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Abstract: Over the decades there have been several papers on the coloration of
cotton-based textiles. The number of articles dealing with the processing of cotton,
including preparation, dyeing, and finishing, may be in the thousands. An
investigation of the possible causes of problems occurring in the coloration of
textiles revealed that a comprehensive review of case studies and scientific
analysis would be a welcome addition to the already rich pool of knowledge in
this area.
Key words: Cotton, troubleshooting, pretreatment, dyeing, dyes, colorants.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cotton is the backbone of the world’s textile trade [1]. It has many qualities [2] and
countless end uses [3], which make it one of the most abundantly used textile fibres
in the world [4]. It is a seed hair of plant of genus Gossypium [5], the purest form of
cellulose found in nature. However, cotton is one of the most problematic fibres as far
as its general wet processing or dyeing is concerned. Quite frequently, the problems
in dyed cotton materials are not due to the actual dyeing process but due to some
latent defects introduced from previous production and processing stages. Often, the
root-cause(s) of a problem in the dyed material can be traced as far back as to the
cotton field. This monograph will address problems in the dyeing of cotton textile
materials in various forms. An overview of various textile operations for cotton will
be given in the beginning. Then, various key stages and factors involved in the
production of dyed cotton textile materials will be described in detail and problems
originating at each stage will be summarised.
Raw Cotton
Yarn
Fibre Preparation Formation
Spinning
Warping
Fabric
Sizing Knitting Formation
Weaving
Preparation
Wet
Printing Dyeing Processing
Finishing
Cutting
Fabrication
Cleaning
Warping
Blending
Carding
Knitting
Sizing
(Weft or Warp)
Combing
Drawing Weaving
Drafting
Spinning Fabric
these steps may be optional, depending on the type of yarn and spinning equipment
used.
The major methods for fabric manufacture are weaving and knitting, although
recently nonwoven constructions have become more popular. Before weaving, warp
yarns are first wound on large spools, or cones, which are placed on a rack called a
creel. From the creel, warp yarns are wound on a beam wherefrom they are passed
through a process known as sizing or slashing. The size solution forms a coating that
protects the yarns against snagging or abrasion during weaving. Fabrics are formed
from weaving by interlacing one set of yarns with another set oriented crosswise. In
the weaving operation, the lengthwise yarns that form the basic structure of the fabric
are called the warp and the crosswise yarns are called the filling, also referred to as
the weft [8, 9]. Knitted fabrics may be constructed by using hooked needles to
interlock one or more sets of yarns through a set of loops. The loops may be either
loosely or closely constructed, depending on the purpose of the fabric. Knitting is
performed using either weft or warp knitting processes [10].
Woven and knitted fabrics cannot usually be processed into apparel and other
finished goods until the fabrics have passed through several water-intensive wet
processing stages. Wet processing enhances the appearance, durability and serviceability
of fabrics by converting undyed and unfinished goods, known as grey or greige
goods, into finished consumers’ goods. Various stages of wet processing, shown in
Fig. 3, involve treating greige goods with chemical baths and often additional washing,
rinsing and drying steps [11]. Some of these stages may be optional, depending on
the style of fabric being manufactured or whether the material being wet-processed
is a yarn, or a knitted or woven fabric.
Some of the key steps in the treatment of cotton material include singeing, desizing,
scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, as well as dyeing and finishing.
Singeing
Desizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Mercerising
Dyeing Printing
Mechanical
Finishing
Chemical Finished
Finishing Fabric
Singeing is a dry process that removes fibres protruding from yarns or fabrics.
Desizing is a wet process that removes the sizing material applied to the warp yarns
before weaving. Scouring is a cleaning process that removes impurities from fibres,
yarns or cloth through washing, usually with alkaline solutions. Bleaching is a chemical
process that decolourizes coloured impurities that are not removed by scouring and
prepares the cloth for further finishing processes such as dyeing or printing.
Mercerization is a chemical process to increase dyeability, lustre and appearance.
Dyeing operations are used at various stages of production to add colour to textiles
and increase product value. Dyeing can be performed using batch or continuous
processes. Common methods of batch or exhaust dyeing include package, beam,
beck, winch, jet and jig processing. Continuous dyeing processes typically consist of
dye application, dye fixation with chemicals or heat, and washing. Dyeing processes
may take place at any of several stages of the manufacturing process (fibres, yarn,
piece-dyeing). Stock dyeing is used to dye fibres; yarn dyeing is used to dye yarn;
and piece/fabric dyeing is done after the yarn has been constructed into fabric. Printing
is a localized or patternised coloration of the fabrics. Fabrics are printed with colour
and patterns using a variety of techniques and machine types. Finishing encompasses
chemical or mechanical treatments performed on fibre, yarn or fabric to improve
appearance, texture, or performance.
the yarn behind it, is not properly penetrated during dyeing, a light spot will be seen
when the clump changes its position. The third type is the classic case of the clump
of immature or dead fibres not dyeing to the same depth as the surrounding material.
The coverage of immature cotton depends upon the following factors:
Fibre preparation: There are several stages in the fibre preparation where an
attempt can be made to decrease the amount of neps of the immature and/or dead
fibres that are usually clumped together [17]. It is important to try to remove these
clumps prior to the carding process. Once past the main cylinder of the card, the
clumped fibres go into the subsequently formed yarn and the fabric.
Preparation sequence: The preparation sequence has little, if any, impact on the
coverage of immature cotton. Only pre-treatments that swell the cell wall, giving
it greater thickness, are effective in improving the dyeability of immature cotton.
Swelling pre-treatment: Treatment with swelling agents at optimum concentration
(e.g. caustic soda with a 14% or greater concentration) is effective in swelling the
secondary wall of immature cotton, and improving its dyeing affinity. On the other
hand, dead cotton lacks the necessary cell-wall thickness to be effectively treated
by any type of swelling pre-treatment system.
Dye selection: Dyes vary widely in their ability to effectively eliminate the white
or off-shade specks. It is recommended that dye suppliers be consulted for data on
the immature cotton coverage capabilities of specific dyes. Since caustic pre-
treatment is ineffective in eliminating white or off-shade specks caused by dead
cotton, dye selection is the best alternative in this case. Although the exact mechanisms
are unknown, one theory is that dyes that cover dead cotton are those which do not
penetrate into the cellulose of the fibre (the core) but are deposited mainly in the
outside layer. This gives the dead fibre a ‘coloured’ skin.
After-treatments: Swelling treatments such as mercerization or ammonia treatment
may be effective after dyeing, as well as before, if the problem is the presence of
reflective surfaces and not a genuine difference in dye uptake by the immature
cotton. However, such a procedure is justified only in extreme cases, as there is an
inevitable change of shade even when the fabric is dyed with dyes that are resistant
to strong alkalis.
Cellulose 88.0–96.0
Pectins 0.7–1.2
Wax 0.4–1.0
Proteins 1.1–1.9
Ash 0.7–1.6
Other organic compounds 0.5–1.0
chemicals, pesticides and fertilizers; as well as harvesting techniques [20]. For the
dyer, the elements that pose the greatest threat are alkaline earth and heavy metal
contaminants such as calcium, magnesium, manganese, and iron. Depending on its
origin, raw cotton can exhibit widely different contents of alkaline earth and heavy
metal ions. Table 2 gives an example of the metal content of cotton having different
origins [21].
Table 2 Metal Content of Cotton of Different Origins
Levels of fats, oils and waxes present in cotton can be reduced to acceptable limits by
the action of alkali and surface-active products. In extreme cases, the use of solvent
and surface active mixtures may be necessary [22]. Pectins and the related substances
can be rendered soluble by the action of alkali, usually caustic soda, which also acts
as a swelling agent. Amino acids are also rendered soluble in the presence of alkali
by producing the corresponding sodium salts. Metals, however, cannot be adequately
removed by conventional alkaline processes since, in an alkaline medium, sequestering
agents cannot quantitatively separate the minerals of a complex structure containing
heavy metals. Moreover, in the alkaline pH region, cellulose swells rapidly and
strongly, thus impairing the transport of crystalline minerals from the core to the
periphery of the fibre. Demineralisation with organic or inorganic acid is more effective
as compared to the alkaline treatment process. However, regardless of the efficacy of
an acid treatment, the use of organic or inorganic acids for the demineralisation of
cellulosic fibres involves a number of disadvantages such as corrosion of machine
parts, difficulties in handling, and risk of fibre damage with strong inorganic acids,
while organic acids give lower demineralisation and are more volatile.
Speciality products based upon strongly acidic sequestering agents or a mixture of
sequestering agents with organic buffer systems are recently being used for
demineralisation of cotton. These products offer numerous advantages over conventional
acids such as hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid. Some of the advantages are given
as follows:
• No corrosion
• No steam volatility
• No unpleasant odour
• Prevention of dissolved metal ions from re-precipitating
• Synergy with surfactants, improving the washing effect, dispersion power and
soil suspension capacity
• Lower ash content
• Improved degree of whiteness
• No fibre damage
However, with such an intensive demineralisation treatment, care must be taken that
magnesium ions are added in subsequent peroxide bleaches, in order to avoid fibre
damage in the bleach owing to insufficient stabilisation of hydrogen peroxide [23].
2.4 Effect of Cotton Colour Grade on the Colour Yield of Dyed Goods
The difference in the colour yield of cotton of different original colour grades, when
dyed after scouring and bleaching, is so small as to be explicable by experimental
variation [24].
A summary of dyeing problems originating from cotton fibre is given in Appendix
A.
• Thin places
• Weak places
• Count variation
• Hairiness
• Dyeability variations [27–30]
The main causes of the dyeability variations in yarn are:
• Immature fibres
• Dead fibres
• Vegetable matter or other foreign matter
• Wrong twist
• Bad splice
• Neps
• Count variations
system used. The winding angle remains the same in random winding. In precision
winding there is a decreasing winding angle, and in digital step winding each layer
has a slightly different angle from the previous one.
