father, King Śuddhodana, wishing for
Siddhartha to be a great king, is said to have shielded his son from religious teachings or
knowledge of human suffering. Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha
Pajapati.[23]
As the boy reputedly reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to Yaśodharā (Pāli:
Yasodharā), a cousin of the same age. According to the traditional account, in time, she gave
birth to a son, Rahula. Siddhartha is then said to have spent 29 years as a Prince in Kapilavastu.
Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need,
Buddhist scriptures say that Siddhartha felt that material wealth was not the ultimate goal of life.
[23]
Departure and Ascetic Life
The "Great Departure" of Siddhartha Gautama. A predestined being, he appears here surrounded by a
halo and with divine attendants.[24]
Prince Siddharta shaves his hair and become an ascetic. Borobudur, 8th century.
At the age of 29, the popular biography continues, Siddhartha left his palace in order to meet his
subjects. Despite his father's effort to remove the sick, aged and suffering from the public view,
Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. Disturbed by this, when told that all people would
eventually grow old by his charioteer Channa, the prince went on further trips where he
encountered, variously, a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. Depressed by these
sights, he sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.[25]
Siddhartha escaped his palace, accompanied by Channa aboard his horse Kanthaka, leaving
behind this royal life to become a mendicant. It is said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by
the gods"[26] to prevent guards from knowing of the bodhisattva's departure. This event is
traditionally called "The Great Departure". Siddhartha initially went to Rajagaha and began his
ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. Having been recognised by the men of King
Bimbisara, Bimbisara offered him the throne after hearing of Siddhartha's quest. Siddhartha
rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining
enlightenment.
Siddhartha left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers. After mastering the teachings
of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), Siddhartha was asked by Kalama to succeed him, but
moved on after being unsatisfied with his practices. He then became a student of Udaka
Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra), but although he achieved high levels of meditative
consciousness and was asked to succeed Ramaputta, he was still not satisfied with his path, and
moved on.[27]
Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take
their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly
goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by
restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing
and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in
childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing. He attained a
concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.
Enlightenment
The Buddha sitting in meditation, surrounded by demons of Māra. Sanskrit manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar,
India. Pāla period.
According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that his extreme asceticism was
counterproductive and that jhana was the correct path to awakening, Siddhartha discovered what
Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-
indulgence and self-mortification. In a famous incident, he is said to have accepted milk and rice
pudding from a village girl named Sujata, who wrongly believed him to be the spirit that had
granted her a wish, such was his emaciated appearance. Then, sitting under a pipal tree, now
known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India, he vowed never to arise until he had found the
Truth. Kaundinya and the other four companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and
become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days meditating, at the age of 35, he attained
Enlightenment. According to some traditions, this occurred approximately in the fifth lunar
month, and according to others in the twelfth. Gautama, from then on, was known to disciples as
as the Buddha or "Awakened One." Buddha is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened
One." Often, he is referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha or "The Awakened One of
the Shakya Clan."
According to Buddhism, at this point he realized complete awakening and insight into the nature
and cause of human suffering, which was ignorance, along with steps necessary to eliminate it.
This was then categorized into 'Four Noble Truths'; the state of supreme liberation—possible for
any being—was called Nirvana. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of the state
of mind that is free from craving, anger and other afflicting states (kilesas). It is also the "end of
the world"; there is no identity left, and no boundaries for the mind.He then came to possess the
Ten Characteristics, which are said to belong to every Buddha.
According to one of the stories in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1), a scripture found
in the Pāli and other canons, immediately after his Enlightenment, the Buddha was wondering
whether or not he should teach the Dharma to human beings. He was concerned that, as human
beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they would not be able to see the true
dharma, which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. However, Brahmā Sahampati interceded
and asked that he teach the dharma to the world, as "there will be those who will understand the
Dharma". With his great compassion to all beings in the universe, the Buddha agreed to become
a teacher.
Formation of the sangha
Painting of the first sermon depicted at Wat Chedi Liem in Thailand.
After becoming enlightened, two merchants whom the Buddha met, named Tapussa and Bhallika
became the first lay disciples. They were given some hairs from the Buddha's head, which are
believed to now be enshrined in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha
intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta to explain
his findings, but they had already died.
The Buddha thus journeyed to Deer Park near Vārāṇasī (Benares) in northern India, he set in
motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with
whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first
saṅgha, the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of Triple Gem (Buddha,
Dharma and Sangha) was completed, with Kaundinya becoming the first stream-enterer. All five
soon become arahants, and with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number
of arahants swelled to 60 within the first two months. The conversion of the three Kassapa
brothers and their 200, 300 and 500 disciples swelled the sangha over 1000, and they were
dispatched to explain the dharma to the populace.
It is unknown what the Buddha's mother tongue was, and no conclusive documentation has been
made at this point. It is likely that he preached and his teachings were originally preserved in a
variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.
Travels and teaching
Buddha with his protector Vajrapani, Gandhāra, 2nd century CE, Ostasiatische Kunst Museum
For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain,
in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching his doctrine and discipline to
an extremely diverse range of people— from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, mass murderers
such as Angulimala and cannibals such as Alavaka. This extended to many adherents of rival
philosophies and religions. The Buddha founded the community of Buddhist monks and nuns
(the Sangha) to continue the dispensation after his Parinirvāna (Pāli: Parinibbāna) or "complete
Nirvāna", and made thousands of converts. His religion was open to all races and classes and had
no caste structure. He was also subject to attack from opposition religious groups, including
attempted murders and framings.
The sangha travelled from place to place in India, expounding the dharma. This occurred
throughout the year, except during the four months of the vassana rainy season. Due to the heavy
amount of flooding, travelling was difficult, and ascetics of all religions in that time did not
travel, since it was more difficult to do so without stepping on submerged animal life,
unwittingly killing them. During this period, the sangha would retreat to a monastery, public
park or a forest and people would come to them.
The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was first formed. After this, he travelled
to Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha to visit King Bimbisara, in accordance with his promise
after enlightenment. It was during this visit that Sariputta and Mahamoggallana were converted
by Assaji, one of the first five disciples; they were to become the Buddha's two foremost
disciples. The Buddha then spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery
in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha. The monastery, which was of a moderate distance from the
city centre was donated by Bimbisara.
Upon hearing of the enlightenment, Suddhodana dispatched royal delegations to ask the Buddha
to return to Kapilavastu. Nine delegations were sent in all, but the delegates joined the sangha
and became arahants. Neglecting worldly matters, they did not convey their message. The tenth
delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend, resulted in the message being successfully
conveyed as well as becoming an arahant. Since it was not the vassana, the Buddha agreed, and
two years after his enlightenment, took a two month journey to Kapilavastu by foot, preaching
the dharma along the way. Upon his return, the royal palace had prepared the midday meal, but
since no specific invitation had come, the sangha went for an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing
this, Suddhodana hastened to approach the Buddha, stating "Ours is the warrior lineage of
Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms", to which the Buddha replied
That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several
thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms
Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha back to the royal palace for the meal,
followed by a dharma talk, after which he became a sotapanna. During the visit, many members
of the royal family joined the sangha. His cousins Ananda and Anuruddha were to become two
of his five chief disciples. His son Rahula also joined the sangha at the age of seven, and was one
of the ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined the sangha and became an arahant.
Another cousin Devadatta also became a monk although he later became an enemy and tried to
kill the Buddha on multiple occasions.
Of his disciples, Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed
to have comprised the five chief disciples. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed
by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.
In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali. Hearing of the impending
death of Suddhodana, the Buddha is said to have gone to his father and preached the dharma, and
Suddhodana became an arahant prior to death. The death and cremation led to the creation of the
order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that he was reluctant to ordain women as nuns. His foster
mother Maha Pajapati approached him asking to join the sangha, but the Buddha refused, and
began the journey from Kapilavastu back to Rajagaha. Maha Pajapati was so intent on
renouncing the world that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, following the
sangha to Rajagaha. The Buddha eventually accepted them five years after the formation of the
Sangha on the grounds that their capacity for enlightenment was equal to that of men, but he
gave them certain additional rules (Vinaya) to follow. This occurred after Ananda interceded on
their behalf. Yasodhara also became a nun, with both becoming arahants.
Devadatta tries to attack the Buddha. Picture of a wallpainting in a Laotian monastery.
During his ministry, Devadatta (who was not an arahant) is alleged to have frequently tried to
undermine the Buddha. At one point, according to the scriptures, Devadatta asked the Buddha to
stand aside to let him lead the sangha. The Buddha declined, and stated that Devadatta's actions
did not reflect on the Triple Gem, but on him alone. Devadatta is said to have conspired with
Prince Ajatasattu, son of Bimbisara, to kill and usurp the Buddha and Bimbisara respectively.
Devadatta, it is claimed, attempted three times to kill the Buddha. The first attempt involved the
hiring of a group of archers, whom upon meeting the Buddha became disciples. A second
attempt followed when Devadatta attempted to roll a large boulder down a hill. It hit another
rock and splintered, only grazing the Buddha in the foot. A final attempt by plying an elephant
with alcohol and setting it loose again failed. Failing this, Devadatta attempted to cause a schism
in the sangha, by proposing extra restrictions on the vinaya. When the Buddha declined,
Devadatta started a breakaway order, criticising the Buddha's laxity. At first, he managed to
convert some of the bhikkhus, but Sariputta and Mahamoggallana expounded the dharma to them
and succeeded in winning them back.
Mahaparinirvana
The Buddha's entry into Parinirvana. Sanskrit manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar, India. Pāla period.
An artist's portrayal of Buddha's entry into Parinirvana.
The sharing of the relics of the Buddha, Zenyōmitsu-Temple Museum, Tokyo
According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha
announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, abandoning his
earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from
a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to
convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his
meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.[28]
Mettanando and von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of
old age, rather than food poisoning.[29] The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not
clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant
terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork,
while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other
mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the
precepts for monks and nuns.
Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of
Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. Buddha, however, is said to
have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king
that resounded with joy:
44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds—the trumpeting of
elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and
song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"
The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikshus to clarify any doubts or questions they had.
They had none. According to Buddhist scrptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The
Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things pass away. Strive for your
own liberation with diligence." His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments
or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The
Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to
be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.
According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the
coronation of Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to two
textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Aśoka is 116 years after
the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to
Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date
traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 543
BCE, because the reign of Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than
current estimates.
At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader.
Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with
the two chief disciples Mahamoggallana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.
Physical characteristics
Main article: Physical characteristics of the Buddha
Not to be confused for the Laughing Buddha.

