INTRODUCTION OF METROLOGY

PENGENALAN KEPADA METROLOGI

Metrology is of fundamental importance in industry and trade – not only from the point of view of the
consumer but also for those involved in manufacturing. Both groups must have confidence in the
accuracy and reliability of the measurements upon which they depend. Within the manufacturing
process, to ensure the accuracy of measuring instruments, it is essential that they should be periodically
calibrated against more accurate standards.

Metrologi adalah asas yang penting dalam perindustrian dan perdagangan – bukan sahaja pada
pandangan pengguna tetapi ia juga melibatkan dalam pembuatan. Kedua-dua golongan ini mesti
mempunyai keyakinan terhadap ketepatan dan kesahan pada pengukuran yang mereka bergantung
harap kepadanya.

Metrology is a very broad field and may be divided into three subfields
Metrologi adalah bidang yang sangat penting danterbahagi kepada tiga sub topic

(i) Scientific or fundamental metrology concerns the establishment of measurement units, unit
systems, the development of new measurement methods, realization of measurement
standards and the transfer of traceability from these standards to users in society.

(i) Saintifik atau asas metrology perihatin terhadap penubuhan unit pengukuran, unit system,
pembangunan terhadap kaedah pengukuran yang baru, merealisasikan standad pengukuran
dan penghijrahan daripada standard ini kepada pengguna dalan masyarakat.

(ii) Applied or industrial metrology concerns the application of measurement science to

manufacturing and other processes and their use in society, ensuring the suitability of
measurement instruments, their calibration and quality control of measurements
(ii) Applied atau Metrologi Industri perihatin terhadap sains pengukuran pada pembuatan dan
proses yang lain dan kegunaan dalam masyarakat, memastikan kesesuaian peralatan
pengukuran, penjajaran dan kawalan mutu terhadap pengukuran.

(iii) Legal metrology concerns regulatory requirements of measurements and measuring

instruments for the protection of health, public safety, the environment, enabling taxation,
protection of consumers and fair trade.
(iii) Undang-undang metrologi perhatin keperluan peraturan pengukuran dan alatan mengukur
dalam melindungi kesihatan, keselamatan umum, alam sekitar, membolehkan percukaian,
perlindungan pengguna dan perniagaan yang adil.

Basic units measurement system

Sistem asas unit pengukuran

(i) The English system (inches)

(i) Sistem Pengukuran Inggeris (Inci)
That system of measurement is based on the inch. When dealing with inches in the machining
industry, fractional and decimal measurement and math are both very common
Sistem pengukuran ini adalah berasaskan inci. Bila berurusan dengan pengukuran inci dalam
industry pemesinan, pengukuran dan pengiraan adalah sangat berkaitan dengan pecahan dan
perpuluhan
 (ii) The Metric System Or SI
(ii) Sistem pengukuran Metrik atau SI
The meter is the basic unit used in the metric system of measurement, but the millimeter is
most commonly used in the machining industry
Unit meter adalah unit yang asas dalam system pengukuran metric, tetapi milimeter (mm)
adalah penggunaan yang biasa dalam industry pemesinan.

CHAPTER 2 : SEMI-PRECISION MEASUREMENT

BAB 2 : PENGUKURAN SEPARA JITU

INTRODUCTION
PENGENALAN

Semi-precision measurement usually refer to measurement when results do not need to be more precise
than 1/64" or 1/100" ,0.5mm, or 1 degree. this unit will explore several types of semi-precision measuring
instruments or tools
Biasanya pengukuran spara jitu merujuk kepada pengukuran yang tidak memerlukan ketepatan kepada
kejituan daripada 1/64” atau 1/100”, atau 0.5mm, atau 1 darjah sudut. Unit ini akan meneroka beberapa
peralatan atau alat mengukur spara jitu.

RULES

Reading English Rules

Membaca pembaris inggeris.

There are many styles of graduations for English rules. The most common graduation style divides inches
into 1/8 (one-eighth), 1/16 (one-sixteenth), 1/32 (one/thirty-second), 1/64 (one-sixty-four) divisions.
When read the rules with the these graduations, measurement should always be reduced to lowest terms
Terdapat banyak gaya pembahagian senggatan pada pembaris Inggeris. Senggatan yang biasa adalah
gaya senggatan yang dibahadikan kepada 1/8in,(perlapan), 1/16in (per enambelas), 1/32in,(per tigapuluh
dua), 1/64in, (per enam puluh empat) senggatan. Bila membaca pembaris dengan senggatan ini, ukuran
seharusnya dikurangkan kepada term yang lebih rendah.