An important consideration in any package dyeing operation is the type of carrier
on which the yarn package is wound. A wide range of designs and materials has been
used as support media (dye tubes) for packages. Rockets, cones, springs, plastic
tubes and non-woven fabric centres have all found favour in certain regards. Each
system has its advantages and disadvantages. Ultimately, the decision lies with the
individual users based on the particular requirements of their businesses and the
circumstances in use [39].
The use of large diameter tubes is said to offer improved quality at no reduction
in productivity. Since the larger tube can hold an equivalent amount of yarn with less
yarn thickness, lower flow and reduced pressure create less yarn disturbance and
deliver a high quality product [40, 41].
Winding density is one of the most important package characteristics that affect
the quality of the dyed package [42–46]. Package density highly influences the flow
of dye liquor through the package and the exchange between dye liquor and the yarn.
As a result, density significantly affects the depth of shade and levelness of dyed
yarn. Uniform package density is essential to producing a perfect dyeing. Fluctuations
in winding density of ± 3% are regarded as very low, whereas differences of ± 5% to
8% are considered to be within the normal range [47]. If the package is too soft,
channelling of the dye liquor will result and ballooning may occur. Soft packages
also tend to have excessive yarn shifts when the dye liquor is forced through the
package, making subsequent operations, such as back-winding, more difficult because
the yarn tangles. If the package is too hard or dense, liquor circulation will be
restricted through the package and cause un-dyed spots where yarns cross over one
another. Higher winding densities within the area adjacent to the dyeing tube may
inhibit uniform dyeing conditions in all sectors of the yarn bobbin [48]. The higher
the compactness of the package, the lower is the liquor throughput [49]. The ideal
package is of uniform density throughout. It should be of sufficiently open construction
to permit dye liquor to flow freely, yet dense enough to prevent channelling of the
liquor through more accessible places.
In addition to levelness, package density also affects the shade depth. The inner
zone density influences the shade depth the most, and the outer zone the least.
Increasing the inner zone density decreases shade depth in all areas of the package.
Increasing the middle zone density increases shade depth in both the inner and the
middle zone, but decreases the outer zone shade depth. Increasing the outer zone
density increases the outer zone shade depth and decreases the inner zone shade
depth. Package density affects the inner zone shade depth the most and the outer zone
shade depth the least. To ensure the shade levelness among packages, the same
density profile should be used for all the packages. The influence of density profiles
on the levelness and the shade depth is eventually due to their effect on liquor flow
between and through the yarns. This indicates that the control of the dye liquor flow
is the most important factor in the success of package dyeing. The factors affecting
the density of the package, when surface winding, are different from those that
govern it in precision winding. The yarn supply and its position, speed of winding,
winding tension, and the pressure of the package on the winding drum all play an
important role in the build-up of the package, and various devices are available for
adjusting their effects in order to increase the possibility of producing packages that
are regular and even in density [50].
The shape of the package also has some influence on the pattern of the liquor flow.
Cheese-shaped packages of regular construction are shown to be ideally suited to
uniform liquor flow. Cones have certain disadvantages as compared to cylindrical
cheeses [51]. Parallel-sided packages are preferred on technical grounds, particularly
with regard to levelness [52]. In the case of cones, it has been found that at the centre
of the package the density is greater and more irregular than in the outer layers. In
contrast, the distribution of pressure in cheeses is more uniform. As the liquor flows
through the cones, an impact pressure builds up in the interior of the package, causing
the ends of the cones to bulge. The result is that the liquor cannot penetrate these
areas properly. Moreover, residual dyestuff is deposited in the area around the spacers,
as is sand and other suspended matter.
According to the maximum flow rate that can be achieved during the dyeing
process, there are three types of yarn package properties [53]: dyeable at low flow
rate, dyeable at medium flow rate and dyeable at high flow rate. Each type of package
has a particular flow-rate limit, above which it is not possible to work without
causing deformation, water channels and consequently all the associated defects.
Other factors that contribute to proper winding are as follows:
• Supply package quality
• Yarn delivery
• Tensioning device
• Winding speed
• Soft edges
• Package build
• Package holder pressure control
• Number of packages per spindle
A summary of problems caused by poor package winding is given in Appendix B.
In scouring processes, calcium and magnesium ions (water hardness) cause the
most problems. These ions will precipitate soaps, forming a sticky insoluble substance
which deposits on the substrate. Such deposits impair the fabric handle, cause resist
in dyeing, attract soil to the material and cause inconsistent absorbency in subsequent
processes. Although most synthetic detergents used in scouring today do not precipitate
in the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, the fatty acid hydrolysis products
formed by the saponification of natural waxes, fats, and oils in the fibres will precipitate.
The formation of complexes with alkaline and alkaline earth salts drastically reduces
the solubility and the rate of dissolution of surfactants, thus impairing the wash
removal ability of the surfactants [71]. It is, therefore, imperative to use soft water in
the scouring process.
Bleaching with hydrogen peroxide is greatly affected, even by trace quantities of
metal ions in the water. The transition metal ions such as iron, copper, manganese,
zinc, nickel, cobalt and chromium catalyze decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
[72]. The decomposition is so rapid that it frequently occurs before any significant
bleaching can occur. In addition, the decomposition products attack cotton fibres
leading to their degradation. Bleaching baths containing these ions will therefore
lead to reduction in whiteness and high loss in fibre strength, as well as an increase
in fluidity. The alkaline earth metal (magnesium), on the other hand, produces beneficial
effects when present in peroxide bleaching solutions. These ions increase the stability
of hydrogen peroxide under alkaline bleaching conditions, and as a result increased
whiteness and less fibre degradation is obtained. Electrolytes of other metals may
have a harmful effect [73].
other residual flocking agents left over from water treatment, from organic contaminants,
from metal hydroxides (copper and iron), or from fatty acid/hardness metal complexes.
Generally, the stiffness of textile material dried after rinsing is greater, the higher the
solids content of the rinsing water [75].
In order to avoid the problems outlined above, water for textile processing has to
meet fairly stringent demands [76, 77]. The main requirements are as follows:
• Freedom from suspended solids and from substances that can give staining in
processing
• No great excess of acid or alkali
• Freedom from substances affecting the textile processes, such as iron, manganese,
Calcium or magnesium salts, and heavy metals
• Non-corrosiveness to tanks and pipelines, and
• Freedom from substances that give rise to foaming or unpleasant odour
Table 4 gives a summary of the requirements that the processing water has to meet
[32].
Colour Colourless
Smell Odourless
pH value Neutral pH 7–8
Water hardness < 5 °dH (6.25°eH; 8.95°fH; 5.2 USA)
Dissolved solids < 1 mg/l
Solid deposits < 50 mg/l
Organic substances < 20 mg/l (KMnO4 consumption)
Inorganic salts < 500 mg/l
Iron (Fe) < 0.1 mg/l
Manganese (Mn) < 0.02 mg/l
Copper (Cu) < 0.005 mg/l
Nitrate ( NO 1–
3 ) < 50 mg/l
Nitrite ( NO 1–
2 ) < 5 mg/l
Table 5 gives the limits of impurities acceptable in water for steam boilers.
7. PROBLEMS IN SINGEING
Textiles are singed in order to improve their surface appearance and wearing properties
[84]. The burning-off of protruding fibre-ends which are not firmly bound in the
yarn, results in a clean surface which allows the structure of the fabric to be clearly
seen. Unsinged fabrics soil more easily than singed fabrics. The risk of cloudy dyeings
(a defect consisting of random, faintly defined uneven dyeing) with singed piece-
dyed articles in dark shades is considerably reduced, as randomly protruding fibres
cause a diffused reflection of light. Although cotton textile materials can be singed in
yarn [85], and knitted [86–88] as well as woven forms [84], singeing of woven
fabrics is much more common as compared to other forms. Two main methods of
singeing are direct flame singeing and indirect flame singeing [89].
There are singeing faults that are optically demonstrable and are quite easily
remedied during the actual working process. On the other hand there are singeing
faults that are not visible until after dyeing and that can no longer be repaired once
they have occurred.
A summary of problems in the singeing of woven fabrics is given in Appendix D.
8. PROBLEMS IN DESIZING
Sizing has been considered as an ‘invention of the devil’ by some dyers and finishers
because it is the main source of many processing problems [90, 91]. Warp yarns are
coated with sizing agents prior to weaving in order to reduce their frictional properties,
decrease yarn breakages on the loom and improve weaving productivity by increasing
weft insertion speeds. The sizing agents are macromolecular, film-forming and fibre
bonding substances, which can be divided into two main types [92]: natural sizing
agents which include native and degraded starch and starch derivatives, cellulose
derivatives and protein sizes; and synthetic sizes which include polyvinyl alcohols,
polyacrylates and styrene–maleic acid copolymers. Starch-based sizing agents are
most commonly used for cotton yarns because of being economical and capable of
giving satisfactory weaving performance. Other products are also used, either alone
or in combination with starch sizes, when the higher cost can be off-set by improved
weaving efficiency. Some auxiliaries are also used in sizing for various functions and
include softening agents, lubricating agents, wetting agents, moistening agents, size
degrading agents, and fungicides. The desizing procedure depends on the type of
size. It is therefore necessary to know what type of size is on the fabric before
desizing. This can easily be determined by appropriate spot tests [93].
The sizing material present on warp yarns can act as a resist towards dyes and
chemicals in textile wet processing. It must therefore be removed before any subsequent
wet processing of the fabric. The factors on which the efficiency of size removal
depends are as follows:
• Viscosity of the size in solution
• Ease of dissolution of the size film on the yarn
• Amount of size applied
• Nature and the amount of the plasticizers
• Fabric construction
• Method of desizing
• Method of washing-off
Different methods of desizing are [94, 95]:
• Enzymatic desizing
• Oxidative desizing
• Acid steeping
• Rot steeping (use of bacteria)
• Desizing with hot caustic soda treatment
• Hot washing with detergents
The most commonly used methods for cotton are enzymatic desizing [96–98] and
oxidative desizing [99–101]. Acid steeping is a risky process and may result in the
degradation of cotton cellulose while rot steeping, hot caustic soda treatment and hot
washing with detergents are less efficient for the removal of the starch sizes.