Gandhāran depiction of the Buddha from Hadda, Central Asia. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A
kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was
required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a
strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a
general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".
The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye,
with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means
unattractive."(D,I:115).
"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and
radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-
tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold
wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines,
blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and
radiant." (A,I:181)
A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an Arahant, was so obsessed by Buddha's physical
presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled tell him to desist, and to have reminded
him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical
appearances.
Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st
century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened
buddhas are attributed to the the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D,I:142).[30] In
addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon
the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical
Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").[31]
Teachings
Main article: Buddhist philosophy
Seated Buddha, Gandhāra, 2nd century CE.
Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pali Canon and the Āgamas contain the actual
substance of the historical teachings (and possibly even the words) of the Buddha.[32][33] This is
not the case for the later Mahāyāna sūtras.[34] The scriptural works of Early Buddhism precede
the Mahayana works chronologically, and are treated by many Western scholars as the main
credible source for information regarding the actual historical teachings of Gautama Buddha.
However, some scholars do not think that the texts report on historical events.[35][36][37]
Some of the fundamentals of the teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha are:
 The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of
suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and annihilation; that suffering can be
ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this.
 The Noble Eightfold Path: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
 Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.
 Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: Teachings should not be accepted unless they
are borne out by our experience and are praised by the wise. See the Kalama Sutta for details.
 Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things that come to be have an end.
 Dukkha (Sanskrit: duḥkha): That nothing which comes to be is ultimately satisfying.
 Anattā (Sanskrit: anātman): That nothing in the realm of experience can really be said to be "I"
or "mine".
 Nibbāna (Sanskrit: Nirvāna): It is possible for sentient beings to realize a dimension of
awareness which is totally unconstructed and peaceful, and end all suffering due to the mind's
interaction with the conditioned world.
However, in some Mahayana schools, these points have come to be regarded as more or less
subsidiary. There is disagreement amongst various schools of Buddhism over more complex
aspects of what the Buddha is believed to have taught, and also over some of the disciplinary
rules for monks.
According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding. He questioned
everyday notions of divinity and salvation. He stated that there is no intermediary between
mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens;
and the Buddha is only a guide and teacher for beings who must tread the path of Nirvāṇa (Pāli:
Nibbāna) themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and understand reality. The
Buddhist system of insight and meditation practice is not claimed to have been divinely revealed,
but to spring from an understanding of the true nature of the mind, which must be discovered by
treading the path guided by the Buddha's teachings.
Plate showing Mahavira accepting Alms
Mahavira's sermons were preserved orally by his immediate disciples in the Agam Sutras.
Through time many Agam Sutras have been lost, destroyed, or modified. About one thousand
years after Mahavira's time the Agam Sutras were recorded on Tadpatris (palm leaf paper used
then to form books). Swetambar Jains accept these sutras as authentic teachings while Digambar
Jains use them as a reference.
Jainism existed before Mahavir, and his teachings were based on those of his predecessors. Thus
Mahavira was a reformer and propagator of an existing religion, rather than the founder of a new
faith. He followed the well established creed of his predecessor Tirthankar Parshvanath.
However, Mahavira did reorganize the philosophical tenets of Jainism to correspond to his times.
A few centuries after Mahavira's Nirvana, the Jain religious order ( Sangh)
grew more and more complex. There were schisms on minor points,
although they did not affect Mahavira's original doctrines. Later
generations saw the introduction of rituals and complexities that some
criticize as placing Mahavira and other Tirthankars on the throne similar to
those of Maurya Empire
Maurya Empire
←

→
← 322 BC–185 BC

→
←
The Maurya Dynasty at its largest extent under

Ashoka the Great
Capital Pataliputra
Old Indic (Sanskrit,

Language(s)
Prakrits)
Brahmanism
Religion Buddhism
Jainism
Government Absolute Monarchy as

described in the
Arthashastra
Samraat (Emperor)
- 320–298 BCE Chandragupta Maurya
- 187–180 BCE Brhadrata
Historical era Antiquity
- Established 322 BC
- Disestablished 185 BC
Currency Panas
The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient India,
ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha
in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal) in the eastern side
of the Indian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna).[1][2] The
Empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda
Dynasty and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India taking
advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by
Alexander the Great's Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied
Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.[citation needed]
It was one of the world's largest empires in its time. At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to
the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is
now Assam. To the west, it probably reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan
and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat[citation needed] and Kandahar
provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors
Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested
regions near Kalinga (modern Orissa). Its decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, and
it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.
Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which was under
Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Greek general
from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, both internal and external trade,
and agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the
creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration and security. After the
Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka.
Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of
the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and
religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been
said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence
across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast
Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.
Chandragupta's minister Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on
economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion ever produced
in India.[citation needed] Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era
of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the
primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath,
is the national emblem of India.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya

 2 Conquest of Magadha
 3 Chandragupta Maurya
 4 Bindusara
 5 Ashoka the Great
 6 Administration
 7 Economy
 8 Religion
o 8.1 Jainism
o 8.2 Buddhism
o 8.3 Brahmanism
 9 Architectural remains
 10 Natural history in the times of the Mauryas
 11 Contacts with the Hellenistic world
o 11.1 Foundation of the Empire
o 11.2 Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)
o 11.3 Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
 11.3.1 Marital alliance
 11.3.2 Exchange of ambassadors
 11.3.3 Exchange of presents
o 11.4 Greek population in India
o 11.5 Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE)
o 11.6 Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
 12 Decline
o 12.1 Sunga coup (185 BCE)
o 12.2 Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
 13 See also
 14 Notes
 15 References
Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya

Main articles: Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
A brahmin named Chanakya (real name Vishnugupta, also known as Kautilya) traveled to
Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was
dismissed by its king Dhana, of the Nanda Dynasty. Meanwhile, the conquering armies of
Alexander the Great decided against going further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling
Magadha: he returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus river.
Soon after Alexander died in Babylonin 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings
declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Maurya
deposed Dhana. The Greek generals Eudemus, and Peithon, ruled until around 316 BCE, when
Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) utterly defeated
the Macedonians and consolidated the region under the control of his new seat of power in
Magadha.
Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand,
a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Poem of Rakshasa -
Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and
even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya tribe known as the Maurya's are referred to in
the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make
without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as
"Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[3] He is also said to have met
the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.[4] Chanakya's original intentions were
to train a guerilla army under Chandragupta's command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as
well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king
Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus (Sir John Marshall "Taxila", p18, and al.)[5][6][7].
Conquest of Magadha
Main articles: Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda Dynasty, and Magadha
Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha.
Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha
and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus
resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former
general of Taxila, other accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of
Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states.
Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and the
Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Maurya's forces.
Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to
create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to
the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned,
handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya
contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to
Magadha, not to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also
reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and
destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was
legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief
advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman.
The Maurya Empire

Chandragupta extended
when it was first founded
The approximate The Nanda Empire at its the borders of the
by Chandragupta Maurya
extent of the Magadha greatest extent under Maurya Empire
circa 320 BCE, after
state in the 5th century Dhana Nanda circa 323 towards Seleucid Persia
conquering the Nanda
BCE. BCE. after defeating Seleucus
Empire when he was
circa 305 BCE.[8]
only about 20 years old.
Ashoka the Great

Chandragupta
extended into Kalinga
extended the borders
during the Kalinga War
of the empire
circa 265 BCE, and
southward into the
established superiority
Deccan Plateau circa
over the southern
300 BC.[9]
kingdoms.
Approximate Dates of Mauryan Dynasty
Chandragupta Maurya Emperor Reign start Reign end
Main article: Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta Maurya 322 BCE 298 BCE
Chandragupta destroyed the Greeks when Bindusara 297 BCE 272 BCE
Seleucus I, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, tried
to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, Asoka The Great 273 BCE 232 BCE
during a campaign in 305 BCE, but failed.
Dasaratha 232 BCE 224 BCE
The two rulers finally concluded a peace
treaty: a marital treaty (Epigamia) was Samprati 224 BCE 215 BCE
concluded, in which the Greeks offered their
Princess for alliance and help from him. Salisuka 215 BCE 202 BCE
Chandragupta snatched the satrapies of
Paropamisade (Kamboja and Gandhara), Devavarman 202 BCE 195 BCE
Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia
(Balochistan), and Seleucus I received 500 Satadhanvan 195 BCE 187 BCE
war elephants that were to have a decisive
Brihadratha 187 BCE 185 BCE
role in his victory against western Hellenistic
kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.
Diplomatic relations were established and
several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the
Mauryan court.
Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration at Pataliputra,

which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and
570 towers— (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous Persian sites such as Susa and
Ecbatana." Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards
southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Deimachus (Strabo 1–70).
Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly,
and do not know writing:
" The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike a great undisciplined
multitude, and consequently they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence.
Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men,
found that the thefts reported on any one day did not exceed the value of two hundred
drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and
must therefore in all the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily
enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices.
Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is principally a
rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 53-56, quoting Megasthenes [10]
Bindusara
Main article: Bindusara

Ashoka the Great
Main article: Ashoka the Great
Chandragupta's grandson was Ashokavardhan Maurya, better known as Ashoka the Great (ruled
273- 232 BCE).
As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila.
As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern
and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga which proved to be the pivotal event of his
life. Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and
civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare,
including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely
affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation,
Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried 'what have I done?'. Although the annexation of
Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Gautama Buddha, and renounced war
and violence. For a monarch in ancient times, this was an historic feat.
Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and
ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been
forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep
the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and
Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building
campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one
of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of
inspiration in modern India.
The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far
west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his
policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were
written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks,
Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to
Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The
edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as Amtiyoko
(Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro
(Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their
territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance
between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).[11]
Statuettes of the Maurya

period, 4th-3rd century
BCE. Musée Guimet.
The distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka.[12] is
A representation of the a concrete indication of the extent of
Lion Capital of Ashoka, Ashoka's rule. To the West, it went as far as
which was erected Kandahar (where the Edicts were written in
around 250 BCE. It is the Greek and Aramaic), and bordered the
emblem of India. contemporary Hellenistic metropolis of Ai
Khanoum.
Administration
Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum.
The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents.
with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial
capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the
north). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed
the provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of
ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and
his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).
Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive
bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed
everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the
empire was made possible by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its
time[citation needed]. According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry,
30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both
internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism,
Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill
stability and peace across West and South Asia.
Economy
Silver punch mark coin of the Mauryan empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.
For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common
economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.
The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional
chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were
freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally
administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the
Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of
regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for
merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional
private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small
areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and
waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to
newfound political unity and internal peace.
Mauryan cast copper coin. Late 3rd century BCE. British Museum.
Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of
trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became
a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and
Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended
through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles,
spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific
knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction
of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The
easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and
crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire.
In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is comparable to the Roman
Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had
organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely
used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India, unlike Rome, had numerous private
commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the
Mauryan Empire itself, while the Romans did not have such pre-existing entities.[13] (See also
Economic history of India.)
Religion
Buddhist stupas during the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations. Butkara stupa,
3rd century BCE.[14]
Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260-218 BCE).

Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was originally a powerful
independent deity of Hinduism, and later became an avatar of Vishnu. 3rd-2nd century CE. British
Museum.
Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century BCE.
Jainism
Emperor Chandragupta Maurya became the first major Indian monarch to initiate a religious
transformation at the highest level when he embraced Jainism, a religious movement resented by
orthodox Hindu priests who usually attended the imperial court. At an older age, Chandragupta
renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks.
Chandragupta was a disciple of Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed
the rigorous but self purifying Jain ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at Shravana Belagola in
Karnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, was an Ajivika and distanced himself
from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka also embraced Jainism.
Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monk Arya Suhasti Suri and he is
known to have built 125,000 Jain Temples across India. Some of them are still found in towns of
Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent
messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. But to date no
research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule.
Chandragupta & Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in Southern India. Lakhs of Jain
Temples & Jain Stupas were erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal patronage & its
strict principles, along with the rise of Shankaracharya & Ramanujacharya, Jainism, once the
major religion of southern India, began to decline.
Buddhism
But when Ashoka embraced Buddhism, following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism
and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive
policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led
by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed
with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion.
Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and
commissioned the construction of monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist literature
across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India i.e. Sanchi
and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan, Thailand
and north Asian countries. Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India and
South Asia's Buddhist orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and
expansion of the Buddhist religion.
Brahmanism
While himself a Buddhist, Ashoka retained the membership of Brahmana priests and ministers in
his court, and he maintained religious freedom and tolerance although the Buddhist faith grew in
popularity with his patronage. Brahmanic society began embracing the philosophy of ahimsa,
and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts
reduced dramatically. Also greatly discouraged was the caste system and orthodox
discrimination, as Brahmanism began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist
teachings. Social freedom began expanding in an age of peace and prosperity.
Architectural remains
Main article: Edicts of Ashoka
Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of a hypostyle building with
about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found in Kumhrar, 5 km from Patna
Railway station, and is one of the very few site that has been connected to the rule of the
Mauryas in that city. The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture.[15]
The grottoes of Barabar Caves, are another example of Mauryan architecture, especially the
decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the Buddhist
sect of the Ajivikas.[16]
The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the Pillars of Ashoka, often exquisitely
decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the sub-continent.
Natural history in the times of the Mauryas