Reading Metric Rules

Membaca Pembaris Metrik

Metric rules are graduated in millimetre and one-haff (0.5)Millimetre divisions. Quick-reading number
every 5 or 10 millimeter simplify measurement
Pembaris metric dibahagikan kepada senggatan bergraduasi dalam satu milimeter dan setengah
milimeter (0.5mm). Membaca denga ringan dan pantas pada pembaris pada setiap nombor 5 atau 10
milimeter.

CALIPERS
 Out side and inside caliper

CHAPTER 3 : PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENT

WHAT IS PRECISION MEASUREMENT

 When preforming precision measuring using English measurement (inch-based), expected

accuracy is generally between 0.001 and 0.0001 inches.
 In SI (metric-based), expected accuracy is generally between 0.01 and 0.002 millimeters.
 Expected angular accuracy is generally within 5 minutes (1/12) of degree.

SURFACE PLATES

 A surface plate is a flat that is used as an accurate reference surface with other precision tools to
aid with some measurement tasks.
 Some older surface plate are cast iron, but today most are made of granite because granite is
stable and the surface will not expend or contract with change of temperature.

VERNIER MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Venier Calipers
 A vernier caliper is similar to semi-percision slide caliper, but its vernier scale allow it to be used
for measurement as small as 0.001” or 0.02 mm.
 Vernier calipers has three different part
• solid jaw and moveable jaw that for external dimensions.
• Nibs between two surface can measured the internal dimension
• Rod for depth measurement.

Outside micrometer

 The outside micrometer is comman type of micrometer

 It is used to measure external dimension and is available in both English and metric versions

Inside micrometer

 Inside micrometer used to measure internal dimension are available in the three major types.
 The tubular or rod style
 Bore micrometer
 Internal micrometer caliper
Inside micrometer

The Tubular Or Rod Style Bore Micrometer Internal Micrometer Caliper

Have micrometer heads with
interchangeable end to cover a
large range of size
Adjust the head while pivoting
the tool inside a hole or slot to
make contact with two surface
and approximately 1-1/2”
Measuring hole diameter
uses three telescoping legs to
make contact inside the hole.
A ratchet slip when there is
proper contact pressure and
divided into smaller units of
0.0002” or 0.005mm
Has jaws and is similar to the
outside micrometer, except the
graduations on the sleeve are
numbered and read from right to
left and the graduations of the
thimble are in reverse order
Measure down to approximately
0.200” or 5mm

Depth micrometer

 The micrometer depth gage, of depth micrometer, features a base and interchangeable rods for
different size ranges.
 The rods are produced in 1” or 25-mm increments.
 The graduations are numbered and read from left to right.

Dial and digital calipers

 Dial and digital calipers are beginning to replace vernier calipers in industry.
 Very versatile because they have ability measure external, internal, depth, and step measurement
quickly and easily.
 Dial calipers usually have 0.001” or 0.02-mm
 Digital caliper usually read to 0.0005” or 0.01mm

Surface Roughness measurement

Surface roughness comparator

 Ra Surface roughness is normally inspected by one or two different methods.
 Comparator gage shows example of different levels of Ra.
 Machined surface are visually compared to there sample to determent if they are within
acceptable limits.

Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

Overview

 Coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) are extremely powerful metrological instrument

 It is a device for measuring the physical geometrical characteristics of an object
 This machine may be manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer controlled.
 Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis of this machine
 This probe touches the part of interest and allows collecting discrete points on the object's
surface.
Measuring using CMM

THE ROLE OF COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES

 CMMs play an important role in a large number of industries, including;

 Aerospace
 Automotive
 Food processing
 Health care
 Paper
 Pharmaceuticals
 Plastics
 Research and development
 Semiconductor

THE ROLE OF COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES

 CMMs are particularly suited for the following conditions:

 Short runs
 Multiple features
 Flexibility
 High unit cost
 Production interruption

