Sociological Discourse No. 9

Slavo Kukić naslov rada
SOCIOLOGICAL DISCOURSE
SCIENCE MAGAZINE IN THE FIELD OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
Year V, No. 9
Banja Luka, October 2015
1
Sociološki diskurs, godina 5, broj 9 / oktobar 2015. 21-27
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Slavo Kukić naslov rada
CONTENTS
JANA GORIUP, JADRANKA STRIČEVIĆ, DAVID HALOŽAN

Some sociological apects of nurses and their migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
DRAGANA VILIĆ
Causes and consequences of demographic processes and changes
in contemporary society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
IVAN ŠIJAKOVIĆ, MIRJANA ČEKO, VANJA NIŠIĆ

Some characteristics of leisure time of young people in
the Republic of Srpska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
NATAŠA VILIĆ
Pop-art and criticism of reception of vacuity (the society) in
the works of Andy Warhol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
VALENTIN JURJEVIČ KATASONOV

Spiritual foundations of the modern consumer slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
INSTRUCTIONS TO REVIEWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3
Sociološki diskurs, godina 5, broj 9 / oktobar 2015. 21-27
4
Some sociological apects of
Jana Goriup et al. nurses and their migration
Jana Goriup1 Original scientific paper

Jadranka Stričević2 UDC 614.253:314.15
David Haložan3 DOI 10.7251/SOCEN1509005G
Faculty of Health Sciences Accepted: 14.05.2015.
University of Maribor
jana.goriup@um.si
Some sociological aspects of nurses and their

migration
Abstract
The paper presents a view on nurses, which imigrated into Slovenian

society from the republics of former Yugoslavia State and the Ana-
lyse of their socialization problems. The authors establish, that nurs-
es from former State area are permanent and constant. Their inflow
is numerical not to be neglected, as their professional knowledge in
nursing and socialization in the Slovene health system were always
actual. The awareness about the importance of their presence, or to be
more precise, their influence on the effective nursing as well as on pa-
tients’ contentment is rising. We conducted a research study in which
interviewed nurses reported about the factors of their including pro-
cesses into Slovenian society; on personal and professional level.
Key words: migration, nurse, education, Slovenian society, inculturation, nursing.
Introduction
Migrations and relocations are a complex global phenomenon faced by all

countries around the world. The countries are thus the origin of migration,
transient destination or place of immigration, usually even all three factors
at the same time.4 In each country, the migration policy is intertwined with
1
Professor at the Medical Faculty in Maribor, e-mail: jana.goriup@um.si
2
Assistant professor at the Medical Faculty in Maribor
3
Assistant professor at the Medical Faculty in Maribor
4
IOM – International Organization for Migration. 2005. World Migration: Costs and Benefits
of International Migration. Report 2005. str.
5
Sociological discourse, year 5, number 9 / October 2015 5-20
a range of complex issues. Especially, the issues are those concerning em-
ployment and residence of foreigners, their rights and inter-ethnic relations.
Often a domestic population has a negative attitude towards the immigration
and foreign immigrants, which can be associated with high rates of unem-
ployment and fear that immigrants may become an economic burden or that
they will endanger the political and socio-economic stability. The following
question raises: are the immigrants able to integrate into society of immigra-
tion; and consequently the following issues occur: the issue of civil, social,
economic, cultural and political rights of immigrants, including measures
aimed at their protection.
The Slovenian society experienced the aforementioned. Especially be-
cause of its geographical position, which is (was) close to the sensitive mi-
gration environment of Central Europe, where this social mobility is (was)
not unknown. For a long time, Slovenia has been the emigration area. In the
period between 1890 and the First World War Slovenia was among those
parts of Europe which had the highest emigration rate. With a higher level
of economic development, the migration has changed. At time of intense mi-
grations, Slovenia as a part of the Yugoslav state, was the most developed part
of the country and was therefore a frequent destination for migrants from
other republics, in particular following the intensive economic reform in the
second half of the 1960s. The migration was (tacitly) supported by the official
Yugoslav policy, as they saw in the emigration a way to lower the unemploy-
ment rate. Comparing with the other parts of Yugoslavia, the net migration
of Slovenia was positive throughout the period after 1955. Between 1976 and
1981, Slovenia had a positive net migration together with all the other parts
of the federal government.5 This situation was maintained until the collapse
of Yugoslavia. After 1991, in the crisis that followed the collapse of the former
Yugoslavia, Slovenia had negative migration for the first two years, but this
did not change the nature of immigration to our country. Even in later years,
Slovenia exceptionally experienced a year of negative immigration balance
except in 1998.6
Today, the immigrants from the former Yugoslav republics represent the
biggest part of naturalized Slovenian citizens; and are also the source of either
border, seasonal or permanent workforce. Ironically, the extensive develop-
ment of the knowledge society in Slovenia was in large extent enabled by the
economic migrants, who worked at “unwanted” ie. low-paid and hazardous
jobs.
5
Janez Malačič, Demografija. Teorija, analiza, metode in modeli, 6. izdaja, Ljubljana: Ekonom-
ska fakulteta, 2006.str.152.
6
SL-01, str. 103.
6
When Slovenia was a part of Yugoslavia, it did not consider the policy of
migration as one of the main political questions. However, this should have
been considered as one of the main questions! Therefore, Slovenia today fac-
es similar problems as other members of the European Union; Slovenia also
faces special features arising from the status of emotional attachment to a
previous state, its rigid identity, the internationalization of the former Yugo-
slav inter-republic migration processes and acute economic crisis, political
instability and issues of inter cultural dialogue.
Migrations –some characteristics of XXI century
Theoretical speculations about the causes of migration most commonly