The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty;
being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas
towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of interest.
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product
was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also
battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, Alexander's governor of the
Punjab. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less
time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains
not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of
officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests:[17]
On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The
Superintendent should with the help of guards...protect the elephants whether along on the mountain,
along a river, along lakes or in marshy tracts...They should kill anyone slaying an elephant.
—Arthashastra
The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and
tigers, for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and
other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.
The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and
control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them
with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or
aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden
relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[18]
When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant
changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even
relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures
for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed
the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:[18]
Our king killed very few animals.
—Edict on Fifth Pillar

However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of
a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers
did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common
people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[18]
Contacts with the Hellenistic world
Mauryan Statuette, 2nd Century BCE.
Foundation of the Empire
Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya
Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably
around Taxila in the northwest:
"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often
said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since
its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-3 [19]
Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)

Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the
Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place
after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab
until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the
Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.
"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of
servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in
servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he
has liberated from foreign domination" Justin XV.4.12-13 [20]
"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to
him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader.
Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was
preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19[21]
Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.
Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire,
conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus
(Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation
with Chandragupta:
"Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he
[Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria,
Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been
subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the
most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was
subject to Seleucus". Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[22]
Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the
Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact, was forced to surrender
much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a
settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a
number of territories to Chandragupta, including southern Afghanistan and parts of Persia.
Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which would play a
decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.
Marital alliance
It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Greek Macedonian

princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent
500 war-elephants[8][23][24][25][26][27], a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle
of Ipsus in 302 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes,
to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra
(modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and
contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an
ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[28].
Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus,
including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[29]
[30]
Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts
of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandhahar in southern Afghanistan.
"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the
“ Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with
”
each other and contracted a marriage relationship."
"After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order the Orient situation,
“ Seleucos went to war against Antigonus." ”
—Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15
The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at
the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common
people, or both[citation needed]. .
Exchange of ambassadors
Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his

son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (Modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy
II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by
Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[28]
Exchange of presents
Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus
exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:
"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to
make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the
presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like
charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to
banish love" Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32[31]
His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as
having exchanged present with Antiochus I:
"But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says,
"There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians,
wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him
some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in
answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be
sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[32]
Greek population in India
Greek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under
Ashoka's rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka
describes that Greek population within his realm converted to Buddhism:
"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits,
the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-
of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma". Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).
Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum. (Click image for
translation).
Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and
Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek,
using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety")
as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit:
"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine
of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and
everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings,
and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from
hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in
their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past
also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily". (Trans.
by G.P. Carratelli [1])
Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE)
Front view of the single lion capital in Vaishali.
Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient
of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain:
"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas
(5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four
kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the
Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S.
Dhammika).
Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and
animals, in their territories:
"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the
people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far
as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are
neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for
two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for
animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had
them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them
imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of
humans and animals". 2nd Rock Edict
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as
some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as
leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa,
XII[33]).
Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek
sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena in Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of
Mauryan princes[citation needed], and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of
Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an
area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king, after
having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BC and is said to have
renewed his friendship with the Indian king there:
"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with
Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty
altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army:
leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had
agreed to hand over to him". Polybius 11.39
Decline
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the last ruler of
the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor
Ashoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith.
Sunga coup (185 BCE)
Brihadrata was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the commander-in-chief of
his guard, the Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established
the Sunga dynasty. Buddhist records such as the Asokavadana write that the assassination of
Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution for Buddhists,[34] and a
resurgence of Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall,[35] Pusyamitra may have been the main
author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been more supportive of
Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[36] and Romila Thapar,[37] among others,
have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists
are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.
Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
Main article: Indo-Greek kingdom
The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion
followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered
southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-
Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India,
for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings Menander became
a famous figure of Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of
Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much
debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to
the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the
Sungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed
Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained
lands in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura, and Gujarat.
The Sātavāhana Empire was a dynasty which ruled from Junnar (Pune), Prathisthan (Paithan)
in Maharashtra and later Kotilingala (Karimnagar) in Andhra Pradesh and Dharanikota or
Amaravati in coastal Andhra Pradesh and over Southern and Central India from around 230 BCE
onward. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most
liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years, until around 220 CE. The Satavahanas are
credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the
decline of Mauryan empire.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Origins
 2 Etymology
 3 Early rulers
o 3.1 Simuka (c.230-207 BCE)
o 3.2 Satakarni (c.180-124 BCE)
o 3.3 Kanva suzerainty (75-35 BCE)
 4 Victory over the Shakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas
o 4.1 Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-106 CE)
 5 Successors
o 5.1 Decline of the Satavahanas
 6 Coinage
 7 Cultural achievements
o 7.1 Art of Amaravati
o 7.2 Art of Sanchi
 8 List of rulers
 9 See also
 10 References
[edit] Origins
The archaeological evidence indicates that Kotilingala (Karimnagar) in Andhra Pradesh was the
ancient site of pre-Satavahana and early Satavahana kings.[3][4][authentic?] In the Pūrānas and on their
coins the dynasty is variously referred to as the Sātavāhanas, Sātakarnīs, Andhras and
Andhrabhrityas.[citation needed] A reference to the Sātavāhanas by the Greek traveller Megasthenes
indicates that they possessed 100,000 infantry, 1,000 elephants, and had more than 30 well built
fortified towns:
Next come the Andarae, a still more powerful race, which possesses numerous villages, and
thirty towns defended by walls and towers, and which supplies its king with an army of 100,000
infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants.
—Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11., quoting Megasthenes[5]
The Sātavāhanas ruled a large and powerful empire that withstood the onslaughts from Central
Asia. Aside from their military power, their commercialism and naval activity is evidenced by
establishment of Indian colonies in southeast Asia.
The Edicts of Ashoka mention the Sātavāhanas as feudatories of Emperor Ashoka. Fragment of
the 6th Pillar Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi, sandstone. British Museum.
The Sātavāhanas began as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire. They seem to have been under the
control of Emperor Ashoka, who claims they were in his domain, and that he introduced
Buddhism among them:
Here in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the
Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are
following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma.
—Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika)
The Satavahanas declared independence sometime after the death of Ashoka (232 BCE), as the
Maurya Empire began to weaken.
It is believed that they were originally practicing Hindu religion (as per Sthala Purana of
Amaravathi.[6] Some rulers
Part of a series on
like Maharaja Satakarni are
believed to have performed History of Andhra Pradesh
[6]
Vedic sacrifices as well.
They were not only

worshipers of Vishnu and
Shiva but also respected
Buddha, but also other
incarnations of, Gauri,
Indra, the sun and moon.[7]
They were mostly
Buddhistic Vaishnavites. A great architectural marvel, ramappa temple in Andhra pradesh, India.
Under their reign, Buddha Chronology of Telugu/Andhra history
had been worshiped as a Ancient Andhra Kingdom
Sources
form of Vishnu in
Geography · Political history
Amaravati[8] Satavahanas
Ikshvaku dynasty
[edit] Etymology Salankayanas
Vishnukundinas
Eastern Chalukyas
Satavahans, or Satkarnis, is
Kakatiya dynasty
Sanskritised as Shatvahana, Musunuri Nayaks
Shalivahana and Vijayanagara Empire
Shatakarni.[9] The name Madurai Nayaks
Satakani appears to be Tanjore Nayaks
aboriginal.[9]
[edit] Early
rulers
The Satavahanas initially ruled in the area (current Telangana region and some parts of Andhra
areas ) of between the rivers Krishna and Godavari[10], which was always their heartland. The
Pūrānas list 30 Andhra rulers. Many are known from their coins and inscriptions as well.
[edit] Simuka (c.230-207 BCE)