Short run

 We may be producing hundreds or even thousands of part, but the production run is not
sufficient to justify the cost of production inspection tooling

Multiple features

 When we have a number of features- both dimensional and geometric- to control, CMM is the
instrument that makes control easy and economical

Flexibility

 Because we can choose the application of the CMM system, we can also do short runs and
measure multiple features
High unit cost

 Because reworking or scrapping is costly, CMM systems significantly increase the production of
acceptable parts

Production interruption

 Whenever you have to inspect and pass one part before you can start machining on the next part,
a machining center may actually be able to help a manufacturer save more money by reducing
downtime than would be save by inspection

Comparison between conventional and coordinate measuring technology

CONVENTIONAL METROLOGY COORDINATE METROLOGY

Manual, time consuming alignment of the Alignment of the test piece not
test piece necessary

Single purpose and multi-point measuring Simple adaptation to the

instruments making it hard to adapt to measuring test by software
changing measuring task
Comparison of measurement with Comparison of measurement with
material measures, i.e., gauge block mathematical or numerical value

Separate determination of size, form, Determination of size, form,

location and orientation with different location and orientation in one
machines setup using one reference system

TYPES OF CMMs

 The basic CMM has three perpendicular axis; x,y,z

 The physical configuration of CMMs vary widely, but they all provide a way to move a probe in
three axes with respect to workpiece
 Five basic configurations that are used more frequently
1. Cantilever
2. Bridge
3. Column
4. Horizontal arm
5. Gantry

Cantilever type

 A vertical probe moves in the z-axis

 Carried by a cantilevered arm that moves in the y-axis
 This arm also moves laterally through the x-axis
 Advantage- a fixed table allows good accessibility to the workpiece
 Disadvantage- the bending caused by the cantilever design
 The cantilever design offers a long table with relatively small
measuring ranges in the other two axis.
 Suitable for measuring long, thin part
Moving bridge type

 Most widely used

 Has stationary table to support workpiece to be measured and a
moving bridge
 Disadvantage- with this design, the phenomenon of yawing
(sometimes called walking) can occur- affect the accuracy
 Advantage- reduce bending effect

Fixed bridge type

 In the fixed bridge configuration, the bridge is rigidly attached to the machine bed
 This design eliminates the phenomenon of walking and provides high rigidity

Column type

 Often referred to as universal measuring machine instead of

CMM
 The column type CMM construction provides exceptional
rigidity and accuracy
 These machines are usually reserved for gage rooms rather
than inspection

Horizontal arm type

 Unlike the previous machines, the basic horizontal arm-

type CMM
 Also referred to as layout machine
 Has a moving arm, and the probe is carried along the y-
axis
 Advantage- provides a large area, unobstructed work area
 Ideal configuration for measurement of automobile parts

Gantry type

 The support of workpiece is independent of the x and y

axes, both are overhead, supported by four vertical
columns rising from the floor
 This setup allows you to walk along the workpiece with
the probe, which is helpful for extremely large pieces
Gantry configuration with dual linear motor drives, laser scales an online compensation

Other configuration

MODES OF OPERATION

 Manual
 Manual computer assisted
 Motorized computer assisted
 Direct computer controlled
Manual

 CMM has a free floating probe that operator move along the machine’s three axes to establish
contact with the part feature that accessing
 The differences among the contact positions are the measurements

Manual computer assisted

 Add electronic digital displays for these machines, making zero setting, changing sign, converting
unit, and printing out data easy and practical
 Advantage- save time, minimize calculation, reduce error

Motorized computer assisted

 Uses a joystick to drive the machine axes

 The operator manipulates the joysticks to bring the probe sensor into contact with the workpiece

Direct computer controlled (DCC)

 programmable
 Use CAD data to determine where the probe sensor contacts the workpiece, collecting
measurement data
 The fully automated CMM allows operator to place the workpiece in a fixture/ worktable, run a
stored program, collect the data points and generate the output report
 Measurement reports can be saved in the computer to compile a historical record for SPC.
 A program of DCC machine has three components:
1. Movement commands – direct the probe to the data collection points
2. Measurement command – compare the distance traveled with the standard built into the
machine for that axis
3. Formatting command- translate the data into a form for display or print out