arise from the theory of push-pull factors(push-pull theory), although these
factors cannot explain why some individuals move away from a particular
environment and others not. Various subjective factors can be divided into
rational and emotional, but also socio-psychological personality of individ-
uals must be taken into account. Klinar7, that the migrations with its various
causes and consequences became one of the most pressing challenges of the
modern world; Klinar (ibid.) divided reasons and motives of migration into
three groups, namely:
- economic and demographic reasons (due to the questions of existence,
the improvement of the economic situation, overpopulation, etc.);
- political and military reasons (eg. forced migration due to the danger);
and
- personal and family reasons, which are the most diverse (eg. possibility
of obtaining education, employment, marriage etc.).
Komac and Medvešek divide the concept of “migration” on eviction or
emigration and immigration; they emphasize that such movements can be in-
ternal or international. In Slovenia internal migration happened, as migrants
came mainly from countries of the former Yugoslavia.8 However, a review
of the more established theories of migration shows that the approaches of
classical migration theory largely emphasize the economic aspects of mi-
gration, and less emphasis is on citizenship, social inclusion and exclusion,
7
Klinar, Peter. Mednarodne migracije : sociološki vidiki mednarodnih migracij v luči odnosov
med imigrantsko družbo in imigrantskimi skupnostmi, str. 26. Maribor: Obzorja. 1976.
8
Miran Komac; Medvešek, Mojca (ur.), Percepcije slovenske integracijske politike: zaključno
poročilo, Ljubljana: Inštitut za narodnostna vprašanja, 2006.str. 233.
7
political and everyday strategies of migrants. However, Anthias9 pointed out

that the push and pull migration model is insufficient; this model is based on
neo-liberal economic theory, and among the researchers represented a kind
of standard classical model, according to which the individuals migrated in
particular because of economic reasons, to ensure a better life to them and
their families. Under this economical assumption, the decision to migrate is a
rational choice; in the ideal sense, the researchers believed that the behaviour
of migrants is a rational economic operation where the costs and benefits
are weighted and factors of attraction and repulsion are taken into account
estimated that the critics of such “homo economicus” approach have largely
been given by social and cultural anthropologists who pointed out that the
individual is not only a rational being who migrates only for economic rea-
sons, but the migration processes are created and transformed by the social
and cultural contexts.
Castles and Kozack10 defended one of more established statements. They
claimed that job migration is a method through which the poor countries
offer development assistance to the rich countries. However, it is unrealistic
to assume, that the individuals have the possibility to decide freely about the
migration, considering the global inequality in economic and political power
and considering the control of dominant countries over the migration, since
the dominant countries want to ensure the workforce.
Education, women, health care and migration
Carling11 notes that in recent decades we have witnessed a growing num-

ber of women’s migration, as today they represent almost half of all interna-
tional migrants at the international level. Castles and Miller state that some
researchers even talk about the feminization of migrations on the global level.
Their migration isconstant; there is continuity in social networking, also due
to geographical proximity. Hasia Diner12 in her study noted that through the
history, women were “bearers of migration”, mainly in the professions that
9
Floya Anthias, »Metaphorsof Home: Gendering New Migrations to Southern Europe«. Gen-
derand Migration in Southern Europe: Women on the Move (ur. Floya Antias; Gabriella Lazari-
dis). New York: Berg, 2000. str.18.
10
Stephen Castles, Miller, Mark, J.,The age ofmigration: international population movements in
the modern world, Houndmills: Macmillan. 1998.
11
Carling, Jřrgen, Gender dimensions of international migration, http://www.gcim.org/mm/
File/GMP%20No%. pdf 2005. (18.4.2014).
12
See in: Silvia Pedraza, Women and Migration: The Social Consequences of Gender. Annual
Review of Sociology, 1991. 17. str. 314.
8
are usually performed by women, such as nurse, maids etc. Global deficit
of around 2.4 million of health workers and migration flows, which are the
result of the “brain drain” in health systems, are trends and serious problems
of Slovenian health care.
Currently, in the Slovenian health care there is not a lot of high-quality
empirical data relating to the migration of health workers. In Internation-
al Migration Review Morokvašić assessed already in 1984 the decade of re-
searches in the field of migration of women and she pointed out that when
considering the migration of women, the lack of research in this period is
not as problematic as the fact that existing studies have had a little impact
on policy-making and media, and that the dominant research from a gender
perspective is still biased.13 Records of women immigrant show the need for a
systematic study of gender and migration and the specificity of the situation
of women from the epistemological position, which is still quite inadequate.
In the survey, the gender is included quite unsystematic and sporadic as an
important category of social stratification. If we take into an account the defi-
cit of current, reliable, quantitative and qualitative statistical data, we can as-
sume that a genuine research of the pursued problem and relevant qualitative
research apparatus are needed.
Modern women migrants do not any longer take the jobs that the locals
do not want to do, but are also involved in activities with high added val-
ue, such as deficit jobs,which include the nurses. As pointed out by some
of the more established researchers of women migration, both classic eco-
nomic theory and neo-marxists models of political economy are based on
the model of gender relations. Based on that relations, the dependence of
women was established. Hanh-Dam Truong14 states that “ideally, these two
paradigms can include women as normative category of migration flows and
their migrations are explained as individually rational decisions based on the
differences in salary (neoclassical theory) or on collective rational decisions
of households and countries which are based on the interests of the ameni-
ties that migrants ‘return’ into the society of origin (neo-marxists approach).
“Hondagneu-Sotelo and Cranford15 have argued that sex-specific patterns of
migration are due to the demand for labour by gender, and its recruiting,
which also affects the formation of certain sexual networks.
13
See in: Eleanore Kofman, Female »Birds of Passage« a Decade Later: Gender and Immigration
in the European Union. »The International Migration Review«, 1999. 33(2): 269–270.
14
Eleanore Kofman, Phizacklea Annie and Raghuram Rosemary, Gender and International
Migration in Europe: Employment, welfare and politics. London, New York: Routledge, 2000.
str.21.
15
Hondagneu-Sotelo, Pierrette and Cranford, Cynthia , Genderand Migration, Handbook of
the Sociology of Gender, New York: KluwerAcademic/Plenum Publishers, 1999. str. 108.
9
The migration of employees in health care has become a characteristic of

