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In mathematics, the Bernoulli polynomials, named after Jacob Bernoulli, occur in the study of many special
functions and in particular the Riemann zeta function and the Hurwitz zeta function. This is in large part because they
are an Appell sequence, i.e. a Sheffer sequence for the ordinary derivative operator. Unlike orthogonal polynomials,
the Bernoulli polynomials are remarkable in that the number of crossings of the x-axis in the unit interval does not go
up as the degree of the polynomials goes up. In the limit of large degree, the Bernoulli polynomials, appropriately
scaled, approach the sine and cosine functions.
Contents
1 Representations
1.1 Explicit formula
1.2 Generating functions
1.3 Representation by a differential operator
1.4 Representation by an integral operator
2 Another explicit formula
3 Sums of pth powers
Bernoulli polynomials
4 The Bernoulli and Euler numbers
5 Explicit expressions for low degrees
6 Maximum and minimum
7 Differences and derivatives
7.1 Translations
7.2 Symmetries
8 Fourier series
9 Inversion
10 Relation to falling factorial
11 Multiplication theorems
12 Integrals
13 Periodic Bernoulli polynomials
14 See also
15 References
Representations
The Bernoulli polynomials Bn admit a variety of different representations. Which among them should be taken to be
the definition may depend on one's purposes.
Explicit formula
Generating functions
where D = d/dx is differentiation with respect to x and the fraction is expanded as a formal power series. It follows
that
Note the remarkable similarity to the globally convergent series expression for the Hurwitz zeta function. Indeed, one
has
where ζ(s, q) is the Hurwitz zeta; thus, in a certain sense, the Hurwitz zeta generalizes the Bernoulli polynomials to
non-integer values of n.
The inner sum may be understood to be the nth forward difference of xm; that is,
The inner sum may be understood to be the nth forward difference of xm; that is,
This formula may be derived from an identity appearing above as follows. Since the forward difference operator Δ
equals
As long as this operates on an mth-degree polynomial such as xm, one may let n go from 0 only up to m.
An integral representation for the Bernoulli polynomials is given by the Nörlund–Rice integral, which follows from
the expression as a finite difference.
which shows that the value at x = 0 (and at x = 1) is −3617/510 ≈ −7.09, while at x = 1/2, the value is
118518239/3342336 ≈ +7.09. D.H. Lehmer[1] showed that the maximum value of Bn(x) between 0 and 1 obeys
unless n is 2 modulo 4, in which case
These limits are quite close to the actual maximum and minimum, and Lehmer gives more accurate limits as well.
Translations
These identities are also equivalent to saying that these polynomial sequences are Appell sequences. (Hermite
polynomials are another example.)
Symmetries
Zhi-Wei Sun and Hao Pan [2] established the following surprising symmetry relation: If r + s + t = n and
x + y + z = 1, then
where
Fourier series
The Fourier series of the Bernoulli polynomials is also a Dirichlet series, given by the expansion
This is a special case of the analogous form for the Hurwitz zeta function
This expansion is valid only for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 when n ≥ 2 and is valid for 0 < x < 1 when n = 1.
The Fourier series of the Euler polynomials may also be calculated. Defining the functions
and
and
and
They are related to the Legendre chi function as
and
Inversion
The Bernoulli and Euler polynomials may be inverted to express the monomial in terms of the polynomials.
Specifically, evidently from the above section on #Representation by an integral operator, it follows that
and
where and
denotes the Stirling number of the second kind. The above may be inverted to express the falling factorial in terms of
the Bernoulli polynomials:
where
Multiplication theorems
The multiplication theorems were given by Joseph Ludwig Raabe in 1851:
Definite integrals
Strictly these functions are not polynomials at all and more properly should be termed the periodic Bernoulli
functions.
See also
Bernoulli numbers
Stirling polynomial
References
1. D.H. Lehmer, "On the Maxima and Minima of Bernoulli Polynomials", American Mathematical Monthly,
volume 47, pages 533–538 (1940)
2. Zhi-Wei Sun; Hao Pan (2006). "Identities concerning Bernoulli and Euler polynomials". Acta Arithmetica. 125:
21–39. arXiv:math/0409035 (https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0409035) . doi:10.4064/aa125-1-3 (https://doi.org/10.
4064%2Faa125-1-3).
Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, eds. Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs,
and Mathematical Tables, (1972) Dover, New York. (See Chapter 23)
Apostol, Tom M. (1976), Introduction to analytic number theory, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, New
York-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-90163-3, MR 0434929, Zbl 0335.10001 (See chapter
12.11)
Dilcher, K. (2010), "Bernoulli and Euler Polynomials", in Olver, Frank W. J.; Lozier, Daniel M.; Boisvert,
Ronald F.; Clark, Charles W., NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 978-0521192255, MR 2723248
Cvijović, Djurdje; Klinowski, Jacek (1995). "New formulae for the Bernoulli and Euler polynomials at rational
arguments". Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 123: 1527–1535. doi:10.2307/2161144.
Guillera, Jesus; Sondow, Jonathan (2008). "Double integrals and infinite products for some classical constants
via analytic continuations of Lerch's transcendent". The Ramanujan Journal. 16 (3): 247–270.
arXiv:math.NT/0506319 . doi:10.1007/s11139-007-9102-0. (Reviews relationship to the Hurwitz zeta function
and Lerch transcendent.)
Hugh L. Montgomery; Robert C. Vaughan (2007). Multiplicative number theory I. Classical theory.
Cambridge tracts in advanced mathematics. 97. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 495–519. ISBN 0-521-
84903-9.