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INTRODUCTION
History
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creating digital projects by non-engineers. The Wiring platform consisted of
a printed circuit board (PCB) with an ATmega168 microcontroller, an IDE based
on Processing and library functions to easily program the microcontroller.
In 2005, Massimo Banzi, with David Mellis, another IDII student, and
David Cuartielles, added support for the cheaper ATmega8 microcontroller to
Wiring. But instead of continuing the work on Wiring, they copied the Wiring
source code and renamed it as a separate project, called Arduino.
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HARDWARE
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Although the hardware and software designs are freely available
under copyleft licenses, the developers have requested that the
name Arduino be exclusive to the official product and not be used for derived
works without permission. The official policy document on use of the Arduino
name emphasizes that the project is open to incorporating work by others into the
official product. Several Arduino-compatible products commercially released have
avoided the project name by using various names ending in -duino.
since 2015. The boards use single-row pins or female headers that facilitate
connections for programming and incorporation into other circuits. These may
connect with add-on modules termed shields. Multiple, and possibly stacked
shields may be individually addressable via an I C serial bus. Most boards include
a 5V linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator. Some
designs, such as the LilyPad, run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage
regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.
The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use
by other circuits. The Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14 digital
I/O pins, six of which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog
inputs, which can also be used as six digital I/O pins. These pins are on the top of
the board, via female 0.1-inch (2.54 mm) headers. Several plug-in application
shields are also commercially available. The Arduino Nano, and Arduino-
compatible Bare Bones Board and Boarduino boards may provide male header pins
on the underside of the board that can plug into solderless breadboards.
Official boards
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Software development
The Arduino IDE supports the languages C and C++ using special
rules of code structuring. The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from
the Wiring project, which provides many common input and output procedures.
User-written code only requires two basic functions, for starting the sketch and the
main program loop, that are compiled and linked with a program stub main() into
an executable cyclic executive program with the GNU toolchain, also included
with the IDE distribution. The Arduino IDE employs the program avrdude to
convert the executable code into a text file in hexadecimal encoding that is loaded
into the Arduino board by a loader program in the board's firmware.
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Applications
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TECHNICAL SPECS
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CHAPTER 2
Programming
The Arduino/Genuino Uno can be programmed with the
(Arduino Software (IDE)). Select "Arduino/Genuino Uno from the Tools > Board
menu (according to the microcontroller on your board). For details, see
the reference and tutorials.
You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the
ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header using Arduino ISP or similar;
see these instructions for details.
The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware
source code is available in the Arduino repository. The ATmega16U2/8U2 is
loaded with a DFU bootloader, which can be activated by:
On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near the
map of Italy) and then rese ing the 8U2.
On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB line to
ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode.
You can then use Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU
programmer (Mac OS X and Linux) to load a new firmware. Or you can use the
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ISP header with an external programmer (overwriting the DFU bootloader).
See this user-contributed tutorial for more information.
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Warnings
The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the
FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2
up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.
Power
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The power pins areas as follows:
Vin. The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it's using an external
power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated
power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage
via the power jack, access it through this pin.
5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can
be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB
connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V
or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise
it.
3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current
draw is 50 mA.
GND. Ground pins.
IOREF. This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage reference
with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the
IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage
translators on the outputs to work with the 5V or 3.3V.
Memory
See the mapping between Arduino pins and ATmega328P ports. The
mapping for the Atmega8, 168, and 328 is identical.
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Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts.
Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as recommended operating condition and
has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50k ohm. A
maximum of 40mA is the value that must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid
permanent damage to the microcontroller.
Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial
data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-
to-TTL Serial chip.
External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on
a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt()
function for details.
PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite()
function.
SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI
communication using the SPI library.
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH
value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the
Wire library.
The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide
10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from
ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using
the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
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There are a couple of other pins on the board:
AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a
reset button to shields which block the one on the board.
Communication
Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload,
the Arduino/Genuino Uno board is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by
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software running on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines
(DTR) of the ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328
via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line
drops long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino Software (IDE) uses this
capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing the upload button in the
interface toolbar. This means that the bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the
lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload.
This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a computer
running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from
software (via USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running
on the Uno. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything
besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to
the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board receives
one-time configuration or other data when it first starts, make sure that the
software with which it communicates waits a second after opening the connection
and before sending this data.
The Uno board contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset.
The pads on either side of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's
labeled "RESET-EN". You may also be able to disable the auto-reset by
connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this forum thread for
details
Revisions
1.0 pinout: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other
new pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt
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to the voltage provided from the board. In future, shields will be compatible with
both the board that uses the AVR, which operates with 5V and with the Arduino
Due that operates with 3.3V. The second one is a not connected pin, that is
reserved for future purposes.
Stronger RESET circuit.
At mega 16U2 replace the 8U2.
General Description:
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The LM324 series consists of four independent, high gains; internally
frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to
operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from
split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is
independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.