Slovenia in the last decade. For many years, the recruitment of nurses from
areas of the former country was the quickest solution. Most of them immi-
grated with the intention of staying for a longer period of time, since they saw
Slovenia as “their destination”, and they often wanted to stay until the end
of their length of service; a lot of them formed a family; either with a part-
ner from their own ethnic background or some other. At the same time, for
the country from which they emigrated, this meant an outflow of social and
cultural capital. It takes three to four years of school to become a competent-
ly trained nurse, a year more to become a specialized nurse, and additional
three years of education for master degree in nursing. Moreover, adequate
financial resources are needed. We note that their decision-making process
for the migration took place in the family and in wider social networks of
original and new society. Thus, the migration took place as a strategy for the
entire household, not just an individual strategy. Usually, they got a job easily.
Sometimes, relatives and friends (social network) helped them to find a job,
but some of them simply “came to ask,” and they got a job. Those who arrived
in Slovenia before the independence of Slovenia, got the job relatively quickly
and they did not have problems to integrate into the new society. They also
received a permanent residence permit upon arrival. Due to their migration
strategy which was independent from men, women often became employees
and faced new cultural patterns and possibilities offered by the adoption of
new roles.16 Đonlić17 drew attention to the gender-specific implementation
of health care job, which was an additional burden for the women, who were
forced into immigration.
Nurses who arrived in Slovenia after independence of Slovenia, had more
problems with the initial integration into a new society than those who ar-
rived in Slovenia prior to independence. During the common Yugoslav state,
the migration from former Yugoslav republics was treated as internal and not
as international migration. Finally, migrants from the former republics have
had much less problems with the paperwork. Furthermore, the women immi-
grants told that the integration into the labour market was quicker and they
could get a job much faster. Despite the lack of systematic and institutional
programs about integration into a new environment (eg. Organized learning
of the Slovenian language), women immigrants without problems included
in the new society and workplace. With the independence of Slovenia, the
16
Špela Razpotnik, Preseki odvečnosti. Nevidne identitete mladih priseljencev v družbi tranzicij-
ski vic,Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, 2004. Str.105.
17
Hazemina Đonlić, Deset let samote: Izkušnje bosansko-hercegovskih begunk in beguncev v
Sloveniji, Ljubljana: Društvo Kulturni vikend. 2003.
10
circumstances have changed both in the economic field (restructuring of the

economy and, consequently, increased unemployment, insecure jobs, lack of
housing policy) as well as the ideological and political terms. With the estab-
lishment of the independent Slovenian state, Slovenia, more than ever, devel-
oped a distinction between foreigners and “local population”, which was also
reflected in the problem of obtaining status or citizenship and in the affair of
the “Erased”. And, consequently, often, social exclusion.
Even after the independence of Slovenia, women immigrants often easily
acquired Slovenian citizenship. The status of so called married women immi-
grants in Slovenia was connected to the status of their partners. They did not
have any particular problems in Slovenia as regards their ethnicity. However,
women immigrants more frequently experienced negative attitude from the
local population after Slovenia’s independence. After the independence, the
locals think about migrants and foreigners more pejoratively, regardless of
their ethnicity. In mass media, the migrants have been shown as people who
are culturally very different from Slovenians, so that their integration into
the Slovenian environment would be more difficult. Most newspapers “con-
firm” a common sense notion of “disappearing of Slovenehood” in the form
of “Slovenian patriotism”. Even Jalušič estimates that at the end of 2000 and
in early 2001, in the Slovenian media there was explicitly stigmatizing speech
about “illegal migrants”. According to her evaluation, that kind of speech was
related with the institutional speech of some government officials and with
the speech of so called ordinary people.
In the Slovenian society, the discourse about insurmountable cultural dif-
ferences of so called “Muslim women” occurred. Moreover, Kofman et al.18
states that in public speech of our society, the affiliation to Islam is still a sign
of insuperable cultural differences. That should prevent “Muslim women”
from integration into our society which is based on Christian tradition and
tradition. Estimated cultural incompatibility of Islam with Western values af-
fects women, who are perceived as a symbol of the allegedly oppressive nature
of the Islamic religion. Islamophobia, which was triggered by an attack of
Al-Khaida on the Twins, deepened the feeling and behavior of the indigenous
population and warns of the dangers of essencialism of migrant groups. So
they are shown as some kind of victims, and also as the persons who put into
risk the society in which they moved.
18
Eleanore Kofman, Phizacklea Annie and Raghuram Rosemary, Gender and International
Migration in Europe: Employment, welfare and politics. London, New York: Routledge, 2000.
str. 37.
11
Nurses and integration
Integration is understood as “a dynamic and two-way process of adjust-