After becoming independent around 230 BCE, Simuka, the founder of the dynasty, conquered
Maharashtra, Malwa and part of Madhya Pradesh. He was succeeded by his brother Kanha (or
Krishna) (r. 207-189 BCE), who further extended his kingdom to the west and the south.
[edit] Satakarni (c.180-124 BCE)
Early Satakarni issue, Maharashtra - Vidarbha type.
Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi: "(Sataka)Nisa". British Museum.
His successor Sātakarnī I was the sixth ruler of the Satavahana. He is said in the Puranas to have
ruled for 56 years.
Satakarni defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India by wresting Western Malwa from them, and
performed several Vedic sacrifices at huge cost, including the Horse Sacrifice - Ashwamedha
yajna. He also was in conflict with the Kalinga ruler Kharavela, who mentions him in the
Hathigumpha inscription. According to the Yuga Purana he conquered Kalinga following the
death of Kharavela. He extended Satavahana rule over Madhya Pradesh and pushed back the
Sakas from Pataliputra (he is thought to be the Yuga Purana's "Shata", an abbreviation of the full
name “Shri Sata” that occurs on coins from Ujjain), where he subsequently ruled for 10 years.
By this time the dynasty was well established, with its capital at Pratishthānapura (Paithan) in
Maharashtra, and its power spreading into all of South India.
[edit] Kanva suzerainty (75-35 BCE)

Many small rulers succeeded Satakarni, such as Lambodara, Apilaka, Meghasvati and Kuntala
Satakarni, who are thought to have been under the suzerainty of the Kanva dynasty. The Puranas
(the Matsya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Brahmanda Purana, the Vishnu Purana) all state that
the first of the Andhra kings rose to power in the 1st century BCE, by slaying Susarman, the last
ruler of the Kanvas.[11] This feat is usually thought to have been accomplished by Pulomavi (c.
30-6 BCE), who then ruled over Pataliputra.
[edit] Victory over the Shakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas

The first century CE saw another incursion of the Sakas of Central Asia into India, where they
formed the dynasty of the Western Kshatrapas. The four immediate successors of Hāla (r. 20-24
CE) had short reigns totalling about a dozen years. During the reign of the Western Satrap
Nahapana, the Satavahanas lost a considerable territory to the satraps, including eastern Malwa,
Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Pune
districts.[12]
[edit] Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-106 CE)
Coin of Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Obv: King in profile. Prakrit legend "Rano Gotamiputasa Siri Yana Satakarnisa": "In the reign
of Gautamiputra Sri Yana Satakarni"
Rev: Hill with Satavahana symbol, sun and moon. Dravidian legend "Arahanaku gotami putaku
Hiru Yana Hatakanaku".[13]
Eventually Gautamiputra (Sri Yagna) Sātakarni (also known as Shalivahan) (r. 78-106 CE)
defeated the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, restoring the prestige of his dynasty by
reconquering a large part of the former dominions of the Sātavāhanas. He was an ardent
supporter of Buddhism.[citation needed]
According to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balasri, he is the one...
...who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas (the native Indian princes, the
Rajputs of Rajputana, Gujarat and Central India); who destroyed the Shakas (Western
Kshatrapas), Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians),... who rooted the
Khakharata family (The Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the
Satavahana race[14]
Gautamiputra Satakarni may also have defeated Shaka king Vikramaditya in 78 BCE and started
the calendar known as Shalivahana era or Shaka era, which is followed by the Gujarati, Marathi,
Kannadiga and Telugu people and is the Indian National Calendar.
Gautamiputra Sātakarni's son, Vashishtiputra Pulumāyi (r. 106-130 CE), succeeded him.
Gautamiputra was the first Sātavāhana king to issue the portrait-type coinage, in a style derived
from the Western Satraps.[15]
[edit] Successors
Silver coin of king Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (c. 160 CE).

Obv: Bust of king. Prakrit legend in the Brahmi script: "Siri Satakanisa Rano ... Vasithiputasa":
"King Vasishtiputra Sri Satakarni"
Rev: Ujjain/Sātavāhana symbol left. Crescented six-arch chaitya hill right. River below.
Dravidian legend in the Brahmi script: "Arahanaku Vahitti makanaku Tiru Hatakaniko" - which
means "The ruler, Vasitti's son, Highness Satakani" - -ko being the royal name suffix
Gautamiputra's brother, Vashishtiputra Sātakarni, married the daughter of Rudradaman I of the

Western Satraps dynasty. Around 150 CE, Rudradaman I, now his father-in-law, waged war
against the Satavahanas, who were defeated twice in these conflicts. Vashishtiputra Satakarni
was only spared his life because of his family links with Rudradaman:[16]
"Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight
completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their
connection did not destroy him."
—Junagadh rock inscription [17]
As a result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former territories previously held by
Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of Pune and Nasik.[15] Satavahana dominions
were limited to their original base in the Deccan and eastern central India around Amaravati.
However, the last great king of this dynasty, Yajna Satakarni, defeated the Western Satraps and
reconquered their southern regions in western and central India.[18] During the reign of Sri Yajna
Sātakarni (170-199 CE) the Sātavāhanas regained some prosperity, and some of his coins have
been found in Saurashtra[19] but around the middle of the third century, the dynasty came to an
end.
[edit] Decline of the Satavahanas
Coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni (r. 167-196 CE).
Four or five kings of Yajna Satakarni's line succeeded him, and continued to rule till about the
mid 200s CE. However, the dynasty was soon extinguished following the rise of its feudatories,
perhaps on account of a decline in central power.[20]
Several dynasties divided the lands of the kingdom among themselves. Among them were:
 Western Satraps in the northwestern part of the kingdom.

 Andhra Ikshvakus (or Srīparvatiyas) in the Krishna-Guntur region. (r. 220-320
CE).
 Abhiras in the western part of the kingdom. They were ultimately to succeed the
Sātavāhanas in their capital Pratishthānapura.
 Chutus of Banavasi in North Karnataka.
 Kadambas of Banavasi in North Karnataka.
 Pallavas of Kanchipuram, of whom the first ruler was Simhavarman I (r. 275-300
CE).
[edit] Coinage
Royal earrings, Andhra Pradesh, 1st Century BCE.
The Satavahanas are the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their
rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western
Satraps he defeated, itself originating with the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest.
Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial
features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their
portrait-style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings.
The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without
exception. Some reverse coin legends are in a Dravidian language in Kannada or Tamil[21] ,
which seems to have been in use in their heartland abutting the Godavari, probably Kotilingala,
Karimnagar district and Krishna, probably Amaravati, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.[22]
Their coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas
(stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four circles at the end. The legendary
Ujjayini emperor Vikramditiya on whose name the Vikram Samvat is initiated might be
Satakarni II a Satavahana emperor as the Ujjayini symbol also appeared on the Satavahana coins.
[edit] Cultural achievements

An aniconic representation of Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Amaravati.
Of the Sātavāhana kings, Hāla (r. 20-24 CE) is famous for compiling the collection of
Maharashtri poems known as the Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit: Gāthā Saptashatī), although from
linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have been re-edited in the succeeding
century or two. The Lilavati describes his marriage with a Ceylonese Princess.
The Satavahanas influenced South-East Asia to a great extent, spreading Hindu culture, language
and religion into that part of the world. Their coins had images of ships.
[edit] Art of Amaravati
Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 2nd-3rd century CE.
The Sātavāhana kings are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art and architecture.
They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, including the stupa at Amaravati in Andhra
Pradesh. The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with scenes from the life of the
Buddha, portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style. The Satavahana empire colonized
southeast Asia and spread Indian culture to those parts. Mahayana Buddhism, which may have
originated in Andhra (northwestern India being the alternative candidate), was carried to many
parts of Asia by the rich maritime culture of the Satavahanas. The Amaravati style of sculpture
spread to Southeast Asia at this time.
[edit] Art of Sanchi
The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi. The
gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by
them. An inscription records the gift of one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the
artisans of the Satavahana king Satakarni:
Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni[23]
Throughout, the Buddhist art of the Satavahanas remained aniconic, denying any human
representation of the Buddha, even in highly descriptive scenes. This remained true until the end
of the Satavahana rule, in the 2nd century CE.
[edit] List of rulers

Puranic list of Satavahana kings (Source: "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum.
Andhras etc...", Rapson). This list, the most complete one with 30 kings, is based on the Matsya
Purana.
 Simuka or Sisuka (r. 230-207 BCE). Also (271-248 BCE), ruled 23 years
kotilingala,karim nagar district,A.P
 Krishna (r. 207-189 BCE), ruled 18 years.
 Sri Mallakarni (or Sri Satakarni), ruled 10 years.
 Purnotsanga, ruled 18 years
 Skandhastambhi, ruled 18 years
 Sātakarnī I (195 BCE), ruled 56 years
 Lambodara, ruled 18 years.(r. 87-67 BCE)
Probably as vassals of Kanva dynasty (75-35 BCE):
 Apilaka, ruled 12 years.