TYPES OF PROBES

 Two general categories

1. Contact (see figure)
 Touch-trigger probe
 Analog scanning probe
2. Noncontact
For inspection of printed circuit board, measuring a clay of
wax model, when the object being measured would be
deformed by the for of stylus
 laser probes
 video probes

Contact probes

1. Touch trigger probe

 As the sensor makes contact with the part, the difference in contact resistance indicates
that the probe has been deflected
 The computer records this contact point coordinate space
 An LED light and an audible signal usually indicate contact
 Touch probe assemblies consist of three components; probe head, probe and stylus
 2. Analog scanning probe
 Use to measure contour surfaces, complex, irregular
 Remains in contact with the surface of the part as it moves
 Improve the speed and accuracy

Non-contact probe

1. Laser scanning probe

 Laser probes project a light beam onto the surface of a part
 When the light beam is triggered, the position of beam is read by triangulation through a
lens in the probe receptor
 Laser tool have a high degree of speed and accuracy
2. Video probe
 The feature are measured by computer ‘count’ of the pixels of the electronic image
 The camera is capable of generating multitude of measurements points within a single
video frame

Probe head, probes and stylus Multiple shapes of sylus

CMM software

 The programming of the machine or the software of the system enables the CMM to reach its full
potential for accuracy, precision and speed
 Contour programs allow the CMM to quickly define detailed, complex non-geometric shapes such
as gear, cams, and injection molds
 These programs also can be used to compare the measurement data with a computer assisted
drafting (CAD) model

CMM software (cont’)

 Generally software packages contains some or all of the following capabilities:

 Resolution selection
 Conversion between SI and English (mm and inch)
 Conversion of rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates
 Axis scaling
 Datum selection and reset
 Circle center and diameter solution
 Bolt-circle center and diameter
 Save and recall previous datum
 Nominal and tolerance entry
 Out-of tolerance computation
Coordinate System

 A coordinate allows the CMM to locate features on a workpiece relative to other features
 The coordinate system is similar to a three-dimensional map, providing direction and location
 Each machine has a ‘home’ position (an origin) and x, y and z axes identify location that
represents the machine coordinate system (MCS)
 A manufactured past can also have a part coordinate system (PCS)

References

 Text book
 Bosch, J.A., Coordinate Measuring Machines and System
CHAPTER 5 : LIMITS, FITS AND TOLERANCE

SISTEM BATASAN DAN GEGASAN

16.1 PENGENALAN
Sebelum pertengahan abad ke-19, bolt dan nat dibuat sepasang dan mesti disimpan bersama. Bolt dan nat ini
tidak boleh ditukar ganti dengan sepasang bolt dan nat yarig lain. Alat-alat ganti tidak disedia-kan ketifca itu.
Dengan demikian, banyak masa terbuang dan pe-nyenggaraan alat-alat ini,amatlah sukar.
Pada pertengahan abad ke-9, Sir Jos'eph Whitworth telah mem-perkenalkan satu sistem ulir skru atau
piawai yang mengambil sem-pena namanya. Sejak itu wujudlah satu sistem kepiawaian yang di-gunakan
hingga kini. Di Malaysia, kita mempunyai SIRIM sebagai institusi kepiawaian. Bagaimanapun, untuk.^kerja-
kerja kejuru-teraan, kita masih menggunakan sistem kepiawaian British.
Dalam pengeluaran kerja-kerja kejuruteraan, tidaklah ekonomi dan amat sukar menghasilkan hanya satu
saiz komponen sahaja. Dengan menggunakan sistem batasan dan gegasan, saiz satu komponen itu boleh
dibuat mengikut lingkungan had terima yang diberi. Rajah 16.1 menunjukkan dengan jelas istilah-istifah yang
diguna-kan dalam sistem batasan dan gegasan bagi aci dan lubang. Istilah-istilah tersebut ialah had tinggi, had
rendah, basi minimum, basi maksimum dan telusan. Perbezaan antara had tinggi dan had rendah dikenali
sebagai telusan.

Rajah 16.1 Sistem batasan dan gegasan.

16.1.1 Had Terima

Had terima tinggi dan had terima rendah ialah saiz satu komp* yang boleh diterima atau dikira betul.