ing the immigrant” minority “society and mainstream society. As such is the
reaction to the collision, and (necessary) coexistence of different values, at-
titudes, habits and culture of the new society and maintaining them from
indigenous society. The main objective of integration processes (including
nurses) has been the inclusion in Slovenian (majority) society on the one
hand and in health care on the other. They wanted to become functionally
and professionally active and equal with all the acquired competencies to par-
ticipate in patient care. The integration process is usually carried out through
multiple dimensions (eg. legal, existential, socio-economic, in the education-
al system, cultural, social, (slef-) identification, etc..). We are certain that eco-
nomic integration with nurses is the precondition of all other integrations,
because only jobs allow them equal involvement in the socio-cultural system
of Slovenian society.
Taking into account the social multiculturalism, by respecting diversity,
peaceful coexistence, social stability and cohesiveness, the Republic of Slo-
venia managed the integration policy whose objectives are based on the fun-
damental principles and values of equality, freedom and mutual cooperation.
Constant and Zimmermann introduced methodological approach19, a so
called ethnosizing, which represents the “meter” for strength of ethnic iden-
tity of the individual and is formed by monitoring the individual character-
istics of immigrants: language, culture, gender, education, religion, social in-
teraction, time of migration and ethnic self-identification. By analyzing these
variables it is possible to determine the degree of integration, assimilation,
separation and marginalization. In this:
- Equality is understood as ensuring equal social, economic and civil
rights;
- Freedom as an expression of the right to cultural identity, while ensuring
respect for the integrity and dignity of each individual and of fostering own
culture in accordance with the law and the fundamental values of the Repub-
lic of Slovenia;
- Mutual cooperation as the right to participation and responsibility of all
people who are in a continuous process of creating a common society.
In order to allow the greatest possible social coherence, the integration
policy of the Republic of Slovenia contains certain legal frameworks and so-
cial actions that promote the integration of immigrants into Slovenian socie-
ty, prevent discrimination and social marginalization and enable immigrants
19
Videti (http://ftp.iza.org/dp2040.pdf)
12
to express and cultivate their own culture and values based on respect for
personal integrity and dignity in accordance with the laws of the Republic of
Slovenia.
Immigrating who come to Slovenia are mostly economic migrants and
their families from the countries of the former Yugoslavia, from other coun-
tries outside the EU comes less than 6% of all immigrants in Slovenia. The
volume of immigration in Slovenia in recent years has not been intense and it
even declined due to the economic crisis in the past two years.
Methodology
Purpose and objectives of the research
The assumption of nurses-migrant women as being active social players in

the Slovenian health care was the basis for examining the issues of how they
responded to the changed socio-political circumstances. Approach, which
takes into account the characteristics of social structures as well as individual
performance, has been particularly in the last two decades more and more
established in migration studies.20
For the purposes of empirical work we were particularly interested in in-
formation about their living conditions, life courses and experiences and ex-
pectations from the life in the new Slovenian society. The basic contents of the
interviews were living in the home society, family background, job and rela-
tionships in health care, the decision to migrate, coming to Slovenia, informal
and formal social networks, economic, social and political integration into a
new society, paid work, the success of the integration. Thus, the analysis in-
cluded retrospective and prospective dimension. Our objective was to obtain
information on the experience of nurses-migrants in a representative sample,
since this will be the subject of more extensive research.
Research method and technique
During the preparation of this article (regarding its theoretical and empir-
ical part), the following research methods were used descriptive method and
causally-explicative method.
20
Luisa Passerini et al., Genderrelationships in Europe at the turn of the millenium: Women as
subjects in migration and marriage (GRINE, finalreport), 2004. ftp://ftp.cordis.europa. eu/pub/
citizens/docs/kina21249ens1_grine.pdf (25.4.2014).
13
We hypothesized that analysis of the experience from practical nurses can

tell a lot about the wider socio-political context of developing a migration
policy. In order to demonstrate the multiple meanings of the migration pro-
cess and varied experiences of migrant women, we decided to use the qualita-
tive method of individually designed interview. The advantage of this empiri-
cal study is that the primary emphasis is on the experiences and perspectives
of migrant women.
Research sample
We conducted 30 in-depth individual guided interviews with nurses. The

interviews were supplemented with individual examples of observation with
participation and records in the ethnographic log. Interlocutors were ob-
tained on the basis of personal acquaintances and there was a mutual trust
between the researcher and them. Interviews took place in May-October
2014. Questions that were asked to nurses were open-ended and were related
to their migration. Emphasis was placed on the stories of each of the 30 nurs-
es who were considered as actors with their own way of thinking, evaluation
and behavior. In doing so, we were aware that each story, interpretation as
well as listening was always socially embedded, integrated into a network of
culturally specific meanings.
Description of the measurement instrument
With in-depth interviews we collected the following information: general