Unique Characteristics
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from only a single power supply voltage. The unity gain cross frequency is
temperature compensated. The input bias current is also temperature compensated
Advantages
3. Allows directly sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND
Features
4. Wide power supply range: Single supply 3V to 32V or dual supplies ±1.5V to
±16V
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9. Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
DESCRIPTION:
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resulting forward diode within the IC could cause fusing of the internal conductors
and result in a destroyed unit. Large differential input voltages can be easily
accommodated and, as input differential voltage protection diodes are not needed,
no large input currents result from large differential input voltages. The differential
input voltage may be larger than V+ without damaging the device. Protection
should be provided to prevent the input voltages from going negative more than
−0.3 VDC (at 25°C). An input clamp diode with a resistor to the IC input terminal
can be used.
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load is capacitive coupled to the output of the amplifier, a resistor should be used,
from the output of the amplifier to ground to increase the class a bias current and
prevent crossover distortion. Where the load is directly coupled, as in dc
applications, there is no crossover distortion. Capacitive loads which are applied
directly to the output of the amplifier reduce the loop stability margin. Values of 50
pF can be accommodated using the worst-case non inverting unity gain connection.
Large closed loop gains or resistive isolation should be used if larger load
capacitance must be driven by the amplifier.
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LM124/LM224/LM324/LM2902
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The circuits presented in the section on typical applications
emphasize operation on only a single power supply voltage. If complementary
power supplies are available, all of the standard op amp circuits can be used. In
general, introducing a pseudo-ground (a bias voltage reference of V+/2) will allow
operation above and below this value in single power supply systems. Many
application circuits are shown which take advantage of the wide input common-
mode voltage range which includes ground. In most cases, input biasing is not
required and input voltages which range to ground can easily be accommodated.
Features:
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Very low supply current drain (500 µA)-essentially independent of supply
voltage
Power drain suitable for battery operation
Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
PIN description:
PIN 4: GND
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Parametric table:
Channels 2 Channels
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CHAPTER 3
RELAYS
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Types of relays:
1. Simple electromechanical relay:
A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the
first picture, is an adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire
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surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance path
for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in
the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to a
moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is
de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the
two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other
relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The
relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This
ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and
the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered
to the PCB.
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voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current
application, this is to reduce arcing.
2. Latching relay
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contact arm, seen edge-on just below it. The moving and fixed contacts are visible
at the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi stable). These are also
called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the
relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet
and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over-center spring or
permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is
relaxed, or with a remnant core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to
the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example,
a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay
off. This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant,
while it is being switched, and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A
remnant core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it
change state.
3. Reed relay
A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled
glass tube, which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts
are closed by a magnetic field generated when current passes through a coil around
the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of faster switching speeds than larger types
of relays, but have low switch current and voltage ratings.
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4. Mercury-wetted relay
5. Polarized relay
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such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC)
mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
7. Contactor relay
8. Solid-state relay
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A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that
provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any
moving components, increasing long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the
tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across it.
This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle. As
transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes,
have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they
may be falsely triggered by transients.
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11. Forced-guided contacts relay
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Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT
types.
Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to
relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be
thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:
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The following designations are commonly encountered:
SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be
connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four
terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or
normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used
to resolve the ambiguity.
SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either
of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in
total.
DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals.
Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The poles
may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over
terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single
coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.
Applications of Relays:
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Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening
and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at
different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device
from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control office
lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions, which may
be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room
occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
Logic functions. For example, the Boolean AND function is realized by
connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by
connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C
contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for
NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The
Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.
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o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were
used as logical elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer),
Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than
semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-
critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling
machinery.
Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay
closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would
use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current
flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening
release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used.
A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The
time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For
longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.
Advantages of relays:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
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Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Relay Driver:
The current needed to operate the relay coil is more than can be supplied by
most chips (op. amps etc), so a transistor is usually needed, as shown in the
diagram below.
Use BC109C or similar. A resistor of about 4k7 will probably be alright. The
diode is needed to short circuit the high voltage “back emf” induced when current
flowing through the coil is suddenly switched off.
LCD Background:
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microcontrollers are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by
2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.
Pin description
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module
Pin no. 6 EN Enable signal
Pin no. 7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Pin no. 8 D1 Data bus line 1
Pin no. 9 D2 Data bus line 2
Pin no. 10 D3 Data bus line 3
Pin no. 11 D4 Data bus line 4
Pin no. 12 D5 Data bus line 5
Pin no. 13 D6 Data bus line 6
Pin no. 14 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)
The LCD requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for
the data bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data
bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7
data lines (3 control lines plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is
used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines
for the data bus). The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.
The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD
that we are sending it data. To send data to the LCD, our program should make
sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on
the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and
wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies
from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.
The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to
be treated as a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position
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cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which should be
displayed on the screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen we
would set RS high.
The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RSW is low (0), the
information on the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the
program is effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get
LCD status") is a read command. All others are write commands--so RW will
almost always be low.
Schematic:
Circuit Description:
Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and
Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open
collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up
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resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K
external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider range of
computers, some of which may have no internal pull up resistors.
We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore
we hard wire the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no
bus conflicts on the data lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD's internal
Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last
instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known delays into our program.
The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing
fancy here. As with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. We can use a
bench power supply set to 5v or use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-
coupling capacitors, especially if we have trouble with the circuit working
properly.