 Meghasvati (or Saudasa), ruled 18 years.
 Svati (or Svami), ruled 18 years.
 Skandasvati, ruled 7 years.
 Mahendra Satakarni (or Mrgendra Svatikarna, Satakarni II), ruled 8 years.
 Kuntala Satakarni (or Kuntala Svatikarna), ruled 8 years.
 Svatikarna, ruled 1 year.
 Pulomavi (or Patumavi), ruled 36 years.

 Riktavarna (or Aristakarman), ruled 25 years.
 Hāla (r. 20-24 CE), author of the Gathasaptasati, an Indian literature classic, ruled 5
years.
 Mandalaka (or Bhavaka, Puttalaka), ruled 5 years.
 Purindrasena, ruled 5 years.
 Sundara Satakarni, ruled 1 year.
 Cakora Satakarni (or Cakora Svatikarna), ruled 6 months.
 Sivasvati, ruled 28 years.
 Gautamiputra Sātakarni, or Gautamiputra, popularly known as Shalivahan (r. 25-78 CE),
ruled 21 years.
 Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, or Puloma, Puliman (r. 78-114 CE), ruled 28 years.
 Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (r. 130-160), or Shiva Sri, Sivasri, ruled 7 years.
 Shivaskanda Satakarni, (157-159), ruled 7 years.
 Yajna Sri Satakarni, (r. 167-196 CE), ruled 29 years.
 Vijaya, ruled 6 years.
 Canda Sri Satakarni, ruled 10 years.
 Puloma, 7 years.
 Madhariputra Svami Sakasena? (r. c.190)
 The Sunga rule, extending a little over a century, is in interlude in the history of India. There is
nothing extraordinary about the political events associated with the Sungas. The significance of
their history, on the other hand, primarily consists in the place they occupy in the social and
cultural history of India.
 The founder of the dynasty, Pushyamitra Sunga, overthrew the Mauryas; either in 187 B.C. or
184 B.C. After him there were nine other rulers. Among them, Agnimitra, Vasumitra, Bhagvata
and Devabhumi were the prominent ones. The names of the first two were associated with some
events in political history, whereas the latter two were known for their long rule, they being 32 and
10 years respectively.
 There is some controversy about the identity of Pushyamitra Sunga. It was stated in a Sutra that
he belonged to a family of teachers. Patanjali claims that he was a brahminor the Bhardwaja
gotra. Ivyavadana stated that the Sungas were related to the Mauryas. A Malavikagnimitram
refers to them as brahmins belonging to Kashyap gotra.
 After the overthrow of Brihadrata, Pushyamitra Sunga waged a few wars to consolidate his
position. Evidence shows that Pushyamitra Sunga defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by
Patanjali's Mahabashva. And the claim made in the Hathigumpha inscription that Kharavela of
Kalinga defeated Pushyamitra Sunga cannot be sustained because Kharavela ruled in the
second half of the first century B.C. Later, Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga,
defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by the Malavikaganimtiram and gargi Samhita. Both
Agnimmitra and Veerasena fought against Vidarbha rule of the Sungas ended C. 75 B.C.
 Some scholars regard that the establishment of Sunga dynasty ws symbolic of the brahminical
reaction to the Mauryan bias towards Buddhism. Pushyamitra Sunga performed the vedic
sacrifices of asvamedha, and the others like aginstoma, Rajasuya and vajpeiya. But some facts
of his region clearly show that he did not persecute Buddhists. The claim of Divyavandana, that
Pushyamitra Sunga destroyed 84,000 Buddhist stupas and slaughtered srameans, has no
corroborative evidence. Interestingly, the sculptured stone gateway and the massive stone railing
aroused Sanchi stupa were executed during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga. Also the Bharhut
stupa and the sculpture relating to Jataka stories around it came into existence during the same
period. One of the donors of Bharhut stupa was Champadevi wife of the Idisha King, who was a
worshipper of Vishnu. This fact bears testimony to the high degree of tolerance prevailing during
the period. (And some minor works of Sunga art are to be found at Mathura, Kausambi and
Sarnath).
 It at all there was anyting like persecution of Buddhists during the days of Pushyamitra Sunga, it
could be in the context of Menander's invasion. May be, the Buddhists of India welcomed the
invasion of Menander' and this might have resulted in Pushyamitra Sunga wrath falling on the
Buddhists. Or, may be withdrawal of royal patronage with the coming of the Sungas apparently
enraged the Buddhists and thus the Buddhists writers present an exaggerated account of their
troubles.
 The importance of the Sungas, therefore, was primarily in the context of cultural and social
development. In the social field, the emergence of Hinduism had a wide impact. The Sungas
attempted to revive the caste system with the social supremacy of the brahmins. This is more
than evident in the work of Manu (Manusmriti) wherein he reassures the position of the brahmins
in the fourfold society. Even then, the most significant development of the Sunga era was marked
by various adjustment and adaptations leading to the emergence of mixed castes and the
assimilation of the foreigners in India society. Thus we notice that Brahminism gradually
transformed itself in a direction towards Hinduism.
 In the field of literature Sanskrit gradually gained ascendancy and became the language of the
court. Patanjali was patronized by Pushyamitra Sunga and he was the second great grammarian
of Sanskrit. Patanjali refers to a Sanskrit poet, Varauchi, who wrote in the Kavya style and which
was later perfected by Kalidasa. Some Buddhist works of this age were written in Sanskrit.
 In the field of art, there was immediate reaction against the Buddhist era of the Mauryas.
Nevertheless, there were certain differences. The Sunga art reflects more of the mind, culture,
tradition and ideology than what the Mauryan art did. During the Sunga period, stone replaced
wood in the railings and the gateways of the Buddhist stupas as noticed at Bharhut and Sanchi.
Bharhut stupa is replete with sculptures - apart from floral designs, animal, figures, Yakshas and
human figures. Even the stone railing around the Sanchi Stupa is in rich belief work. This age
definitely witnessed the increasing use of symbols and human figures in architecture. Besides,
the Sungas art is a manifestation of popular artistic genious - the artistic activity was because of
the initiative of individuals, corporation or villages. A part of the gateway of Sanchi was
constructed by the artisans of Vidisha. Even temple building began in this period. A Vishnu
temple was build near Vidisha. There was an increase in the construction of rock-cut temple as
noticed in the Chaitya Hall. In the temples and household worship we find the idols of Shiva and
Vishnu.
 All told the importance of the sunga dynasty lies in the restoration of Real politik while
abandoning the asokan approach. In the cultural field the beginnings as well as accomplishments
in sculpture and architecture are of tremendous significance. In the field of religion too they not
only revived the earlier tradition but also gave an impetus to new approaches combative towards
the heterodox sects the cult of katakana the god of war the resurgence of Bhagvata cult and the
supremacy of Vasudeva in the Hindu pantheon.
Gupta Empire
गप्ु त राजवंश
Gupta Rājavaṃśa
Gupta Empire
←

AD 320–AD 600s →
←
Capital Pataliputra
Language(s) Sanskrit
Hinduism
Religion
Buddhism
Government Monarchy
Maharajadhiraj
- 240s-280s Sri-Gupta
- 319-335 Chandragupta I
- 540-550 Vishnugupta
Historical era Antiquity
- Established AD 320
- Disestablished AD 600s
History of South Asia