Contoh 16.1

Jika satu dimensi diberi, ini bermakna

(a) 50.00 + 0.02 = 50.02 ialah had tinggi

(b) 50.00 -.0.03 = 49.97 ialah had rendah
(c) 50.02 - 49.97 = 0.05 ialah telusan
16.1.2 Gegas dan Basi
Apabila satu lubang dan satu aci dicantumkan, sistem cantuman ini disebut gegas. Telusan yang berlaku antara
aci dan lubang apabila percantuman dilakukan dinamakan basi. Terdapat dua jenis basi dalam sistem ini,
iaitu basi maksimum dan basi minimum.

Basi Maksimum
Basi jenis ini terjadi apabila aci yang dibuat pada had rendah dicantumkan dengan lubang yang dibuat pada
had tinggi.

Basi Minimum
Basi minimum terjadi apabila aci yang dibuat pada had tinggi di-•cantumkan dengan lubang yang dibuat
pada had rendah.

Contoh 16.2
Jika satu aci dan- lubang mempunyai ukuran yang berikut:

+ 0.06
Aci 50
− 0.03

+ 𝟎.𝟎𝟔
Lubang 50+ 𝟎.𝟎𝟑

Basi Maksimum = Had tinggi lubang-Had rendah aci

= 50.05 - 49.94
= 0.11
Basi Minimum = Had rendah lubang-Had tinggi aci
= 50.03 - 49.97
= 0.06

16.1.3 Saiz dan Had

Saiz Namaan
Saiz namaan merupakan saiz yang disebutkan bagi aci dan lubang.

Contohnya, jika aci atau lubang bergaris pusat 50.05 mm,

maka ia boleh disebutkan bergaris pusat 50 mm sahaja.
Ini bermakna saiz namaannya 50 mm.

Saiz Asas
Saiz asas merupakan saiz sebenar aci atau lubang apabila'had terima diberi kepadanya. Contohnya, jika satu
gegasan perlu dilakukan antara satu lubang bergaris pusat 50 mm dan satu aci bergaris pusat 49.70 mm, maka
saiz namaan bagi kedua-duanya ialah 50 mm, tetapi saiz asas bagi aci tersebut ialah 49.70 mm.

Saiz yang Betul

Saiz komponen yang telah dimesin dalam lingkungan had terima yang diberi merupakan saiz betul bagi
komponen tersebut. Contoh-
+0.04
nya, aci bergaris pusat 50−0.02 Setelah aci dimesin, ukuran komponen tersebut ialah 50.02 iaitu dalam
lingkungan had terima yang diberi.

Oleh sebab itu 50.02 mm adalah saiz yang betul.

Had Sesisi dan Had Dwisisi
Rajah 16.2 menunjukkan had sesisi dan had dwisisi. Had sesisi ter-jadi apabila kedua-dua had terima satu
komponen itu berada sama ada di atas saiz asas atau di bawah saiz asas. Oleh sebab itu, lingkungan telusan
tidak akan melintasi saiz asas. Manakala had dwisisi terjadi apabila had terima tinggi komponen itu berada di
atas saiz asas dan had terima rendah itu di bawah saiz asas, iaitu telus_an akan melintasi saiz asas.

16.2 PENGELASAN GEGAS DAN PEMILIHANNYA

Dalam sistem gegasan, gegas dapat dikelaskan kepada tiga (Rajah 16.3). iaitu:
1. Gegas kelegaan
2. Gegas peralihan
3. Gegas terganggu.

Gegas Kelegaan
Gegas itu berlaku apabila saiz aci lebih kecil daripada saiz lubang tidak kira apa juga kombinasi aci dan lubang
itu dipililu la diguna-kan apabila bahagian-bahagian yang dicantumkan boleh bergerak dengan bebas dan
senang. Berikut ialah tingkat gegas kelegaan:
(a) Kelegaan longgar
(b) Kelegaan sederhana
(c) Kelegaan rapat
(d) Kelegaan jitu.
 Aci lebih.kecil
daripada lubang

(a) Gegas kelegaan

Had rendah aci Had tinggi aci akan

akan menghasilkan menghasilkan tegasan
gegas kelegaan terganggu

(b) Gegas peralihan

Aci lebih besar

daripada lubang

(c) Gegas terganggu

Rajah 16.3 Kelas-kelas gegas.