Enzymatic desizing consists of three main steps: application of the enzyme, digestion
of the starch and removal of the digestion products. The common components of an
enzymatic desizing bath are as follows:
• Amylase enzyme
• pH stabiliser
• Chelating agent
• Salt
• Surfactant
• Optical brightener
The enzymes are only active within a specific range of pH, which must be maintained
by a suitable pH stabiliser. Chelating agents used to sequester calcium or combine
heavy metals may be injurious to the enzymes and must be tested before use. Certain
salts may be used to enhance the temperature stability of enzymes. Surfactants may
be used to improve the wettability of the fabric and improve the size removal. Generally,
non-ionic surfactants are suitable but it is always recommended to test the compatibility
of surfactants before use. Some brighteners may also be incorporated in the desizing
bath which may be carried through the end of the pre-treatment, resulting in improved
brightness but again, their compatibility must be ascertained before use. Enzymatic
desizing offers the following advantages [102]:
• No damage to the fibre
• No usage of aggressive chemicals
• Wide variety of application processes
• High biodegradability
© The Textile Institute
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton 17
9. PROBLEMS IN SCOURING
Various aspects of cotton fabric preparation have been presented by Rosch [110–118]
and Sebb [119–124]. An important, if not the most important, operation in the pre-
treatment of cotton is the scouring or alkaline boil-off process. The purpose of alkaline
boil-off and the ensuing washing stage is to perform extensive fibre-cleaning by
ensuring a high degree of extraction of pectins, lignins, waxes and grease, proteins,
alkaline earth metals (Ca and Mg), heavy metals (iron, manganese and copper), low
molecular weight cellulose fragments, dirt and dust; and softening of husks. The
result is an increased responsiveness of cotton to subsequent processing [125]. The
process removes water insoluble materials such as oils, fats, and waxes from the
textile material. These impurities coat fibres and inhibit rapid wetting, absorbency
and absorption of dyes and chemical solutions. Oils and fats are removed by
saponification with hot sodium hydroxide solution. The process breaks the compounds
down into water-soluble glycerols and soaps. Unsaponifiable material such as waxes
and dirt are removed by emulsification. This requires the use of surfactants to disperse
the water-insoluble material into fine droplets or particles in the aqueous medium.
Both of these processes (saponification and emulsification) take place in a typical
scouring process. In addition, the scouring process softens and swells the motes to
facilitate their destruction during bleaching. Depending on the amount of impurities and
the reaction and wash conditions, the loss in weight of the raw cotton material due to
boil-off can reach up to seven percent or even higher in case of high-impurity cotton.
The important parameters of the scouring process are as follows:
• Concentration of caustic soda
• Type and concentration of auxiliaries
© The Textile Institute
18 Textile Progress doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001
• Treatment temperature
• Reaction time
The higher the caustic soda concentration, the shorter can be the dwell time. In other
words, the shorter the dwell time, the higher the concentration required. The caustic
soda concentration normally employed neither affects the ash content nor the average
degree of polymerisation [DP] of cotton. Too high a concentration (e.g. > 8% o.w.f)
may result in a reduction in DP as well as yellowing of the cotton fibre. The higher
the concentration, the greater will be the fat removal. Due to the high degree of fat
removal, the absorbency will also increase but there may be harshness in the handle
of the material.
Two important auxiliaries used in scouring are chelating agents and surfactants.
Other auxiliaries that may sometimes be employed include antifoaming and anti-
creasing agents. Chelating agents are used to eliminate water hardness and heavy
metals, such as iron and copper which can affect the scouring process. These agents
bind polyvalent cations such as calcium and magnesium in water and in fibres, thus
preventing the precipitation of soaps. If polyvalent ions are present, insoluble soaps
may form, settle on the fabric and produce resist spots. There are four major types of
sequestering agents to choose from: inorganic polyphosphates, aminocarboxylic acids,
organophosphonic acids, and hydroxycarboxylic acids. The inorganic polyphosphates
such as sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium hexametaphosphate are probably the
best overall in that in addition to sequestering most metals they also aid in cleansing
the fibres. They may, however, hydrolyze at high temperature and loose their
effectiveness.
The aminocarboxylic acid types such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
are very good in that they sequester most metal ions and are very stable under
alkaline conditions. They are the most used types. The organophosphonic acid types
such as ethylenediaminetetra (methylene phosphonic acid) are also very effective but
comparatively expensive. Oxalates and hydroxycarboxylic acids (citrates, etc.) are
excellent for sequestering iron but not effective for calcium and magnesium.
In order to quickly and effectively bring the chemicals to the textile material, i.e.
to improve their wettability and to ensure that the fibrous impurities will be removed
as far as possible, it is necessary to add surfactants with good wetting and washing/
emulsifying properties. A surfactant of optimal versatility to be used for preparation,
and in particular for the scouring and bleaching processes, ought to meet the following
requirements:
• It should have an excellent wetting ability within a wide temperature range
• It should permit a good washing effect and have a high emulsifying power for
natural fats, waxes and oils
• It should be resistant to oxidants and reducing agents
• It should be resistant to water-hardening substances
• It should be highly stable to alkalinity
• It should be biodegradable and non-toxic
Care should be taken in selecting the surfactants because of the inverse effect of
temperature on the solubility of non-ionic surfactants. If the process temperature is
above the cloud point of the surfactant, the surfactant may be ineffective and may
© The Textile Institute
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton 19
actually be deposited on the substrate. The surfactant used should have a cloud point
temperature just above the operating temperature, to be most effective. The cloud
point of non-ionic surfactants decreases in the presence of alkalis and electrolytes
and the degree to which it is lowered increases with concentration. The cloud point
should therefore be checked under application conditions to ensure that the surfactant
is effective under those conditions. The adverse effect of temperature on non-ionic
surfactants can be reduced by the addition of an anionic surfactant. Crypto-non-ionic
surfactants do not exhibit a cloud point. These are non-ionic surfactants that are
capped with an ionic group and they exhibit the excellent emulsifying properties of
non-ionics along with the good solubility properties of anionics.
Higher scouring temperatures will reduce treatment times and vice versa. At high
temperature, however, there will be complete removal of fats and waxes, which will
promote harsh handle of the material. Moreover, the cloud point of the surfactant also
has to be taken into account while applying high temperature.
In the case of pad-steam scouring, a typical process consists of the following
steps: Saturating the fabric with a solution of sodium hydroxide, surfactant and
sequestering agent; steaming; and thorough washing. After scouring, the material is
checked for thoroughness and uniformity of scouring as well as other scouring faults.
Appendix F gives most common problems in scouring, their possible causes, and
countermeasures.
hydrogen peroxide is, by far, the most commonly used bleaching agent today [128].
It is used to bleach at least 90% of all cotton and cotton blends, because of its
advantages over other bleaching agents. The nature of the cotton colour, its mechanism
of removal with hydrogen peroxide [129] and the basic rules for formulation of
bleaching liquors have been presented in detail elsewhere [120]. The mere formulation
of the correct initial bath concentration is not sufficient to ensure a controlled bleaching
process. Of equal importance are regular checks of the bath composition during the
operation. Such checks do not only contribute to an economic bleaching operation
but also allow an early tracing of the defects and failures of the system [122]. The
important parameters for bleaching with hydrogen peroxide are as follows:
• Concentration of hydrogen peroxide
• Concentration of alkali
• pH
• Temperature
• Time
• Nature and quality of the goods
• Water hardness and other impurities
• Types and concentration of auxiliaries
• Desired bleaching effect
• Available equipment, and stabilizer system employed [130, 131]
Most of these factors are inter-related, and all have a direct bearing on the production
rate, the cost and the bleaching quality. Though they operate collectively, it is better
to review them individually for the sake of clarity.
There are two concentrations to be considered: that based on the weight of the
goods and that based on the weight of the solution. All other factors being equal, the
concentration on the weight of the goods determines the final degree of whiteness. In
order to get adequate bleach there must be enough peroxide present from the start. On
the other hand, the peroxide concentration based on the weight of the solution will
determine the bleaching rate — the greater the solution concentration, the faster the
bleaching. No peroxide bleaching system ever uses up its entire peroxide charge for
active bleaching, as some is always ‘lost’ during normal process.
The alkalinity in the system is primarily responsible for producing the desired
scour properties and maintaining a reasonably constant pH at the desired level throughout
the bleaching cycle. The quantity of the alkali to be added depends above all on the
character of the goods, the finish required and the kind and quality of the other
ingredients in the liquor. The alkalinity is defined as the ‘amount’ of alkali in the
system and should be distinguished from the pH, which is a measure of the hydrogen
ion concentration in the solution. The pH value in peroxide bleaching is of extreme
importance because it influences bleaching effectiveness, fibre degradation and peroxide
stability in bleaching cotton fibres, as shown in Table 6.
With increasing pH, whiteness index increases to a maximum at a pH of 11.0 and
then decreases. Fibre degradation is at minimum at a pH of 9.0 but that which occurs
at a pH of 10.0 is well within acceptable values. Above a pH of 11.0, fibre degradation
is unacceptably severe. A pH range of 10.2–10.7 is considered optimum for bleaching
cotton with hydrogen peroxide. Lower pH values can lead to decreasing solubility of
sodium silicate stabiliser (see below) as well as lower whiteness due to less activation
of the peroxide [132].
By increasing the temperature, the degree of whiteness as well as its uniformity
increases. However, at too high a temperature, there is a possibility of a decrease in
the degree of polymerisation of the cotton. Moreover, due to good fat removal at high
temperatures such as 110 °C, the handle of the material can become harsh and the
sewability of woven cotton fabrics may also decrease. Time, temperature and
concentration of peroxide are all inter-related factors. At lower temperatures, longer
times and higher concentrations are required. As the temperature of bleaching increases,
shorter times and lower peroxide concentrations can be employed.