SETB RW
As we mentioned above, the EN line is used to tell the LCD that we are
ready for it to execute an instruction that we've prepared on the data bus and on the
other control lines. Note that the EN line must be raised/ lowered before/after each
instruction sent to the LCD regardless of whether that instruction is read or write
text or instruction. In short, we must always manipulate EN when communicating
with the LCD. EN is the LCD's way of knowing that we are talking to it. If we
don't raise/lower EN, the LCD doesn't know we're talking to it on the other lines.
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Thus, before we interact in any way with the LCD we will always bring the
EN line low with the following instruction:
CLR EN
And once we've finished setting up our instruction with the other control
lines and data bus lines, we'll always bring this line high:
SETBEN
This is normally on the order of about 250 nanoseconds, but checks the
datasheet. In the case of a typical microcontroller running at 12 MHz, an
instruction requires 1.08 microseconds to execute so the EN line can be brought
low the very next instruction. However, faster microcontrollers (such as the
DS89C420 which executes an instruction in 90 nanoseconds given an 11.0592
MHz crystal) will require a number of NOPs to create a delay while EN is held
high. The number of NOPs that must be inserted depends on the microcontroller
we are using and the crystal we have selected.
While it is possible to write code that waits for a specific amount of time to
allow the LCD to execute instructions, this method of "waiting" is not very
flexible. If the crystal frequency is changed, the software will need to be modified.
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A more robust method of programming is to use the "Get LCD Status" command
to determine whether the LCD is still busy executing the last instruction received.
Applications:
Medical equipment
Electronic test equipment
Industrial machinery Interface
Serial terminal
Advertising system
EPOS
Restaurant ordering systems
Gaming box
Security systems
R&D Test units
Climatizing units
PLC Interface
Simulators
Environmental monitoring
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Lab development
Student projects
Home automation
PC external display
HMI operator interface.
3.3 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:
3.3.1 Introduction:
Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage,
typically involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-
voltage DC for electronic devices. Low voltage, low power DC power supply
units are commonly integrated with the devices they supply, such
as computers and household electronics.
Batteries.
Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.
Solar power.
Generators or alternators.
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.3.2 Block Diagram
230V AC MAINS
TRANSFORMER
BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
RESISTOR
LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
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The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is
as follows:
Transformers:
If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the
coil. If the current is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.
If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field
moves out or in, the moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil.
As it does this, a voltage is induced in the second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains
supply, this will happen 50 times a second. This is called MUTUAL INDUCTION
and forms the basis of the transformer.
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The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the
SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.
For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the
secondary will have half the primary voltage.
Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary
has 500 turns, then the turn’s ratio is 10:1.
If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10
smaller = 24 volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the
primary must equal the power taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp
is connected across a 24 volt secondary, then the primary must supply 24 watts.
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made up from metal sheets insulated from each other. Transformers to work at
higher frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.
Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly
changing current and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a steady
field and there would be no induction.
Step Up transformer:
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A battery consists of multiple electrochemical cells connected to provide the
voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.5 shows Hi-Watt 9V battery
The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell
battery. Dry-cell batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of
electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate alternately until the desired total voltage is
achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have one of the following voltages:
1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbon-zinc battery, the
zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and magnesium dioxide is
reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of approximately
1.5 V.
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service life. During the charging process, nickel oxide is oxidized to its higher
oxidation state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-cadmium batteries have
many benefits. They can be stored both charged and uncharged. They have a long
service life, high current availabilities, constant voltage, and the ability to be
recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.
Rectification:
Rectifiers:
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When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative
or positive portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the
term rectifier is merely one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is
being used to convert AC to DC. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes
in a specific arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to DC than is possible
with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers,
vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and
D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting
diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows
through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4
conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will
be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in
the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is
converted into a unidirectional wave.
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Input Output
DB107:
Features:
Filtration:
Filters:
Introduction to Capacitors:
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opposite negative charge this flow of electrons to the plates is known as
the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and
hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor
is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below. The construction of
capacitor and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in figures 3.3.9 and 3.3.10
respectively.
Units of Capacitance:
Operation of Capacitor:
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Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as
being a storage tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show
approximately how an electronic capacitor works.
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Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the
effect is to "smooth out ripples". Any ripples,
waves or pulses of current are passed to ground
while d.c. Flows smoothly.
Regulation:
Voltage Regulator:
It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You
cannot use a 12V regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are
very robust. These can withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and also
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over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off before any damage occurs.
The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input. Reverse
polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.11 shows voltage
regulator.
RESISTORS
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity
alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
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resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted
current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is
determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
Theory of operation:
Ohm's law:
V = IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional
to the current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance
(R).
Power dissipation:
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Fig 3.3.12: Resistor Fig 3.3.13: Color Bands In
Resistor
3.4. LED:
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Fig 3.4.1: Inside a LED Fig 3.4.2: Parts of LED
Working:
The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the
light bulb. Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-
emitting semiconductor material is what determines the LED's color. The LED is
based on the semiconductor diode.
The electrical symbol and polarities of led are shown in fig: 3.4.3.
Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the
LED to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response
of these objects.
Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not
involve the human visual system.
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