Gegas Peralihan
Gegas peralihan boleh menghasilkan dua kelas gegas yang berlain-an apabila komponen itu dibuat mengikut
had-had terima yang diberi.
(a) Aci yang paling besar apabila dicantumkan dengan lubang
yang paling kecil menghasilkan gegas terganggu. /
(b) Aci yang paling kecil apabila dicantumkan dengan lubang
yang paling besar menghasilkan gegas kelegaan.
Gegas ini digunakan apabila bahagian-bahagian perlu dicantum dengan kemas dan tidak longgar tetapi boleh
dipisahkan kembali dengan mudah. Berikut ialah tingkat gegas peralihan:
(a) Sorong
(b) Mengunci ringan
(c) Mengunci sederhana
(d) Mengunci berat.
Gegas Terganggu
Gegas ini berlaku apabila saiz aci lebih besar daripada -saiz lubang tidak kira apa juga kombinasi lubang dan
aci itu dipilih. la digunakan apabila bahagian-bahagian itu hendak dicantumkan dengan kekal. Yang berikut
ialah tingkat gegas terganggu:
(a) Gerakan ringan
(b) Gerakan berat
(c) Gegas paksa.

16.2.1 Sistem Asas Lubang dan Aci

Rajah 16.4 menunjukkan dua sistem untuk memesin dua komponen yang akan dicantumkan mengikut gegas
yang diperlukan. Kedua-dua sistem tersebut ialah:
1. Sistem asas lubang
2. Sistem asas aci.

Asas aci Terganggu Ke|egaan Peralihan

Rajah 16.4 Sistem asas lubang dan aci.

Sistem Asas Aci

Sistem ini digunakan apabila saiz aci pula malar. Dengan ini, bahagian-bahagian kelas gegas dapat diperoleh
dengan mengubahkan saiz lubang.

Sistem Asas Lubang

Sistem ini digunakan apabila saiz lubang adalah tetap. Berbagai-bagai kelas gegas dapat diperoleh dengan
mengubahkan saiz aci.
Sistem asas lubang lebih popular kerana saiz lubang boleh dimesin dan dikawal dimensinya dengan
menggunakan gerudi dan pelulas yang sama saiznya. Aci yang dipasang itu kemudian boleh dilarik dan
dicanai mengikut jenis gegas yang dikehendaki.
16.2.2 Penentuan Had Terima
Rajah 16.5 menunjukkan bagaimana gegas kelegaan ditunjukkan dalam kerja-kerja kejuruteraan. Untuk
mendapatkan maklumat lebih lanjut berkenaan dimensi gegas tersebut, seorang pengendali mesin perlulah
merujuk Jadual 16.1 iaitu jadual kepiawaian BS 4500.

Saiz namaan
 60 mm

Rajah 16.5 Penentuan had terima dengan menggunakan gegas kelegaan.

Contoh 16.3

Rajah di atas menunjukkan had terima yang dipetik dari jadual kepiawaian BS
4500

Saiz namaan-60 garis pusat

Jenis gegas yang digunakan—kelegaan rapat

Dimensi untuk aci-

Dimensi untuk
lubang
Introduction of Metrologi

Piawai BS 4500
Piawai BS 4500 ialah piawai British dalam unit metrik yang berdasar-kan kepiawaian antarabangsa ISO.
Piawai ini boleh digunakan untuk kesemua jenis kerja, sama ada ringan atau berat dan juga boleh
digunakan berasaskan aci atau lubang. Jadual 16.1 merupakann sebahagian daripada jadual kepiawaian BS
4500. Keseluruhannya, terdapat 28 tingkat had terima. Setiap tingkat had terima aci dan lubang itu
mempunyai 18 gred iaitu 01, 0, 1,2,.. ., 16. Huruf kecil a, b, c, d, . . . menentukan saiz aci manakala huruf
besar A, B, C, D, menentukan saiz lubang.