The amount of peroxide decomposed is greatly reduced with increasing weight of
cotton fibre in the bleach liquor. The raw fibre almost completely suppresses
decomposition, while the scoured fibre is somewhat less effective. The demineralised
fibre is the least effective stabiliser [133]. While impurities such as magnesium and
calcium may have a good stabilising effect when present in appropriate amounts,
other impurities such as iron, copper and manganese can have very harmful effect,
resulting in catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide leading to fibre damage [134].
A good stabilising system is indispensable in bleaching cotton with hydrogen
peroxide. While sodium silicate is one of the most commonly used stabilisers, its use
may result in a harsh handle of the fabric as well as resist spots leading to spotty
dyeing. The best alternatives to sodium silicate are organic stabilisers or a combination
of silicate and organic stabilisers.
In addition to the most important ingredients of the bleaching recipe, namely
hydrogen peroxide, caustic soda and the stabilizer, auxiliaries are used sometimes to
aid the bleaching process. These may include surfactants and chelating agents. The
type and concentration of these auxiliaries also plays an important role in the bleach
effect obtained. The desired bleaching effect does not need necessarily be optimal
white. For goods-to-be-dyed, the main concern will normally be achieving good and
uniform absorbency.
The available equipment plays a role in determining which process criteria must
be taken into account such as: cold, hot or HT bleaching; dry-wet or wet-on-wet
impregnation; discontinuous or continuous processing; process control.
The most common problems in bleaching cotton with hydrogen peroxide are as
follows:
• Inadequate mote removal
• Low degree of whiteness
© The Textile Institute
22 Textile Progress doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001
and shrinkage control, the fabric must be stretched on a frame. It should be stretched
in the width direction to its greige width or slightly more. No stretching in the length
direction is required unless extreme lustre is desired. If lengthways stretching is
needed, the frame speed should not exceed the padder speed by more than five
percent.
Removal of caustic soda from the fabric is very crucial for the development of
lustre and shrinkage control. The caustic soda solution concentration in the fabric
(not the rinse solution) should be reduced to less than 5% with the fabric still on the
frame. If not, low lustre and shrinkage of the fabric will occur. If the fabric shrinks
as it comes off the frame, the caustic concentration in the fabric has not been reduced
sufficiently. After the fabric comes off the frame, the remaining caustic should be
thoroughly rinsed out. It is difficult to remove residual amounts of caustic soda from
the fabric by rinsing alone, so they are usually neutralized with a dilute acid solution.
Care must be taken in using acetic acid for neutralization as some of the sodium
acetate formed may remain in the fabric and alter the pH in the subsequent wet
processes.
After mercerization, an analysis is carried out to determine the degree of
mercerization, which is specified by the Barium Number [157–160]. The Barium
Number obtained should be at least 130 and preferably 150. Low numbers result
from incomplete swelling of cotton fibres. A quick test for determination of the
degree of mercerization is to dye samples of the mercerized fabric along with a
sample known to be properly mercerized, using a direct dye such as C.I. Direct Blue
80. Any differences in the depth of the dyeings are indicative of different degrees of
mercerization. A red or blue dye should be used, since it is easier to observe differences
in depths of these colours visually. There is no standard test for analysis of the lustre
of mercerized fabric. It must be judged visually.
A summary of common problems in mercerization is given in Appendix H.
Dye chemistry: Reactive dyes have a wide variety in terms of their chemical structure
[161]. The two most important components of a reactive dye are the chromophore
and the reactive group.
The characteristics governed by the chromophore are colour gamut, light fastness,
Reactivity: A high dye reactivity entails a lower dyeing time and a lower efficiency
of fixation. (To improve the efficiency of fixation by reducing dye reactivity requires
a longer dyeing time and is, therefore, less effective than an increase in substantivity.)
Also there is a wider range of temperature and pH over which the dye can be applied.
Reactivity of a dye can be modified by altering the pH or temperature, or both. By a
suitable adjustment of pH and temperature, two dyes of intrinsically different reactivity
may be made to react at a similar rate.
Solubility: Dyes of better solubility can diffuse easily and rapidly into the fibres,
resulting in better migration and levelling. An increase in dye solubility may be
effected by increasing the temperature, adding urea and decreasing the use of electrolytes.
pH: The initial pH of the dyebath will be lower at the end of the dyeing by one half
to a whole unit, indicating that some alkali has been used up during dyeing. The
cellulosic fibre is responsible for some of this reduction, while a smaller part is used
by the dyestuff as it hydrolyses [190]. In discussing the effect of pH, account must be
taken of the internal pH of the fibre as well as the external pH of the solution. The
internal pH is always lower than the external pH of the solution. As the electrolyte
content of the bath is increased, the internal pH tends to equal the external pH. Since
the decomposition reaction is entirely in the external solution, the higher external pH
favours decomposition of the dye rather than reaction with the fibre. pH influences
primarily the concentration of the cellusate sites on the fibre. It also influences the
hydroxyl ion concentration in the bath and in the fibre. Raising the pH value by 1 unit
corresponds to a temperature rise of 20 °C. The dyeing rate is best improved by
raising the dyeing temperature once a pH of 11–12 is reached. Further increase in pH
will reduce the reaction rate as well as the efficiency of fixation. Different types of
alkalis, such as caustic soda, soda ash, sodium silicate or a combination of these
alkalis, are used in order to attain the required dyeing pH. The choice of alkali
usually depends upon the dye used, the dyeing method as well as other economic and
technical factors.
Electrolyte: The addition of electrolyte results in an increase in the rate and extent of
exhaustion, increase in dye aggregation and a decrease in diffusion. The electrolyte
efficiency increases in the order: KCl < Na2SO4 < NaCl [191]. There may be impurities
present in the salt to be used, such as calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, iron,
copper and alkalinity, that can be a source of many dyeing problems [192].
Liquor ratio: At lower liquor ratios, there is a higher exhaustion [193] and higher
colour strength. An increase in colour strength may be attributed to greater availability
of dye active species in the vicinity of the cellulose macromolecules, at lower liquor
ratio.
Exhaustion: There are two types of exhaustion that relate to the application of reactive
dyes: primary exhaustion and secondary exhaustion. Primary exhaustion occurs before
© The Textile Institute
28 Textile Progress doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001
the addition of the alkali, while secondary exhaustion takes place after the addition
of the alkali. Both the rate of exhaustion and the extent or degree of exhaustion are
important. The rate of exhaustion can be increased by selecting dyes of high substantivity,
increasing the temperature and increasing the electrolyte concentration. The degree
of exhaustion can be increased by selecting dyes of high substantivity, lowering the
temperature and increasing the electrolyte concentration.
Migration: The intrinsic properties of a reactive dye that affect migration are
substantivity, molecular structure, physical chemistry and stereochemistry. The higher
the dye substantivity, the lower is the migration. The external factors that affect
migration are: concentration of the dye, temperature, time, liquor ratio, liquor circulation
and the form of the textile material.
Fixation and colour yield: The fixation and the colour yield depend upon the following
factors [205]:
• Fibre cross-section
• Porosity of the substrate
© The Textile Institute
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton 29
A relatively low level of control may be A very good level of control is necessary to
sufficient to get level dyeing get level dyeing
Poor reproducibility Better reproducibility
Poor colour yield Better colour yield
Dye additions or corrections may have Less need of additions and corrections
to be made
• Dye structure with respect to substantivity ratio, dye diffusion, reactivity, etc.
• Degree of fibre preparation
• Liquor ratio
• Concentration of salt and alkali
• Use of reaction catalyst
• Use of dye–fibre cross-linking agents
• Introduction of other chemical groups in the fibre
• Use of film-forming agents
• Chemical modification of cellulose
• After treatments
There are various ways to increase fixation and colour yield which include:
• Use of fixation accelerators
• Use of shorter liquor ratio
• Dyeing at low temperature (with decreasing temperature the substantivity for
fibre increases, causing increased exhaustion)
• Modification of chromophore and reactive group
• Use of dyes with high substantivity and high reactivity
• Treating cellulosic fibres with swelling agents
• Modification in appearance techniques
• Changing the morphology of fibre by chemical modification.
A uniform rise in rate of fixation can be obtained by: controlling the temperature of
the dyeing process suitably (possible for hot dyeing dyes only); adding alkali in
stages (it is virtually impossible, however, to prevent a sharp rise in fixation rate
whenever alkali is added); starting with a weaker alkali such as soda ash, and following
this with a stronger alkali, but only after a higher degree of fixation has been achieved;
progressive metering of alkali (such as the Remazol automet process); and adding salt
in stages (suitable for high substantivity dyes).
Washing-off of reactive dyes: The removal of unfixed dye takes place in three phases
[206]: dilution of dye and chemicals in solution and on the surface of the cellulose;
diffusion of the deeply-penetrated, unfixed, hydrolysed dye to the fibre surface; and
dilution and removal of the diffused-out dye. Goods are rinsed cold twice to remove
electrolyte, then rinsed hot to desorb some hydrolysed dye from the fibre prior to a
‘soaping process’ at or near the boil. A subsequent cold rinse completes the task of
removing un-reacted and hydrolysed dye [207]. The factors which affect the washing
off of hydrolysed reactive dyes from the dyed material are as follows [208–212]:
• Dye substantivity
• Diffusion behaviour
• Reactive group
• Liquor ratio
• Washing temperature
• Electrolyte concentration
• pH
• Presence of calcium and magnesium ions in the ‘boiling soap’/hardness of water
• Liquor carry-over of the substrate
• Amount of unfixed dye
• Washing time
• Number of washing cycles/washing baths [213]
• Washing auxiliary employed
• Mechanical action
• Filling and draining
• Heating and cooling rates
Dye–fibre bond stability: Dye–fibre bond stability primarily depends upon the reactive
system. Dyes that react by a nuceophilic displacement mechanism show good stability
to alkali and, to different degrees, less stability to acid. Dyes that react by nucleophilic
addition give dye–fibre bonds with good stability to acid, but are less stable to alkali.