information about the interviewees (gender, age, education, ethnicity), in-
formation on the status and the family, religion, country of birth, economic
standard. We set to ourselves 15 research questions, because we were inter-
ested in:
- What was the cause of arrival in the Republic of Slovenia?
- What is their partner and family status?
- When did they find a job in health care in the Republic of Slovenia?
- Where were they employed?
- Did they know any people in Slovenia before they came here?
- Do they estimate relationships in their workplace as positive, good, since
they do not expose your nationality?
- Did they ever experience a conflict at work, because they are not Slove-
nians?
14
- Did they have sufficient skills to work in the Slovenian health care?
- Did they detect any differences at work in nursing care during the em-
ployment in the former country and in Slovenia?
- Do they do their job equally professional, responsible and empathetic
than in the country from which they moved?
- Do they think that they were accepted by the colleagues as equal?
- Did they learn Slovenian (at least spoken language) and if so, how fast?
- In which language they talk with relatives (family), with patients and
colleagues?
- Have they adopted the values and habits and customs of the environ-
ment in which they live now?
- Do they still cultivate the habits and customs of original environment, or
they abandoned them?
18 questions were open-ended, 37 were made according to the model of
Likert-type scale. Scales were sorted from 1 to 5, in a logical continuum from
minimum to maximum acceptance of arguments.
Results and interpretation
The interviewees were aged over 61 years, and less than 60; 20 were reg-
ularly employed, 10 are retired. They differ by level of education, one was
Ph.D., 15 have higher education and 14 secondary education, and ethnicity
(Croatian, Bosnian, and Macedonian) and by religious belief (14 Orthodox,6
Catholic and 10 Muslim). They all have migrated from the country where
they were born: Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia, of which
12 before the independence of Slovenia and 18 in mid-90s. Interviewees live
in extended family (5), alone with her husband (16) and single-parent fami-
lies (9). The reason for their relocation were different: family reunification, job
search and personal cause, which were probably conditioned by theirliving
conditions in the country from which they moved, they assessed conditions
as poor. However those conditions did not improve (immediately) following
the migration. 20 interviewees estimated their lives today as good and 10 as
“so- so”. All found their jobs in health care in the first year after arrival, after
a few months, either in the hospital (17) or in an old people’s home (13). De-
spite the fact that 22 knew some people in Slovenia before their arrival and 8
(already) had relatives, none of them had a guaranteed job before their arriv-
al. Despite the (too) low salaries 20took a loan to solve the housing problem.
15
20 are convinced that immigrants in Slovenia are a social problem that

is not being solved properly. Their current regular monthly benefits are (in
comparison with the first) significantly larger, but they get along 17 with
difficulties and 13 with less difficulties. They all learned Slovenian (spoken)
language, although they needed time for this. Only 10 communicate in the
mother tongue, 10 sometimes and 10 “depending on the occasion. “ In their
work with colleagues they all communicate in the Slovenian language. They
all monitor from time to time the current social developments either in their
homeland or in Slovenia. 23 evaluated the relationships in the workplace as
positive, because they do not expose their nationality, although they all ex-
perienced conflict, because they are not Slovenians. 20 interviewees did not
have sufficient skills to work in the Slovenian health care. All, however, spot-
ted differences at work in nursing during employment in the former country
and in Slovenia and miss working atmosphere of previous employment, and
they carry out their work equally professionally, responsibly and empatheti-
cally than in the country from which they arrived. 22 interviewees were addi-
tionally trained to work in health care.
Interviewees also differently understand theregulation of specific areas in
the Republic of Slovenia; the best they know organization of health care, less
health insurance and social welfare, and most poorly the standards for the
acquisition of citizenship, residence permits and laws and regulations of the
Aliens Act, which surprised us.
All interviewees have a network of friends that does not consist solely
of their (original) national group; all regularly visit relatives and friends in
their home country. None of them abandoned the habits and customs of their
original environment and 24 absolutely adopted the habits from the environ-
ment in which they now live, and try to enrich them with the values of their
cultural capital. 26 interviewees also regularly spend their holidays in their
homeland, four elsewhere.
Analysis of the verified research hypotheses
For the need of empirical work, the following research hypotheses were
verified:
H1: where we assumed that the majority of interwieved nurses as reason
for their relocation allege different factors as (family reunification, job search
and personal cause) – was conformed;
16
H2: by which we assumed that the majority estimate relationships in their

workplace as positive and ever experienced a conflict at work, because they
are not Slovenians and that they do not expose their nationality, when not
necessary – was conformed;
H3: where we assumed that all have adopted all the values, habits and
customs of the “new” living environment, but still cultivate the habits and
customs of original environment – was partly confirmed;
H4: where we assumed that they detected differences at work in nursing
care during the employment in the former country and in Slovenia, and that
they did not have sufficient skills to work in the Slovenian health care – was
partly confirmed;
H5: where we assumed that the interviewees have a network of friends
that does consist mostly of their (original) national group, all regularly visit
relatives and friends in their home country – was rejected.
Concluding remarks
Decisions of the people to migrate are not (always) a product of the ra-
tional thinking. Migrations related to the Slovenian health care should not
be put in narrow frameworks of economic reasons. The migration process of
nurses was formed and transformed by many complex factors of social and
cultural context, as well as the desire of individuals to gain experience and
experience something new, to step out from the indigenous environment, to
separate from the family etc. Analysis of obtained empirical data showed that
for a proper understanding of both the causes and consequences of migration
in health care we need to think outside the one-dimensional and unequivo-
cal area, and take into account the wishes of the contradictions and chance;
everyday life analysis are the ones which show that people act contradictory
and that “actions are not always in agreement with our ideas, ideals, expec-
tations of the environment and the real possibilities.” Nurses were faced in a
new environment with various problems due to unfamiliarity with the lan-
guage or technological inventions, although it is true that they life in a new
environment opened up a whole new life possibilities.
The current Slovenian legislation which holds the immigration control
and the rules that follow the specialization of competent institutions have not
yet developed as a coherent decision-making process. This does not mean
that with the shortage of strategic concepts, certain organizational inconsist-
17
encies, overlaps or inconsistencies competence, the regulation of immigra-