History of India
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The Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: गप्त ु राजवंश, Gupta Rājavaṃśa) was an Ancient Indian empire
which existed approximately from 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent
[1]
. Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization.[2] The
peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and
artistic endeavors[3]. This period is called the Golden Age of India[4] and was marked by
extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature,
logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is
generally known as Hindu culture[5]. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were
the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty.[6]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architectures, sculptures and
paintings[7]. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira,
Vishnu Sharma, Vatsyayana and Prashastapada who made great advancements in many
academic fields[8][9]. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta
era[10]. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as
a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Malay
Archipelago and Indochina.[11]
The earliest available Puranas are also thought to have been written around this period. The
empire gradually declined because of many factors like the substantial loss of territory and
imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories and the invasion by the Hunas from
Central Asia.[12] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled
by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after
the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king
Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Origin of the Guptas

 2 Srigupta and Ghatotkacha
 3 Chandra Gupta I
 4 Samudragupta
 5 Succession of Samudragupta
 6 Ramagupta
 7 Chandragupta II
o 7.1 Chandra Gupta II's campaigns against Foreign Tribes
 8 Kumaragupta I
 9 Umpagupta
 10 Huna invasions and the end of empire
 11 Military organization
 12 Gupta administration
 13 Legacy of the Gupta Empire
 14 Gupta dynasty rulers
 15 See also
 16 Notes
 17 References
[edit] Origin of the Guptas

Main article: Origin of the Gupta dynasty
A.S. Altekar, regarded the caste of the Guptas as Vaishya on the basis of the ancient Indian texts
on law, which prescribe the name-ending with Gupta for a member of the Vaishya caste, but this
injunction was more often disregarded than followed. A modern historian, K.P. Jayaswal
suggested that the Guptas were Jats. His argument was based on the Pune and Riddhapura copper
plate grants of Prabahvatigupta, the Vakataka regent and the daughter of Chandragupta II. In
these two inscriptions, she states that she belonged to the Dharana gotra and as it was not her
husband's gotra, it is the gotra of the Guptas. His view was endorsed by another modern
historian, Dasharatha Sharma, who added that the Jats of the Dharana gotra still exist in the
present-day Rajasthan[13] Another modern historian, H.C. Raychaudhuri, also accepted that the
Guptas belonged to the Dharana gotra. He also believed that they were possibly related to Queen
Dharini, the chief consort of Agnimitra[14][15] But the basis of these arguments, the earlier
accepted reading of the Riddhapura copper plate inscription may be incorrect and the correct
reading possibly indicates that the family of Prabhavatigupta's mother, Kuberanaga belonged to
this Dharana gotra. Recently, a historian, Ashvini Agarwal, on the basis of the matrimonial
alliances of the Guptas with the orthodox Brahman dynasties, assumed that they belong to the
Brahman caste.[13]. However, recent excavations in Nepal and Deccan has revealed that Gupta
suffix was common among Abhira kings, and Historian D. R. Regmi, links Imperial Guptas with
Abhira-Guptas of Nepal.[16]
Fa Xian was the first of the Chinese pilgrims who visited India during the reign of Chandra
Gupta II. He started his journey from China in 399 CE and reached India in 405 CE. During his
stay in India up to 411 CE, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilavastu,
Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajgriha and made careful observations about the
empire's conditions. Fa Xian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code
was mild and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a
prosperous period.
The Chinese traveler Yijing (see also Xuanzang) provides more knowledge of the Gupta
kingdom in Magadha. He came to north India in 672 CE and heard of Maharaja Sri-Gupta, who
built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no (Mrigasikhavana). According to
Yijing, this temple was "about 40 yojanas to the east of Nalanda, following the course of the
Ganga".[17]
[edit] Srigupta and Ghatotkacha

The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c. 240-280 CE. A number of modern historians,
which include Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay and K.P.Jayaswal think he and his son were possibly
feudatories of the Kushans.[18] His son and successor Ghatotkacha ruled probably from c. 280-
319 CE. In contrast to their successor, Chandragupta I, who is mentioned as Maharajadhiraja,
he and his son Ghatotkacha are referred to in inscriptions as Maharaja.[15] At the beginning of
the 5th century the Guptas established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and
around modern-day Bihar.
[edit] Chandra Gupta I

Main article: Chandragupta I
Ghatotkacha (c. 280–319 CE), had a son named Chandra Gupta. (Not to be confused with
Chandragupta Maurya (340-293 BCE), founder of the Mauryan Empire.) In a breakthrough deal,
Chandra Gupta was married to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi princess—the main power in
Magadha. With a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha (capital Pataliputra) and an alliance with
the Lichchhavis, Chandra Gupta set about expanding his power, conquering much of Magadha,
Prayaga and Saketa. He established a realm stretching from the Ganga River (Ganges River) to
Prayaga (modern-day Allahabad) by 321 CE. He assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja.
[edit] Samudragupta
Main article: Samudragupta
Samudragupta, Parakramanka succeeded his father in 335 CE, and ruled for about 45 years, till
his death in 380 CE. He took the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. He
then attacked the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras, all of
which were tribes in the area. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms
into his realm and his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the
Brahmaputra to the Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch.
Historian Vincent Smith described him as the "Indian Napoleon"[19]. He performed Ashwamedha
yajna (horse sacrifice) to underline the importance of his conquest. The stone replica of the
sacrificial horse, then prepared, is in the Lucknow Museum. The Samudragupta Prashasti
inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar, now in Akbar’s Fort at Allahabad, is an authentic record of his
exploits and his sway over most of the continent.
Samudragupta was not only a talented military leader but also a great patron of art and literature.
The important scholars present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu and Asanga. He was a
poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer in Hinduism and is known to have
worshipped Lord Vishnu. He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka's
Buddhist king Sirimeghvanna to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. That monastery was called by
Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama.[20] He provided a gold railing around the Bodhi Tree.
[edit] Succession of Samudragupta

According to A.S. Altekar, a king named Ramagupta intervened between Samudragupta and
Chandragupta II. His theory is based on a tradition that, Samudragupta's eldest son Ramagupta,
who succeeded him, was a weak ruler. After suffering a humiliating defeat at the hands of the
Sakas, he agreed to surrender his wife Dhruvadevi or Dhurvasvamini to the Saka Chief (who,
Altekar believes is Rudrasena II). But, Rama Gupta’s younger brother Chandra Gupta II,
protested against this dishonour and went to the Saka camp disguised as the queen and
assassinated the Saka Chief. After this he killed his brother Rama Gupta, married Dhruvadevi
and ascended to the throne. But this theory is not supported by any contemporary epigraphic
evidence. The earliest version of this narrative is found in the Harshacharita of Bana. The later
versions are found in a number of texts, which include the extracts of the Devichandragupta, a
historical drama of Vishakhadatta found in the Natyadarpana of Ramachandra and Gunachandra
and also in the Shringaraprakasha of Bhoja I.[21] The version of this narrative given by Bana in
his Harshacharita differs significantly from all the later versions, even the narrative known to the
author of the Kavyamimamsa (c.900). The Harshacharita only mentions that Chandragupta II,
disguised as a female, destroyed a Saka king, who coveted the wife of another, in the very city of
the enemy.[17] It does not mention anything about Ramagupta.
[edit] Ramagupta
Main article: Ramagupta
Although, the narrative of the Devichandragupta is not supported by any contemporary

epigraphical evidence, the historicity of Ramagupta is proved by his Durjanpur inscriptions on
three Jaina images, where he is mentioned as the Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper
coins also have been found from the Eran-Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types,
which include the Garuda,[22] Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends
on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[23]
[edit] Chandragupta II
Main article: Chandragupta II
According to the Gupta records, amongst his many sons,Samudragupta nominated prince
Chandra Gupta II, born of queen Dattadevi, as his successor.
Chandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya (the Sun of Power), ruled from 380 until 413. Chandra Gupta II
also married to a Kadamba princess of Kuntala region and a princess of Naga lineage
(Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was
married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Deccan.[24] His son Kumaragupta I was married to
Kadamba princess of karnatka region . Emperor Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm
westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a
campaign lasting until 409, but with his main opponent Rudrasimha III defeated by 395, and
crushing the Bengal (Vanga) chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast-to-coast,
estabilshed a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.
Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential
style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandra Gupta
II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh
serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all it was the synthesis of elements that
gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving
Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason there is also a long history of non-Hindu
Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East
and Southeast Asia. Much of advances was recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian
(Fa-hien) in his diary and published afterwards.
The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the
Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men
was the immortal Kalidasa whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not
only in his own age but in the ages to come. Kalidasa was particularly known for his fine
exploitation of the shringara (erotic) element in his verse.
[edit] Chandra Gupta II's campaigns against Foreign Tribes
 4th century AD Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having
conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign
in the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated
the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east
Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the glorious king proceeds across the Himalaya and
reduced the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc. and lands into India proper [25].
The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshmendra states, king Vikramaditya (Chandra
Gupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas,
Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas
completely" [26][27][28].
[edit] Kumaragupta I
Main article: Kumaragupta I
Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I AD (414-455) (Coin of his Western territories, design
derived from the Western Satraps).
Obv: Bust of king with crescents.[29]
Rev: Garuda standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend: Parama-bhagavata rajadhiraja Sri
Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi

Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title, Mahendraditya.[30] He ruled until 455.
Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to
threaten the empire.
[edit] Umpagupta
Main article: Skandagupta
Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the
great rulers. He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya.[31] He defeated the
Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in
India as the Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed a Huna attack c. 455, But the expense of the
wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 467 and
was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[32]
[edit] Huna invasions and the end of empire

Skandagupta was followed by weak rulers Purugupta (467-473), Kumaragupta II (473-476),
Budhagupta (476-495?), Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and
Bhanugupta. In the 480's the Hephthalite King Oprah broke through the Gupta defenses in the
northwest, and much of the empire was overrun by the Huna by 500. The empire disintegrated
under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. The Hunas conquered several
provinces of the empire, including Malwa, Gujarat and Thanesar and broke away under the rule
of local dynasties. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much
diminished, continued to resist the Hunas. Narasimhagupta formed an alliance with the
independent kingdoms to drive the Huna from most of northern India by the 530's. The
succession of the sixth-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognized ruler of
the dynasty's main line was king Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550.
[edit] Military organization

The Imperial Guptas could have achieved their successes through force of arms with an efficient
martial system. Historically, the best accounts of this comes not from the Hindus themselves but
from Chinese and Western observers. However, a contemporary Indian document, regarded as a
military classic of the time, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, offers some insight into the military system of
the Guptas. The Guptas seem to have relied heavily on infantry archers, and the bow was one of
the dominant weapons of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal,
or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. Unlike the
composite bows of Western and Central Asian foes, bows of this design would be less prone to
warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent to the region. The Indian longbow was
reputedly a powerful weapon capable of great range and penetration and provided an effective
counter to invading horse archers. Iron shafts were used against armored elephants and hippos,
and fire arrows were also part of the bowmen's arsenal. India historically has had a prominent
reputation for its steel weapons. One of these was the steel bow. Due to its high tensility, the
steel bow was capable of long range and penetration of exceptionally thick armor. These were
less common weapons than the bamboo design and found in the hands of noblemen rather than in
the ranks. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and
longswords.
The Guptas also had knowledge of siegecraft, catapults, and other sophisticated war machines.
The Guptas apparently showed little predilection for using horse archers, despite the fact these
warriors were a main component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian, and Hepthalite (Huna)
enemies. However, the Gupta armies were probably better disciplined. Able commanders like
Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would have likely understood the need for combined armed
tactics and proper logistical organization. Gupta military success likely stemmed from the
concerted use of elephants, armored cavalry, and foot archers in tandem against both Hindu
kingdoms and foreign armies invading from the Northwest. The Guptas also maintained a navy,
allowing them to control regional waters.
The collapse of the Gupta Empire in the face of the Huna onslaught was due not directly to the
inherent defects of the Gupta army, which after all had initially defeated these people under
Skandagupta. More likely, internal dissolution sapped the ability of the Guptas to resist foreign
invasion, as was simultaneously occurring in Western Europe and China.
[edit] Gupta administration

A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of
administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as
Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided in to 26 provinces, which
were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put
under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of
the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives:
Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya
was called Vithi.[33]
[edit] Legacy of the Gupta Empire

Scholars of this period include Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to come up with the
concept of zero, postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and
lunar eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala, which
is said to have inspired Goethe, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to
have belonged to this period.
The flow of invasions from the Huns from central Asia aided in accelerating the demise of the
glorious Gupta dynasty rule in India, although the effects of its fall was far less devastating than
that of the Han or Roman at the same time. According to historian's work,
The Gupta Empire is considered by many scholars to be the "classical age" of Hindu and
“ Buddhist art and literature. The Rulers of the Gupta Empire were strong supporters of
developments in the arts, architecture, science, and literature. The Gupta Empire circulated
a large number of gold coins, called dinars, and supported the Universities of Nalanda and
Vikramasila. ”
Chess is said to have originated in this period,[34] where its early form in the 6th century was
known as caturaṅga, which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – infantry, cavalry,
elephants, and chariotry - represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn,
knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and
even performed operations. The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral
systems in the world originated from Gupta India. The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra is widely
considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature written by the
Indian scholar Vatsyayana. Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period
proposed that the earth is not flat, but is instead round and rotates about its own axis. He also
discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing
cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he
explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. These and the other
scientific discoveries made by Indians during this period about gravity and the planets of the
solar system spread throughout the world through trade.
[edit] Gupta dynasty rulers

The main branch of the Gupta dynasty ruled the Gupta Empire in India, from around 320 to 550.
This dynasty was founded by Srigupta. The rulers are:
 Srigupta
 Ghatotkacha
 Chandragupta I
 Samudragupta
 Ramagupta
 Chandragupta II
 Kumaragupta I
 Skandagupta
 Purugupta
 Kumaragupta II
 Budhagupta
 Narasimhagupta Baladitya
 Kumaragupta III
 Vishnugupta
 Vainyagupta
 Bhanugupta

The Vedic Period

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The Vedic Period

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The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred

[edit] Rigvedic period

[edit] Political organization

[edit] Society and economy

The swastika is a major Hindu iconic symbol.

[edit] The later Vedic period

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Alternate names: bhopal

Historical date: 599 – 527 BCE

Mother: Trishala (Priyakarni)

Birth: Kundalagrama near Vaishali

Age At Death: 72 years old

[edit] Early years

[edit] Spiritual pursuit

India at the time of Mahavira

[edit] Later years

[edit] Previous births

 Nonviolence (Ahimsa) - to cause no harm to any living being;

Replica of Pavapuri temple at Pansara. Mahavira attained Nirvana at

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Siddhārtha Gautama Buddha

c. 563 BCE or 623 BCE

c. 483 BCE or 543 BCE (aged 80)

Known for Founder of Buddhism

Predecessor Kassapa Buddha

Successor Maitreya Buddha

Four Noble Truths

Conception and birth

Early life and marriage

Departure and Ascetic Life

Formation of the sangha

Painting of the first sermon depicted at Wat Chedi Liem in Thailand.

Travels and teaching

Devadatta tries to attack the Buddha. Picture of a wallpainting in a Laotian monastery.

The sharing of the relics of the Buddha, Zenyōmitsu-Temple Museum, Tokyo

Not to be confused for the Laughing Buddha.

Some of the fundamentals of the teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha are:

Plate showing Mahavira accepting Alms

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The Maurya Dynasty at its largest extent under

Old Indic (Sanskrit,

Government Absolute Monarchy as

- 320–298 BCE Chandragupta Maurya

- 187–180 BCE Brhadrata

Historical era Antiquity

 1 Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya

Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya

Main articles: Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda Dynasty, and Magadha

The Maurya Empire

Ashoka the Great

Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration at Pataliputra,

Main article: Bindusara

Main article: Ashoka the Great

Statuettes of the Maurya

Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260-218 BCE).

Natural history in the times of the Mauryas

Our king killed very few animals.

—Edict on Fifth Pillar

Contacts with the Hellenistic world

Mauryan Statuette, 2nd Century BCE.

Foundation of the Empire

Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)

Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)