One of the most stable dye–fibre bonds is achieved with pyrimidinyl-based systems.
The triazine–cellulose bond is generally resistant to oxidative breakdown in the
presence of perborate, whereas this is a serious defect of some of the pyrimidine-
based systems. Dye–fibre bonds formed by monochlorotriazine dyes are less fast to
alkali (particularly at high temperature) than those formed between dichlorotriazinyl
dyes and cellulose. Vinyl sulphone dyes possess the same deficiency, but their higher
reactivity enables the problem to be avoided by the use of milder fixation conditions.
In case of pyrimidine dyes, the dye–fibre bond is more stable than in either of the
above two cases [214].
Fastness of reactive dyes: The factors that affect the fastness of reactive dyes are: the
chromophoric group, the stability of the dye–fibre bond and the completeness of the
removal of the unfixed dye. To maximise wet fastness, particularly in deep shades, it
is advisable to apply cationic after-treatments.
A summary of problems in dyeing with reactive dyes is given in Appendix I.
Society of Dyers and Colourists’ classification, which is essentially based upon the
compatibility of different groups of direct dyes with one another under certain conditions
of batch dyeing, there are three classes of direct dyes: A, B and C. Class A consists
of self-levelling direct dyes. Dyes in this group have good levelling characteristics
and are capable of dyeing uniformly even when the electrolyte is added at the beginning
of the dyeing operation. They may require relatively large amounts of salt to exhaust
well. Class B consists of salt-controllable dyes. These dyes have relatively poor
levelling or migration characteristics. They can be batch dyed uniformly by controlled
addition of electrolyte, usually after the dyebath has reached the dyeing temperature.
Class C consists of salt- and temperature-controllable dyes. These dyes show relatively
poor levelling or migration and their substantivity increases rapidly with increasing
temperature. Their rate of dyeing is controlled by controlling the rate of rise of
temperature, as well as controlling the salt addition.
Important dyebath variables that influence the dyeing behaviour of direct dyes
include temperature, time of dyeing, liquor ratio, dye solubility, and presence of
electrolyte [220] and other auxiliaries.
Direct dyes can be applied by batch dyeing methods (on jigs, jet or package
dyeing machines), by semi-continuous methods (such as pad-batch or pad-roll) and
by continuous methods (such as pad-steam). Many direct dyes are suitable for application
by combined scouring and dyeing. In this process the usual practice is to employ soda
ash and non-ionic detergent. However, dyes containing amide groups are avoided
because of the risk of alkaline hydrolysis.
Direct dyes vary widely in their fastness properties, and staining effects on various
fibres. Most direct dyes, however, have limited wet fastness in medium to full shades
unless they are after-treated. The fastness of selected direct dyes can be improved in
several ways [221–224], such as the following:
• Treatment with cationic fixing agents
• Treatment with formaldehyde
• Treatment with copper salts such as copper sulphate
• Treatment with cationic agents and copper sulphate in combination
• Diazotisation and development
• Treatment with crosslinking agents or resins
An important consideration in dyeing with direct dyes is the ability of the dyes to
cover the immature cotton fibre neps, which has been explained, in most cases, in
terms of both the molecular weight and hydrogen bond formation capacity of the dye
molecules [225–227]. Given a similar capacity to form hydrogen bonds, dyes having
lower molecular weight show proportionately better nep coverage than those having
higher molecular weight. Table 9 gives Colour Index number of dyes with better
coverage of immature fibres [228].
A summary of common problems in the dyeing of cotton with direct dyes is given
in Appendix I.
Yellow 7, 11, 27
Orange (1, 15, 37, 102)
Red 32 (20, 24, 76)
Violet 9, 22, 66
Blue 8, 26, 27, 98
Green (1, 26)
Brown 25, 29
Black 3, 22, 39
brown and green shades in medium to heavy depths on cellulosic fibres [235, 236].
The history, development and application of sulphur dyes have been widely reviewed
by various authors [237–248]. Sulphur dyes have been classified into four main
groups [249]: CI Sulphur dyes; CI Leuco Sulphur dyes; CI Solublised Sulphur dyes;
and CI Condensed Sulphur dyes. CI Sulphur dyes are water-insoluble, containing
sulphur both as an integral part of the chromophore and in attached polysulphide
chains. They are normally applied in the alkaline reduced (leuco) form from a sodium
sulphide solution and subsequently oxidised to the insoluble form on the fibre. Sulphur
dyes differ from the vat dyes in being easier to reduce but more difficult to re-oxidise,
different oxidants producing variations in hue and fastness properties. A leuco sulphur
dye has the same CI constitution number as the parent sulphur dye but exists as the
soluble leuco form of the parent dye together with a reducing agent in sufficient
quantity to make it suitable for application either directly or with only a small addition
of extra reducing agent. A solublised sulphur dye has a different constitution number
because it is a chemical derivative of the parent dye, non-substantive to cellulose but
converted to the substantive form during dyeing. Condensed sulphur dyes, although
containing sulphur, bear little resemblance to traditional sulphur dyes in their constitution
and method of manufacture. Sulphur dyes are available in various commercial forms
such as powders, pre-reduced powders, grains, dispersed powders, dispersed pastes,
liquids, and water soluble-brands.
The various steps in the application of sulphur dyes depend very much on their
type and commercial form. The main steps in the application of water-insoluble
sulphur dyes are as follows:
• Reduction, whereby the water-insoluble dye is converted into water-soluble form
• Application, whereby the solubilised dye is applied onto the substrate by a suitable
exhaust or continuous method
• Rinsing, whereby all loose colour is removed before the oxidation stage
• Oxidation, whereby the dye absorbed by the substrate is oxidised back into
water-insoluble form, and
• Soaping, which results in an increase in brightness as well as improved fastness
of the final shade
Various application methods for sulphur dyes, along with suggested recipes, have
been discussed in [243, 245, 246, 249, 250].
© The Textile Institute
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton 33
The auxiliaries used in sulphur dyeing are: reducing agents, antioxidants, sequestering
agents, wetting agents, oxidising agents and fixation additives. The two most important
reducing agents for sulphur dyes are sodium sulphide [Na2S] and sodium hydrosulphide
[NaHS]. Caustic soda/sodium dithionite are conventional chemicals for vat dye reduction
but this system is difficult to control in the application of sulphur dyes and tends to
give inconsistent results except with certain sulphur vat dyes. A sodium carbonate/
sodium dithionite mixture is too weakly alkaline for the water-insoluble type sulphur
dyes and requires careful control if over-reduction and consequent low colour yield
are to be avoided. Glucose in the presence of alkali, usually caustic soda or a caustic
soda/soda ash mixture, has been used as another possible sulphur dye reducing agent,
but it is a weak reducing agent as compared to sodium sulphide or sodium hydrosulphide.
Other reducing agents such as thioglycol, hydroxyacetone and thiourea dioxide, have
had limited success. Sodium polysulphide and sodium borohydride can be used as
antioxidants to inhibit premature oxidation, promote better dyebath stability and
lessen the risk of bronzing, poor rubbing fastness and dark selvedges. Sequestering
agents are used where water quality is poor or variable, to avoid poor rubbing fastness
or unlevelness in the presence of multivalent ions in the dye liquor or in the substrate.
Wetting agents may be used to improve the wettability of the substrate. Although the
majority of sulphur dyes are unaffected by most wetting agents, some non-ionic
wetting agents may inhibit the dye uptake in exhaust dyeing or precipitate the dye as
a tarry leuco product.
Traditionally, the most preferred oxidising system has been sodium dichromate/
acetic acid because of its ability to rapidly and completely oxidise all reduced sulphur
dyes, resulting in good colour yield and fastness properties. Nevertheless, it has been
criticised increasingly on environmental grounds, and for its effects on handle and
sewability, especially with sulphur blacks. The addition of 1 g/l copper sulphate to
batchwise oxidation baths of sodium dichromate/acetic acid improves the light fastness
but may result in dulling of the shades, as well as harsher handle. It is not recommended
with sulphur blacks, where the presence of copper promotes acid tendering. Other
oxidising agents that have been tried as alternatives to sodium dichromate/acetic,
with various degrees of success, include [251, 252]: potassium iodate/acetic acid;
sodium bromate; hydrogen peroxide and peroxy compounds; and sodium chlorite.
Fixation additives, such as alkylating agents based on epichlorohydrin, give dyeings
of markedly improved washing fastness but often at the risk of some decrease in light
fastness. Moreover, in the event of the dyeing needing subsequent correction, alkylated
sulphur dyeings are difficult to strip and attempted removal will often entail destruction
of the dye chromogen.
Two special problems in dyeing with sulphur dyes are acid tendering and bronziness.
In severe conditions of heat and humidity, some sulphur dyeings, notably black, can
generate a small amount of sulphuric acid within the cellulosic fibres, leading to
tendering. AATCC Test Method 26-1994 (Ageing of sulphur dyed textiles) can be
used to determine whether the sulphur dyed textile material will deteriorate under
normal storage conditions [253]. Bronziness and other problems in sulphur dyeing
and their possible causes are summarised in Appendix J.
dyes of the indanthrene type may produce duller or greener shades at dyeing temperatures
higher than 60 °C, due to over-reduction. Over-reduction can be prevented by the use
of sodium nitrite if the reducing agent is hydrosulphite. In the case of thiourea oxide,
over-reduction cannot be prevented by nitrite.
The factors influencing the rate of dyeing with vat dyes include the type of substrate,
temperature, liquor ratio and concentration of dye and electrolyte. Mercerized cotton
gives a higher rate of dyeing compared with un-mercerized cotton, which in turn
gives a higher rate than grey material. At low temperature, the rate of exhaustion is
low, which might promote levelness but the rate of diffusion is also low. At high
temperature, the rate of exhaustion is high, which might decrease levelness but the
rate of diffusion is high. Maximum exhaustion, penetration and levelness can be
obtained by starting the dyeing at low temperatures in the leuco stage and slowly
raising the temperature. Some dyes may not be stable to very high temperatures, so
the stability of dyes to temperature must be taken into account. The reducing efficiency
of sodium hydrosulphite in caustic soda solutions at high temperatures decreases
rapidly in the presence of air. The higher the liquor ratio, the slower is the rate of
dyeing. Most of the dyes exhaust more rapidly at low concentrations, increasing the
risk of unlevel dyeing in light shades. Some have the same rate of dyeing irrespective
of the concentration. The higher the concentration of electrolyte, the higher is the rate
of dyeing.