tion is unsuccessful; but in the current period of economic transition current-
ly Immigration is difficult to identify as consistent.
For all these reasons, as well as due to the level of economic, social and
democratic development, Slovenia needs good immigration policy which
will develop integrative and flexible entity of the demographic, economic, so-
cio-cultural and political development of the Republic of Slovenia. And at the
same time an immigration policy that is in equilibrium with the immigration
policies of other European countries as an integral part of the process of in-
tegration into the European Union. Resolution on Immigration Policy of the
Republic of Slovenia.21
Also, due to the uncertainties and dilemmas encountered by interviewed
nurses in everyday life, they warn of “their reaction.” Social networks and
ties were made. Either because of a desire to learn new things either from
fear of failure, loneliness, isolation in the workplace and otherwise. Although
they were moved into the unknown and culturally different environment (not
only in another country, but also from a rural to an urban environment) new
acquaintances and friends already lived there. By creating social networks
they faster successfully become used to the new environment. Certainly they
(also) adapted, even (in itself) “negotiated” with the new and old, and differ-
ent lifestyle. All played multiple roles, with several identities, languages, two
homelands, in many social settings, without any of them being replaced or
abandoned.
According to the obtained empirical data it is also revealed that (each) mi-
gration is not exclusively or primarily a process caused from economic mo-
tives. Some of them wanted a better job and, consequently, a better standard
of living, while others wanted to avoid the patriarchal life of the indigenous
society, again the third wanted “to achieve something in life.” It was not easy
for none of them, so we highlight some of their most common problems:
- success of integration into the labour market;
- discrimination on the basis of ethnicity and difficulties in recruiting
those who do not have Slovenian citizenship;or,
- if they are in Slovenia for a long time, considered as migrants who have
certain specific needs;
- urgent need for such institutional mechanisms that will enable faster and
more effective integration of nurses - migrant women in the Slovenian health
care and society in general.
21
ReIPRS): 4791. Official gazette No. 40/1999 of 28 May 1999.
18
Based on the analysis of the empirical material and comparing stories of

interlocutors who immigrated before and after the independence of Slovenia,
it can be concluded that the respective socio-political context played an im-
portant role in the integration into the new society.
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20
Causes and consequences of demographic
Dragana Vilić processes and changes in contemporary society
Dragana Vilić1 Original scientific paper

University of Banja Luka UDC 314.116/.117
Faculty of Economics DOI 10.7251/SOCEN15090021V
Accepted: 10.3.2015.
Causes and consequences of demographic processes

and changes in contemporary society
Abstract
For the functioning and development of society the great significance

have demographic processes and changes (natural population growth,
fertility, birth rate, mortality rate, aging of population, changes in re-
gard to marriage, the frequency of celibacy, divorce). This paper ana-
lyzes the causes and consequences of these processes and changes in
contemporary society. The trends of demographic changes are not the
same in all societies in the world. In developed societies today can be
observed, with minor differences, the same demographic trends - low
and/or negative natural population growth, the rapid aging of popu-
lation, low mortality rates, increasing of the divorces and the like. On
the other hand, in underdeveloped societies are born many children,
where weak economic conditions are conducive to a deterioration in
the material, social and health status of the population (illness and
mortality, particularly of women and children). This clearly indicates
that demographic processes and changes are not directly influenced
by economic and social factors (the level of education, the develop-
ment of society in general, etc.), but that there are a number of indi-
rect social factors causing it (national, class, political, cultural, reli-
gious and other). In response to the unfavorable demographic trends
(population size, the age of the population, etc.) and the consequences
which population factor creates in many economic and social areas
(reduction of the working population, the burden of social security
funds, etc.), in the past two decades in the most countries population
policy was placed in the area of population fertility - there were intro-
duced the pro-natalist measures in developed countries and measures
to discourage procreation in underdeveloped countries.
Keywords: natural population growth, birth rate, fertility, mortality, aging of pop-
ulation, celibacy, marriage, divorce
1
Doctor of Sociological Science, Assistant Professor of Faculty of Economics, University of
Banja Luka. E-mail: dragana.vilic@efbl.org.
21
Introduction
Demographic phenomena and processes are prerequisite (a complex,