Jadual 16.1 Jadual kepiawaian BS 4500

Saiz
namaan Kelegaan Kelegaan Kelegaan Kelegaan Peralihan Gangguan
longgar sederhana rapat jitu
Lebih Hingga
daripada kepada
mm mm H9 e9 H8 f7 H7 g6 H7 h6 H7 k6 H7 p6
+ 25 -14 + 14 - 6 + 10 - 2 + 10 - 0 + 10 +6 + 10 + 12
3
+ 0 -39 + 0 -16 +0 -8 +0 -6 +0 +0 +0 +6
+ 30 -20 + 18 -10 + 12 - 4 + 12 - 0 + 12 +9 + 12 + 20
3 6
+ 0 -50 + 0 -22 + 0 -12 + 0 - 8 +0 +1 + 0 + 12
+ 36 -25 + 22 -13 + 15 - 5 + 15 - 0 + 15 +10 + 15 + 24
6 10
+ 0 -61 + 0 -28 + 0 -14 + 0 - 9 +0 +1 +0 + 15
+ 43 -32 + 27 -16 + 18 - 6 + 18 - 0 + 18 +12 + 18 + 29
10 18
+ 0 -75 + 0 -34 + 0 -17 + 0 –11 +0 +1 + 0 + 18
+ 52 -40 + 33 -20 + 21 - 7 + 21 - 0 + 21 +15 + 21 + 35
18 30
+ 0 -92 + 0 -41 + 0 -20 + 0 -13 +0 +2 + 0 + 22
+ 62 -50 + 39 -25 + 25 - 9 + 25 - 0 + 25 +18 + 25 +42
30 50
+ 0 -112 + 0 -50 + 0 -25 + 0 -16 +0 +2 + 0 + 26
+ 74 -60 + 46 -30 + 30 -10 + 30 - 0 + 30 +21 + 30 + 51
50 80
+ 0 -134 + 0' -60 + 0 -29 + 0 -19 +0 +2 + 0 + 32
+ 87 72 + 54 -36 + 35 -12 + 35 - 0 + 35 + 25 + 35 + 59
80 120
+ 0 -159 + 0 -71 + 0 -34 + 0 -22 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 37
+ 100 - 85 + 63 -43 + 40 -14 + 40 - 0 + 40 + 28 + 40 + 68
120 180
+ 0 -185 + 0 -83 + 0 -39 + 0 -25 +0 +3 + 0 +43
+ 115 -100 + 72 -50 + 46 -15 + 46 - 0 + 46 + 33 + 46 + 79
180 250
+ 0 -215 + 0 -96 + 0 -44 + 0 -29 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 50
+ 130 -110 + 81 -56 + 52 -17 + 52 - 0 + 52 + 36 + 52 '+88
250 315 .
+ 0 -240 + 0 -108 + 0 -49 + 0 -49 + 0 -32 + 0 + 56
+ 140 – 125 + 89 -62 + 57 -18 + 57 - 0 + 57 +40 + 57 + 98
315 400
+ 0 -265 + 0 -119 + 0 -54 + 0 -36 +0 +4 + 0 + 62
+ 155 -135 + 97 -68 + 63 -20 + 63 - 0 + 63 + 45 + 63 + 108
400 500
+ 0 -290 + 0 -131 + 0 -60 + 0 -40 + 0 + 5 + 0 + 68

18
Introduction of Metrologi

Contoh 16.4 *
Nyataican dimensi untuk aci dan lubang dengan saiz namaan kedua-duanya ialah 45 mm. Kelas gegas yang
perlu dihasilkan ialah. kelega-an sederhana. Berdasarkan Jadual 16.1 diperoleh

Saiz namaan H8 f7
+39 -25
30 - 50 mm
+0 -50

Unit had terima : 0.001 mm

Garis pusat lubang 45 + 0.039 = 45.039 (Had tinggi)

Garis pusat aci :
Telusan untuk lubang
Telusan untuk aci
Basi maksimum
Basi minimum
45 + 0.000 = 45.000 (Had rendah)
45 - 0.025 = 44.975 (Had tinggi)
45 - 0.050 = 44.950 (Had rendah)
= 45.039 - 45.000 = 0.039
= 44.975 - 44.950 = 0.025
= Had tinggi lubang - Had rendah aci
= 45.039 - 44.950
= 0.089 mm
= Had rendah lubang - Had tinggi aci
= 45.000 - 44.975
= 0.025 mm.