The purpose of rinsing before oxidation is to remove any loose dye, excess of
reducing agent and alkali to lower the pH and establish conditions favourable for
oxidation. The higher the temperature and/or pH of the rinsing bath, the lower is the
colour strength. Very high pH and temperature during rinsing may also result in
dulling of the shade. The ideal is to do rinsing thoroughly at low temperature at a
rinsing bath pH value of 7.
The purpose of oxidation is to convert the water-soluble leuco form of the vat dye,
back into the insoluble pigment form. Important variables for the oxidizing step are
the type and concentration of oxidising agent, the type of pH regulator and pH during
oxidation, and temperature during oxidation. The oxidizing agent must provide a
level of oxidation potential sufficient to oxidize the reduced vat dye into insoluble
pigment, with no over-oxidation, i.e. beyond the oxidation state of the original
pigmentary form of the dye. Some criteria for selecting oxidising agents and a
comparison of different oxidising agents are given by Tigler [283]. Poor control of
pH during oxidation may result in uneven oxidation and a lower temperature may
result in slower oxidation. A pH below 7.5 should be avoided to prevent the possible
formation of acid leuco forms of vat dyes. The optimum pH for oxidation is 7.5–8.5.
The acid leuco form of vat dye is difficult to oxidize, has little affinity for fibre and
is easily rinsed out. The higher the temperature, the faster is the oxidation, the
optimum temperature being 120–140 °F.
The purpose of soaping after oxidation is to remove any dye that is not diffused
into the fibre and to stabilise the final shade. This results in improved fastness properties
and resistance to any shade change caused by a resin or other finish, or to consumer
use. Important soaping parameters are time, temperature and type and concentration
of soaping auxiliaries. Even when no detergent is used, the dyeings exhibit good
colour strength and good fastness properties. Washing with water alone tends to give
a slightly higher colour yield. It is best to carry out soaping without any detergent at
boiling temperature [284]. After soaping, the fabric is rinsed and dried.
Both exhaust and continuous dyeing methods are used to apply vat dyes. Exhaust
dyeing processes are mainly used for dyeing of loose stock, yarn and knitted fabrics
[285]. Woven fabrics can also be dyed by the exhaust method but for large batch
sizes, the continuous method is mostly uses.
Pad dyeing methods [286, 287] are usually a preference in the case of woven
fabrics, particularly if these are in large batches. The commonly used pad dyeing
methods are pad-jig, pad-steam and pad-Thermosol [288]. The most popular method
for dyeing woven fabrics in a continuous manner is the pad-dry-pad-steam method
[289–292], consisting of the following key steps:
• Impregnating the fabric in a bath containing vat dye, dispersing agent, anti-
migrant and a non-foaming wetting agent
• Squeezing the impregnated fabric to a given pick-up level
• Drying the fabric to achieve a uniform distribution of the vat pigment throughout
the fabric
• Impregnating the fabric with a solution of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite,
with the optional use of salt
• Expressing the impregnated fabric to a given pick-up level
• Steaming the fabric to bring about reduction of the dye to the soluble leuco form
and to promote diffusion of the dye into the cellulosic fibres
• Rinsing, oxidation, soaping, rinsing and drying the fabric
Intermediate drying is one of the most important steps in the pad-dry-pad-steam
process where the most common problem, ‘migration’, can take place [293, 294].
Important factors on which migration depends are: dye constitution; dye formulation;
pick-up; additives in the dye padder; residues of wetting agents and lubricants on the
fabric; fabric structure; and drying conditions. After drying, the fabric is padded with
an alkaline solution of sodium hydrosulphite, after which the fabric undergoes steaming.
Almost 40 % of vat dyeing problems are related to improper steaming conditions
[295]. Ideal steaming conditions are controlled temperature and moisture [296], freedom
from air [297], and sufficient dwell time. After steaming, the fabric undergoes rinsing,
oxidation and soaping.
The most important control steps in vat dyeing are reduction, absorption and
oxidation. The reduction and oxidation can best be controlled by metered addition of
chemicals [298]. The advantages of metered addition of hydrosulphite [299, 300] are
as follows:
• Better levelling by slower vatting
• No need of levelling agent
• Protection from over-reduction
• Control of initial rate of dyeing (strike)
• Possibility of warm pre-pigmentation to give optimum fabric/liquor movement
• Good reproducibility
• Reduction of sulphite/sulphate effluent pollution
• Automatic monitoring of vat state and redox potential by means of measuring
and regulating technology
© The Textile Institute
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton 37
Controlled dosage of hydrogen peroxide in the oxidation tank, together with the
measurement and control of pH can result in obtaining sufficient peroxide for the
oxidation of the dye as well as achieving an optimised dyeing procedure due to the
control of speed of oxidation [301].
A summary of problems in dyeing with vat dyes is given in Appendix K.
There are three key areas where a good degree of reproducibility is a pre-requisite to
avoiding extra costs of dyeing, loss in productivity and, thereby, loss in profits:
(i) A recipe should give the same shade every time it is repeated in the lab (within
lab reproducibility or lab-to-lab reproducibility)
(ii) A recipe developed in the lab should give the same shade in the bulk dyeings as
it gives in the laboratory dyeings (lab-to-bulk reproducibility)
(iii) A recipe should give the same shade, all the time it is repeated in the bulk
dyeings
In order to attain the desired degree of reproducibility, there are quite a large number
of factors that must be taken into account, thoroughly observed and carefully controlled.
It might be convenient to describe these factors with reference to ‘materials and
inputs’, ‘machinery and equipment’, ‘process conditions’, and ‘methods and practices’.
Table 11 gives a summary of these factors [310–321].
Table 12 gives factors affecting dye selection and evaluation [311].
Table 13 shows the factors for reproducibility that can be monitored by lab checks
and those that can be controlled by standard operating procedures (S.O.P’s).
Some routinely performed tests for the evaluation of dyes are: moisture content;
strength as measured by reflectance values of dyeings or transmission of dye solutions
Standardisation Cost-effectiveness
• Homogeneity • Shade area
• Absorption in solution • Colour value
• Analysis and identification • Build-up reproducibility
Table 13 Factors that can be Monitored by Lab Check and Those Controlled by Standard Operating
Procedures
Water quality X
Substrate dyeability X
Substrate preparation X
Substrate X
Dye selection X
Dye combination X
Dye moisture content X
Dye standardization X
Dye and chemical weighing X
and dispensing
Dyebath additives X
Liquor ratio X
pH X
Machine flow and reversal X
Time/temperature profile X
Colour assessment method X
[322]; paper or thin layer chromatography; build-up test; pH sensitivity test; reactive
dye fixation; thermo migration; strike-migration test; SDC migration test; temperature
strike test; dusting [323]; solubility and solution stability [324]; electrolyte stability
of reactive dyes [325]; cold water solubility [326]; coverage properties; and fastness.
A good quality-control scheme for dyes usually consists of [311]: OSHA Form 20;
Factor Variation
materials, which are: package dyeing (for yarn), jet dyeing (for knitwear), and jigger
and pad dyeing for woven materials.
The term package dyeing usually refers to the dyeing of yarn that has been wound
on perforated cores so that dye liquor can be forced through the package, which may
be a tube, cheese or cone type. The yarn packages are placed on perforated spindles
on a frame which fits into a pressure vessel where dyeing takes place. The dye
formulation is pumped through the perforations in the spindles and package cores
into the yarn. The flow of liquor can be either from inside-to-outside of the package
or outside-to-inside. Periodic reversal of the flow results in better levelness of the
dyeing. A heat exchanger using high pressure steam as the heat source heats the dye
liquor in a package dye machine. An earlier review of developments in package
dyeing has been given by Fleming and Gaunt [329]. Types of package dyeing machines
[330, 331] and later refinements in package dyeing have been reviewed by Turner
[332] and some recent progress has been given by Tsui [333]. The most important
dyeing parameters in a package dyeing machine are as follows [334]:
• Liquor differential pressure (in-out and out-in)
• Liquor flow rate
• Liquor volume and liquor ratio
• Liquor temperature
• Circulation pump speed
• Static pressure
• Dyestuff and chemical preparation conditions
• Injection times and sequence of dyes and chemicals
• Liquor preparation and transfer times and sequences from/to reverse tank
• Liquor heating and cooling gradient
• Dyeing cycle times and sequences
The parameters given above are inter-related and must all be controlled carefully for
optimum dyeing to be achieved. Package dyeing, in spite of being simple and controllable
[335], is very prone to unlevelness. Success in attaining a good degree of levelness
is very much a direct result of package density and other theoretical considerations
[336].
A jigger or jig consists of a trough for the dye or chemical liquor. Fabric from a
roll on one side of the machine is run through the liquor in the trough and wound on
a roll on the opposite side of the jig. When the second roll is full, the drive is reversed,
and the fabric is transferred through the liquor back to the first roll. Live steam
injected into the bottom of the trough through a perforated pipe across the width of
the jig heats the liquor. Some modern jigs also have heat exchangers for indirect
heating. Covering the top of the jig minimises the heat loss to the atmosphere, keeps
the temperature uniform on all parts of the fabric and minimises exposure of the
liquor and the cloth to air. Minimising exposure to air is important when using
sulphur or vat dyes since these dyes can be oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Jigs
exert considerable lengthwise tension on the fabric and are more suitable for the
dyeing of woven than knitted fabrics. Since the fabric is handled in open-width, a jig
is very suitable for fabrics which crease when dyed in rope form. Some typical
problems that may be encountered in conventional jig machines are as follows:
19. SUMMARY
This monograph describes various key stages for the manufacture of dyed cotton
materials and reviews possible problems introduced at each stage. Dyed cotton materials
are not produced in a straightforward one-step process but there are many processes
involved, each with a number of variations and each variation with a number of
variables. In addition, textile dyeing is characterized by a large number of variables,
each with a distinct degree of effect on the final outcome of the process. The assortment
of so many variables, as well as the inter-relation among these factors, makes right-
first-time dyeing quite demanding, and troubleshooting faulty dyeings even more
exacting and arduous.