multidimensional and dynamic) for the functioning and development of hu-
man society, and are determined by the causes and laws of development of
the population and can be the result of natural and social circumstances and
events (wars, natural disasters, etc.). They are not directly influenced by so-
cial and economic factors (labor force structure, the effect of the education
process, the development of society in general, etc.), but there are a number
of mediating factors causing them - affecting the levels of fertility and other
demographic phenomena (national, class, legal, political, religious, cultural,
psychological, etc.). Combined with economic and social factors, they affect
the demographic structure, and through it, the movement of the population.2
For this reason, demographic analyzes are necessary because they allow “to
skillfully capture the changes in behavior and to closely follow the pulsation
of society.”3 Social processes in a different way affect the population phenom-
enon. This can be seen in the differences in the effects that occur not only
between the different processes, but the differences in the effects can occur
within the same category. The example of this is the demographic transition
and the consequences it has in both developed and underdeveloped coun-
tries.4 With the development of industrialization and urbanization comes to
the changes in the reproductive behavior of the population (the abandon-
ment of agricultural production and the rural way of life, the changes in the
level of education of the population and the qualifications of the workforce,
the employment of women, etc.). Almost at the same time, the developed
countries have occurred changes in the amount of fertility and mortality of
the population, and have begun with the decline in the mortality rate. In un-
derdeveloped countries the demographic transition has begun with the fall of
mortality and the birth rate of the population was moving at the same level,
2
Dušan Breznik, Foreword, in: Zlata Grebo, The man, Childbearing and Society: Social con-
ditionality of birth rate and population policy in BiH, Sarajevo: Publishing company Svjetlost,
1975, p. 6.
3
Martin Segalan, Sociology of the family, Belgrade: Clio, 2009, p. 138.
4
The concept demographic transition was first used by Warren S. Thompson: “The interpreta-
tion of changes in population patterns, under which a stable relationship of fertility and mor-
tality rates is achieved when it is reached a certain level of economic prosperity. According to
this idea, in societies before the period of industrialization there was a rough balance between
the number of births and number of deaths because the population growth was restricted with
the lack of food reserves, the spread of infectious diseases or wars. In modern societies, in the
contrast, has been established the balance in population patterns, for economic reasons the
family has more birth control.” Anthony Giddens, Sociology, Belgrade: Faculty of Economics,
2005, p. 703.
22
that would much later began to slowly decrease, which led to high population
growth.5
Between economic and demographic development there is a connection -
a favorable development of one encourages the development of another, but
it does not have to always be the rule. In the past few decades in developed
societies it is achieved a great economic development, but in them there is a
significant population decline or a stagnation, and it is dominated by an aging
population. In underdeveloped countries, in the conditions of weak econom-
ic development, there has been a great increase of inhabitants, and hence a
large proportion of young people.
The period after the Second World War in Europe was marked by a huge
demographic boom, whose companion was the restoration of conjugal, bour-
geois family, which has found its place and balance in the new industrial
and urban society.6 For this there are the certain reasons in the society - in
the most European countries in this period is established the social order
in which classes are clearly separated, the industry is developed, the welfare
state is strong, there are respected the Judeo-Christian religious values and
the family “here appeared as a stable value, based on marriage, in which ruled
the uncontested authority of the father, the only person in the house with the
regular cash income.”7 After this period have been revealed the important
phenomena which indicated the symptoms of new developments in marriage
and family - their changes and transformation (the change of the position
and the role of women in family and society, reducing the birth rate, reduc-
tion in the rate of marriages, increase in divorces, the emergence of different
lifestyles and etc.), which at its peak was in the 60s of the twentieth century,
when started the new revolutionary stream of family changes (in the center it
puts the individual), as well as the stages of other demographic transitions.8
5
Demographic processes, Miroslav Rašević, Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica
and Marija Bogdanović, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks, 2007, p. 74.
6
Vlado Puljiz, Family Policy, in: Vlado Puljiz and others., Social policy: The history, systems,
glossary, Zagreb: Faculty of Law in Zagreb, 2005, p. 323.
7
8
According to the information provided to us by demographers and their factual knowledge
second demographic transition had the following stages:
1. 1955 – 1970. (the acceleration of divorces, the baby boom is reaching its end, the decline in
fertility in all ages simultaneously, the so-called “contraceptive revolution”, the decline in the
years of the first marriage, more and more subsequent entry);
2. 1970 – 1985. (the expansion of premarital cohabitation from Northern Europe, the growth of
fertility in cohabitacion communities, it is not noticeable the increase in the total fertility rate);
3. from the mid 80s until today (it is reduced the likelihood of the re-marriage, the number of
post marital cohabitation increases, the total fertility after the 30th year increases, there is the
increase in single-parent families and the feminization of poverty). Anđelka Milić, Sociology of
the family: Criticism and Challenges, Belgrade: Čigoja stamp, 2001, p. 315 – 316.
23
at its peak was in the 60s of the twentieth century, when started the new revolutionary stream
of family changes (in the center it puts the individual), as well as the stages of other
8
demographic
Sociologicaltransitions.
discourse, Today, in all developed
year 5, number societies
9 / October 2015 perceive the same 21-48
demographic
trends, with the slight differences - the natural birth growth is low (and / or negative) due to
an ever
Today,greater
in allaging of the societies
developed population, low birth
perceive therate,
same having children attrends,
demographic a laterwith
age and the
like.the slight differences - the natural birth growth is low (and / or negative) due
to an ever greater aging of the population, low birth rate, having children at a
later age and the like.
Natural growth – The contradictory global trends
Natural growth in the course of the most of human history was extremely low.9 As a
Natural
result of growth
occasional – Themortality
increasing contradictory global
in the past (wars,trends
epidemics and other disasters),
natural growth had a negative connotation in some areas. Until the eighteenth century the
population of the planet was not great, but for only two centuries it increased by almost five
times.10Natural growth in the course of the most of human history was extremely
low.9 As a result of occasional increasing mortality in the past (wars, epidem-
ics and other disasters), natural growth had a negative connotation in some
Table 1. The rapid global population growth
areas. Until the eighteenth century the population of the planet was not great,
but for only two centuries it increased by almost five times.10
Table 1. The rapid global population growth

Time Annual increase in % Performances of the double
in years
1650 – 1750. 0,29 239

1750 – 1800. 0,44 158
1800 – 1850. 0,51 136
1850 – 1900. 0,64 109
1900 – 1920. 0,59 117
1920 – 1950. 1,09 64
1950 – 1961. 1,85 38
Source: Marko Mladenović, Introduction to Sociology of the family, general and special
part, Belgrade: Publishing company Rad, 1969, p. 240.