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Introduction of Metrologi

Chapter
6

GD&T stands for Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing

 DIMENSION is a geometric characteristic the size of which is specified such as

length,angle,location,or center distance
 TOLERANCE on a dimension is the total permissible variation in its size, which is equal to the
difference between the limits of size.

GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

Dimensions Of A Part

Geometric Tolerance

 A geometric tolerance is the maximum permissible variation of form, profile, orientation,

location, and runout from that indicated or specified on a drawing.
 Feature control frame for an individual feature is divided into compartments containing, at
the least, the geometric tolerance symbol and the geometric tolerance value

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Introduction of Metrologi

GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

Sizes Of Mating Parts

Deviations

 The difference between the basic size and the maximum and minimum sizes are called the
UPPER & LOWER deviations.
 The BASIC DIMENSION represents the theoretical exact size or location of a feature.

GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

Deviations

21
Introduction of Metrologi

Basic (Exact) DimensionsAre shown in a Examples of deviation of form when

rectangle toindicate that the tolerances in perfect form at the maximum
the general tolerance notedo not apply material condition is required

examples of deviation of form when perfect form at

the maximum material condition is required

22
Introduction of Metrologi

GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOLS

FEATURE TYPE OF
CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL SEE UNIT
TOLERANCE

INDIVIDUAL 16-2
FORM STRAIGHTNESS
FEATURES 16-5

MAXIMUM MATERIAL 16-4

CONDITION

PROJECTED TOLERANCE
16-9
ZONE

SUPPLEMENTARY 16-9
BASIC DIMENSION
SYMBOLS 16-11

DATUM 16-6
FEATURE

DATUM TARGET

geometric characteristic symbols

FORM TOLERANCES

 FORM TOLERANCES control the straightness, flatness, circularity and cylindricity

 Form tolerances apply to individual features and as such do not require locating dimensions.
 ORIENTATION TOLERANCES control angularity, parallelism, and perpendicularity

More on FORM TOLERANCES

 Straightness-a condition in which the element of a surface or a median line is a straight line
 Flatness of a surface is a condition in which all surface elements are in one plane

GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

feature control
frame

23
Introduction of Metrologi

Application of feature
control frame

Attached using a leader

MMC, RFS, LMC applies to features subject to variations in size

 MMC (Maximum Material Condition) is when a feature or part is at the limit of size, which
results in its containing the maximum amount of material.
 LMC (Least Material Conditon) refers to the size of a feature that results in the part
containing the minimum amount of material. Thus it is the minimum limit of size for an
external feature.
 RFS (Regardless of feature size) indicates that a geometric tolerance applies to any size of a
feature that lies within its size tolerance.

Orientation tolerance (16-6)

 Angularity, parallelism and perpendicularity are orientation tolerances applicable to related

features
 Angularity is the condition of a surface or axis at a specified angle (other than 90⁰or 0⁰) from
a datum plane or axis
 Perpendicularity is the condition of a surface at 90⁰ to a datum plane or axis. *A
perpendicularity tolerance for a flat surface specifies a tolerance zone defined by two parallel
planes perpendicular to a datum plane or axis
 Parallelism is the condition of a surface equidistant at all points from a datum plane.
Parallelism for a flat surface specifies a tolerance zone defined by two planes or lines parallel
to a datum plane or axis.

Datum

 A DATUM is a theoretical exact feature from which dimensions may be taken.

 A DATUM is generally chosen as an edge or feature which has the greatest influence in a
specific measurement.

Datums and the 3-plane concept (16-5)

 Datum is a theoretical point, line, plane, or other geometric surface fromwhich dimensions
are measured when so specified or to which geometric tolerances are referenced
 Datum feature is a feature of a part, such as a surface, that forms the basis for a datum or is
used to establish its location

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Introduction of Metrologi

3-plane system

 The three planes constitue a datum system from which measurements can be taken. They
will appear on the drawing.
 Datum feature symbol is used on the drawing to identify these surfaces

GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

the datum planes

Datum Targets (16-11)

 Datum target symbols are used to locate specific reference positions to be used on large
datum surfaces*
 the surface of a feature may be so large that a gage designed to make contact with the full
surface may be too expensive or cumbersome to use
 Functional requirements of the part may necessitate the use of only a portion of a surface as
a datum feature

CAD APPLICATIONS

Tolerance dialog box

25