By experience, a trouble-shooter can reduce the number of probable causes of
problems, but confirmation of the exact cause can be difficult. A best estimate,
possible through a process of elimination, requires answers to a series of questions
and/or actual laboratory tests. Although some of the defects can be analyzed by the
practical dyer, in many cases, they can be analyzed only by a special textile laboratory,
set-up for this purpose, with qualified personnel and special equipment. A satisfactory
diagnosis entails: a well-equipped testing laboratory, extensive experience in testing,
© The Textile Institute
44 Textile Progress doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001
and expert knowledge about several textile processing stages, the interaction between
the process variables, and the structural features that determine the properties of the
material; as well as a knack of problem-solving.
Defects in dyed cotton materials can be attributed to innumerable causes ranging
from poor quality of fibre, faulty spinning, inappropriate yarn package formation,
improper weaving or knitting, impurities in water, poor standardisation of dyes and
chemicals, lack of control of the variables in the processes involved, machine
malfunctions to human errors. This monograph addresses the most common problems
in the dyeing of cotton textile materials in various forms. An overview of various
textile operations for cotton is given and various key stages and factors involved in
the production of dyed cotton textile materials are examined in detail and problems
originating at each stage are summarised. As quality requirements are becoming
more stringent in textiles, human expertise in such a specialized area as dyeing is
becoming more limited and expensive. We are aware that sufficient weight was not
given to all aspects of production and coloration, and additional detailed examination
of techniques would be required to understand the underlying cause of specific problems.
However, we hope that readers will find this monograph a useful source of information
for the troubleshooting of common problems in the dyeing of cotton-based textile
substrates.
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Grey (greige): Woven or knitted fabrics as they leave the loom or knitting machine,
i.e. before any bleaching, dyeing or finishing treatment has been given to them. Some
of these fabrics, however, may contain dyed or finished yarns. Note: In some countries,
particularly in the Northern American continent, the term greige is used. For woven
goods, the term loomstate is frequently used as an alternative. In the linen and lace
trades, the term brown goods is used.
Jet-dyeing machine: (a) A machine for dyeing fabric in rope form in which the fabric
is carried through a narrow throat by dye-liquor circulated at a high velocity.
(b) A machine for dyeing garments in which the garments are circulated by jets of
liquid rather than by mechanical means.
Jig/jigger: A machine in which fabric in open width is transferred repeatedly back
and forth from one roller to another and passes each time through a dyebath or other
liquid of relatively small volume. Jigs are frequently used for dyeing, scouring,
bleaching and finishing.
Levelness: Uniformity of dye or chemical distribution across the substrate.
Lustre (luster, US): The display of different intensities of light, reflected both specularly
and diffusely from different parts of a surface exposed to the same incident light.
High lustre is associated with gross differences of this kind, and empirical measurements
of lustre depend on the ratio of the intensities of reflected light for specified angles
of incidence and viewing. Note: This definition makes these differences in intensity
of light the keypoint, since these form the chief subjective impression on the observer
of lustre. Both specular and diffuse light must be present together, for, if diffuse light
only is present, the surface is matt, not lustrous, whereas, if specular light only is
present, the surface is mirror-like, and again not lustrous. The phrase ‘exposed to the
same incident light’ has been included to rule out shadow effects, which have no part
in lustre proper. The general term ‘surface’ is intended to apply to fibres, yarns, and
fabrics, and indeed to other surfaces, e.g. that of a pearl (though there the differently
reflecting parts are very close together). In the second sentence of the definition,
lustre is regarded as a positive function of the differences, the appropriate adjective
of intensification being ‘high’.
Mercerization: The treatment of cellulosic textiles in yarns or fabric form with a
concentrated solution of caustic alkali whereby the fibres are swollen, the strength
and dye affinity of the materials are increased, and the handle is modified. The
process takes its name from its discoverer, John Mercer (1884).
Mote: There are two broad categories:
(a) Fuzzy motes. The largest of this type of mote consists of whole aborted or
immature seeds covered with fuzz fibers and sometimes also with very short lint
fibres, the development of which has ceased at a very early stage. Small fuzzy motes
originate as either undeveloped or fully grown seeds, which are broken in ginning
and disintegrate still further in the opening, cleaning and carding processes.
(b) Bearded motes. Pieces of seed coat with fairly long lint fibres attached.
Note 1: Both classes of mote become entangled with the lint cotton and, when they
are present in quantity, their complete elimination is impossible except by combing.
Note 2: Fuzzy and bearded motes carrying only a small piece of barely visible seed-
coat are frequently termed seed-coat neps.
Package dyeing: A method of dyeing in which the liquor is circulated radially through
a wound package. Note: Wound packages include slubbing in top form and cheeses
or cones of yarn.
Piece-dyeing: Dyeing in fabric form.
Pilling: Small accumulations of fibres on the surface of a fabric. Pills can develop
during wear, are held to the fabric by an entanglement with the surface fibers of the
material, and are usually composed of the same fibres as those from which the fabric
is made.
Reactive dye: A dye that, under suitable conditions, is capable of reacting chemically
with a substrate to form a covalent dye–substrate linkage.
Resist: (a) A substance applied to a substrate to prevent the uptake or fixation of a dye
in a subsequent operation. Note: The substance functions by forming a mechanical
barrier, by reacting chemically with the dye or substrate, or by altering conditions
(e.g. pH value) locally so that development cannot occur. Imperfect preparation of
the substrate may cause a resist as a fault. (b) In printing plate or roller making, a
coating of, for example, light-hardened gelatin which protects from the action of the
etching solution those areas of the plate or roller which are not required to be etched.
Scouring: The treatment of textile materials in aqueous or other solutions in order to
remove natural fats, waxes, proteins and other constituents, as well as dirt, oil and
other impurities.
Sequestering agents: A chemical capable of reacting with metallic ions so that they
become part of a complex anion. The principle is used to extract calcium ions from
hard water, iron (II) and copper ions from peroxide bleach liquors and various metallic
ions from dyebaths, by forming a water-soluble complex in which the metal is held
in a non-ionizable form.
Shade: (a) A common term loosely employed to broadly describe a particular colour
or depth, e.g., pale shade, 2% shade, mode shade and fashion shade. (b) To bring
about relatively small modifications in the colour of a substrate in dyeing by adding
further small amount of dye, especially with the object of matching more accurately
with a given pattern.
Singeing: To remove, by burning against a hot plate, in a flame, or by infra-red
radiation, unwanted surface hairs or filaments. The operation is usually performed as
a preliminary to bleaching and finishing.
Stripping: Destroying or removing the dye or finish from a fibre.
Size: A gelatinous film-forming substance, in solution or dispersion, applied normally
to warps but sometimes to wefts, generally before weaving.
Note 1: The main types are carbohydrates and their derivatives, gelatin, and animal
glues, although other substances, such as linseed oil, poly (acrylic acid), and poly
(vinyl alcohol) are also used.
© The Textile Institute
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton 57
Note 2: The objects of sizing prior to weaving are to protect the yarns from abrasion
in healds and reed and against each other; to strengthen them; and by the addition of
oils and fats, to lubricate them.
Note 3: A size may be applied to carpets (e.g. starch) and occasionally to wool fabrics
(e.g. animal glue).
Sizing: A process in which warp yarns are sized during transfer from warper’s beams
to loom beams. Two or more size boxes may be used in parallel and/or in tandem if
the warp sheet is too dense for effective sizing in one box, or if it contains yarns with
different fugitive tints. Slasher sizing is also known as slashing.
Slashing: See sizing
Substantivity: The attraction between a substrate and a dye or other substrate under
the precise conditions of test whereby the latter is selectively extracted from the
application medium by the substrate.
Surfactant/Surface Active Agent: An agent, soluble or dispersible in a liquid, which
reduces the surface tension of the liquid.
Poor washing fastness 1. Inadequate rinsing of the 1. Thorough rinsing of the fabric
fabric before oxidation before oxidation
2. Premature or over-oxidation 2. Optimum oxidation
of the dye
3. Poor washing-off after- 3. Thorough washing-off (see below
treatment the cause of poor washing-off)
Poor washing off 1. Dye substantivity, too high 1. Use of dyes of optimum
substantivity
2. Dyes of low diffusion 2. Use of dyes of optimum
coefficient diffusion coefficient
3. Short liquor ratio of the 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the
washing bath washing bath
4. Low temperature of the 4. Optimum temperature of the
washing liquor washing liquor
5. High electrolyte 5a. Use of low salt dyes
concentration in the washing 5b. Optimum rinsing cycle/
bath sequence
6. Water hardness 6. Use of soft water and/or
sequestrants
7. Inadequate washing time 7. Optimum washing time
8. Inadequate number of wash 8. Optimum number of wash
cycles/wash baths cycles/wash baths
9. Low mechanical action 9. Optimum mechanical action
10. Misuse of dyebath assistants 10. Compatible dyebath assistants
Poor rubbing fastness 1. Dyes of poor rubbing 1. Use of dyes of good rubbing
fastness fastness
2. Catalytic damage of the 2. No catalytic damage of the
material material
3. Presence of polyvalent ions 3. Use of appropriate complexing
agents
4. Too high moisture in the test 4. Proper conditioning of the test
material material
5. Improper use of finishing 5. Proper use of finishing agents
agents
6. Un-Mercerized cotton 6. Use of Mercerized cotton
7. Incomplete diffusion and 7. Use of optimum dyeing
fixation conditions
8. Incomplete washing-off 8. Optimum washing-off
Physical damage 1. Too long dyeing time (due to 1. Right First Time Dyeing
corrective/repair procedures)
2. Too high mechanical or 2. Optimum mechanical or
hydraulic action hydraulic action
3. Too high temperature 3. Optimum temperature
(increases the sensitivity of the
material to physical damage)
Light coloured areas/ The presence of broken fibres 1. Good quality control of the
spots on the yarn on the surface at the damaged substrate
portions leads to stronger 2. Optimum singeing
scattering of light causing them
to appear lighter
Low solubility of dyes Alkaline earth metals and/or 1. Use of sequestering agents
heavy metals 2. Demineralisation
Change in the tone of Alkaline earth metals and/or 1. Use of sequestering agents
dyeing heavy metals 2. Demineralisation
General impairment Seed capsules, leaves, branches, Good fibre preparation and
etc. and /or Neps cleaning (during spinning)
Swelled or puffy package 1. Too soft package winding 1. Optimum package winding
shoulders 2. Foaming in the bath 2. Use of anti-foaming agent
White or light yarn streaks in 1. Too soft package winding 1. Optimum package winding
otherwise deep dyed yarn 2. Foaming in the bath 2. Use of anti-foaming agent
Leakage or poor liquor flow 1. Differences in the package 1. Uniform package densities
through the edges of the dye densities
package 2. Unsatisfactory spacer 2. Optimum spacer sealing
sealing
Different shades in the inner, Non-uniform winding and/or Uniform winding and
middle and outer layers of a pressing density pressing density
package
Dye resists, stains and/or High solid content in the 1. Appropriate water treatment
spots rinsing water prior to use in processing
Water hardness 2. Use of suitable sequestrants
Heavy metals during processing
Sulphates, sulphites,
sulphides, or chlorides
Silica
Uneven scouring (random 1. Poor stability of surfactant/ 1. Suitable selection and proper
unevenness when wetting agent (cloud point use of surfactant/wetting agent
scouring in fabric form) below application
temperature)
2. Water hardness or 2. Use of soft water or effective
ineffective chelating agents chelating agents
3. Non-uniform and/or 3. Uniform and thorough washing
ineffective washing after after scouring
scouring
4. Improper use of defoamer 4. Suitable selection and proper
use of defoamer
Uneven whiteness 1. Uneven pad pressure (across 1. Uniform pad pressure (across
(widthways) (bleaching the fabric width) the fabric width)
of fabrics by pad steam 2. Non-uniform bath 2. Uniform bath temperature
process) temperature
3. Non-uniform chemical 3. Uniform chemical
concentration concentration
Inadequate mote removal 1. Too low bleaching pH/ 1. Optimum bleaching pH/
alkalinity alkalinity
2. Inadequate softening of 2. Adequate softening of motes
motes during scouring during scouring
Decrease in the elasticity Too high alkalinity in the Optimum alkalinity in the
of the material bleach liquor bleach liquor
Low sewability of the Too high bleaching temperature Optimum bleaching temperature
material and/or alkalinity and alkalinity
Uneven mercerization 1. Dilution of the bath with time 1. Uniform moisture content in
(length-wise) the fabric
2. Increase in bath temperature 2. No variation in bath
with time temperature with time
3. Length-wise variation in the 3. No length-wise variation in the
moisture content of the fabric moisture content of the fabric
4. Variation in the pad pressure 4. No variation in the pad
during the process pressure during the process
5. Variation in pick-up along the 5. No variation in pick-up along
fabric length the fabric length
Poor washing off 1. Dye substantivity, too high 1. Use of dyes of optimum
substantivity
2. Dyes of low diffusion 2. Use of dyes of optimum
coefficient diffusion coefficient
3. Short liquor ratio of the 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the
washing bath washing bath
4. Low temperature of the 4. Optimum temperature of the
washing liquor washing liquor
5. High electrolyte concentration 5a. Use of low salt dyes
in the washing bath 5b. Optimum rinsing cycle/
sequence
6. Water hardness 6. Use of soft water and/or
sequestrants
7. Inadequate washing time 7. Optimum washing time
8. Inadequate number of wash 8. Optimum number of wash
cycles/wash baths cycles/wash baths
9. Low mechanical action 9. Optimum mechanical action
10. Misuse of dyebath assistants 10. Compatible dyebath assistants
11. Disazo, 1:2 Metal Complex, 11a. Use of alternative dyes if
and Phthalocyanine dyes are possible or
difficult to wash-off 11b. Use of more severe washing-
off
Poor rubbing 1. Dyes of poor rubbing fastness 1. Use of dyes of good rubbing
fastness fastness
2. Catalytic damage of the 2. No catalytic damage of the
material material
3. Presence of polyvalent ions 3. Use of appropriate complexing
agents
Physical damage 1. Too long dyeing time (due to 1. Right first time dyeing
corrective/repair procedures)
2. Too high mechanical or 2. Optimum mechanical or
hydraulic action hydraulic action
3. Too high temperature 3. Optimum temperature
(increases the sensitivity of the
material to physical damage)
Light coloured areas/ The presence of broken fibres on 1. Good quality control of the
spots on the yarn the surface at the damaged substrate
portions leads to stronger 2. Optimum singeing
scattering of light causing them
to appear lighter
Poor washing fastness 1. Inadequate rinsing of the 1. Thorough rinsing of the fabric
fabric before oxidation before oxidation
2. Premature or over-oxidation of 2. Optimum oxidation
the dye
3. Poor washing-off after- 3. Thorough washing-off (see
treatment below the cause of ‘Poor
washing-off’)
Poor washing off 1. Dye substantivity, too high 1. Use of dyes of optimum
substantivity
2. Dyes of low diffusion 2. Use of dyes of optimum
coefficient diffusion coefficient
3. Short liquor ratio of the 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the
washing bath washing bath
4. Low temperature of the 4. Optimum temperature of the
washing liquor washing liquor
5. High electrolyte concentration 5a. Use of low salt dyes
in the washing bath 5b. Optimum rinsing cycle/
sequence
6. Water hardness 6. Use of soft water and/or
sequestrants
7. Inadequate washing time 7. Optimum washing time
8. Inadequate number of wash 8. Optimum number of wash
cycles/wash baths cycles/wash baths
9. Low mechanical action 9. Optimum mechanical action
10. Misuse of dyebath assistants 10. Compatible dyebath assistants
Poor rubbing fastness 1. Dyes of poor rubbing fastness 1. Use of dyes of good rubbing
fastness
2. Catalytic damage of the 2. No catalytic damage of the
material material
3. Presence of polyvalent ions 3. Use of appropriate complexing
agents
4. Too high moisture in the test 4. Proper conditioning of the test
material material
5. Improper use of finishing 5. Proper use of finishing agents
agents
6. Un-mercerized cotton 6. Use of mercerized cotton
7. Incomplete diffusion and 7. Use of optimum dyeing
fixation conditions
8. Incomplete washing-off 8. Optimum washing-off
Light coloured areas/ The presence of broken fibres on 1. Good quality control of the
spots on the yarn the surface at the damaged substrate
portions leads to stronger 2. Optimum singeing
scattering of light causing them
to appear lighter
Premature oxidation 1. Presence of air inside the 1. Prevention of air inside the
machine machine
2. Insufficient amount of sodium 2. Optimum amount of sodium
sulphide and/or alkali sulphide and/or alkali
Poor washing fastness 1. Inadequate rinsing of the 1. Thorough rinsing of the fabric
fabric before oxidation before oxidation
2. Premature or over-oxidation of 2. Optimum oxidation
the dye
3. Poor washing-off after- 3. Thorough washing-off (see
treatment below the cause of ‘Poor
washing-off’)
Poor washing off 1. Dye substantivity, too high 1. Use of dyes of optimum
substantivity
2. Dyes of low diffusion 2. Use of dyes of optimum
coefficient diffusion coefficient
3. Short liquor ratio of the 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the
washing bath washing bath
4. Low temperature of the 4. Optimum temperature of the
washing liquor washing liquor
5. High electrolyte concentration 5a. Use of low salt dyes
in the washing bath 5b. Optimum rinsing cycle/
sequence
6. Water hardness 6. Use of soft water and/or
sequestrants
7. Inadequate washing time 7. Optimum washing time
8. Inadequate number of wash 8. Optimum number of wash
cycles/wash baths cycles/wash baths
9. Low mechanical action 9. Optimum mechanical action
10. Misuse of dyebath assistants 10. Compatible dyebath assistants
Poor rubbing fastness 1. Dyes of poor rubbing fastness 1. Use dyes of good rubbing
fastness
2. Catalytic damage of the 2. No catalytic damage of the
material material
3. Presence of polyvalent ions 3. Use of appropriate complexing
agents
4. Too high moisture in the test 4. Proper conditioning of the test
material material
5. Improper use of finishing 5. Proper use of finishing agents
agents
Physical damage 1. Too long dyeing time (due to 1. Right First Time Dyeing
corrective/repair procedures)
2. Too high mechanical or 2. Optimum mechanical or
hydraulic action hydraulic action
3. Too high temperature 3. Optimum temperature
(increases the sensitivity of the
material to physical damage)
Light coloured areas/ The presence of broken fibres on 1. Good quality control of the
spots on the yarn the surface at the damaged substrate
portions leads to stronger 2. Optimum singeing
scattering of light causing them
to appear lighter
Premature oxidation 1. Presence of air inside the 1. Prevention of air inside the
machine machine
2. Insufficient amount of sodium 2. Optimum amount of sodium
dithionite and/or alkali dithionite and/or alkali
Physical damage 1. Too long dyeing time (due to 1. Right First Time Dyeing
corrective/repair procedures)
2. Too high mechanical or 2. Optimum mechanical or
hydraulic action hydraulic action
Light coloured areas/ The presence of broken fibres on 1. Good quality control of the
spots on the yarn the surface at the damaged substrate
portions leads to stronger 2. Optimum singeing
scattering of light causing them
to appear lighter