8 During
According the information
to the last century in the to
provided worldus byhappened the strong
demographers and their demographic
factual knowledgeex- second
plosion.transition
demographic This is hadillustrated
the following by stages:
the fact that the population has increased from
1. 1955 – 1970. (the acceleration of divorces, the baby boom is reaching its end, the decline in fertility in all
1.6 billion to 6.1 billion. In the first years of the 21st century this number in-
ages simultaneously, the so-called "contraceptive revolution", the decline in the years of the first marriage,
creased
more andformore 200 million.entry);
subsequent According to the medium projection of demographic
2. trends in the
1970 – 1985. (theUnited
expansionNations,
of premaritalin cohabitation
the middle ofNorthern
from this century, thegrowth
Europe, the population
of fertility in
cohabitacion communities, it is not noticeable the increase in the total fertility rate);
3. 9 from the growth
Natural mid 80sisuntil today factor
a decisive (it is reduced the likelihood
in population growth,ofand
theitre-marriage, the number
is the difference between of the
post marital
cohabitation increases, the total fertility after the 30th year increases, there is the increase in single-parent
number of live births and deceased persons. It is calculated by the rate of natural population
families and the feminization of poverty). Anđelka Milić, Sociology of the family: Criticism and
growth - changes
Challenges, in theČigoja
Belgrade: size ofstamp,
the population
2001, p. 315in–1,000
316. inhabitants and is the result of differ-
9 ences growth
Natural in the number of births
is a decisive factorand
in deaths in a growth,
population given year.
and it is the difference between the number of live
10
births andIn the 18th century
deceased persons. the
It is population
calculated bywas the728
rate million,
of naturaland at the discretion
population of the Statisti-
growth - changes in the size of the
cal Office
population of theinhabitants
in 1,000 United Nations forresult
and is the the year 1961, theintotal
of differences population
the number was and
of births 3 billion
deathsand
in a 69
given year.
10
Inmillion,
the 18thMarko
centuryMladenović,
the populationIntroduction
was 728 million, and at the
to Sociology of discretion
the family,ofgeneral
the Statistical Officepart,
and special of the United
Nations for thePublishing
Belgrade: year 1961, company
the total population
Rad, 1969,was 3 billion and 69 million, Marko Mladenović, Introduction to
p. 240.
Sociology of the family, general and special part, Belgrade: Publishing company Rad, 1969, p. 240.
24
3
will grow to 8.9 billion, but they will inhabit the underdeveloped parts of the
world. It is believed that in Europe and North America will be much smaller
population. “The share of European in the world population during the 20th
century was reduced from 25% to 12%, and the decline in Europe’s share in
the world population will continue in the coming period.”11 In the past few
decades, Europe is facing extremely serious problems when the demographic
trends are in the issue (aging population, migration, mortality and fertility
trends, processes in the family, etc.). All of this has significant consequences
for the political and social situation in Europe (the increase in the size of
the cities, forming different structures of the population, resettlement, dif-
ferent territorial distribution of the population, etc.). European countries in
the 2003 recorded a natural decrease in the population of 63 thousand. In the
same year to Europe have moved two million people from other non-Euro-
pean countries, and therefore it is recorded an increase in population in this
continent of about 1.9 million inhabitants. According to the calculations of
experts of the United Nations in the 21st century demographic recession will
be the largest in the Russian Federation, in Eastern and Southern Europe,
while the north and the west of Europe will have a stable demographic situ-
ation.12
Despite the global trend of increasing the population in developed coun-
tries is constantly decreasing the population. This can be explained by the
effect of the generally known factors during the demographic transformation
- industrialization, urbanization, changes in the population structure, higher
social, professional and spatial mobility of the population, an increase in the
educational level of the population and so on. However, as indicated by D.
Breznik, it must not be lost from sight the factors associated with the revolu-
tionary changes that have come to the fore especially after the Second World
War - changes of woman’s position in the family, changes in family relations,
changing attitudes towards religion and other institutions, the increasing
commitment of spouses to plan family size, to give their children more and
broader education and the like.13
In developed countries, more recently natural birth growth is low (due
to an aging population and falling birth rates), while we have a different sit-
uation when it comes to developing countries. In modern conditions, in de-
11
Vlado Puljiz, Demographic trends in Europe, Documentation - Journal of Social Policy, age
12, no. 2, 2005, Zagreb, p. 263.
12
The Same, p. 264 -265.
13
Dušan Breznik, Foreword, in: Zlata Grebo, The man, Childbearing and Society: Social con-
ditionality of birth rate and population policy in BiH, Sarajevo: Publishing company Svjetlost,
1975, p. 6.
25
veloping countries there was a reduction in mortality, by downloading the

technological development from developed countries, which contributed to
the high birth rate. During the demographic transition in developed coun-
tries, it was primarily noted the decrease in mortality, and then the drop in
birth rates. The period of high natural increase was short, and the population
growth rate rarely exceeded 15‰. In many developing countries the value
of population growth rate exceeds 30‰, because the birth rate is decreasing
with greater time lag and more slowly than reducing mortality.14
In order to explain the causes of demographic trends, it is necessary to pay
attention to the movement of the birth rate, fertility and mortality, population
aging, the process of formation and dissolution of families.
The decline in the birth rate and fertility
The function that provides birth is influenced by various socio-economic

and cultural factors. The birth rate represents an aggregate indicator of the
level of childbirth.15 It is the most important demographic variable - a core
component of population growth, growth and age structure. This becomes
evident in the most countries in conditions of low or declining mortality.
The birth rate of the population can not be viewed in isolation from the other
components of population movements (migration, mortality, etc.), as well as
changes in demographic structures.
In Europe, in the mid-18th century, with the general decline in death rates,
the demographic transition began, and in the mid 19th century and the fall
in the number of births (birth rate), this trend continued and in the first half
of the 20th century. For example, in Sweden, Austria, Italy, and particularly
in the UK in 1925 was 17% of households without children, 25% of families
with one child, 20% of families with four or five children, 16% of families did
not have people younger than 50 years).16
14
Natural Growth, G. Matković, Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and Marija
Bogdanović, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks, 2007, p. 445.
15
In absolute terms, the birth rate is defined as the sum of live births, which is determined
by the time and space, the generic birth rate (a relative term) is the ratio between the number
of live births and the number of inhabitants in a population in a given time period (usually a
calendar year). The effective birth rate indicates the extent to which effective fertility affects the
population growth. The term total birth growth is rarely used, and can include all births in a
population (live births and stillbirths).
16
Marko Mladenović, Introduction to Sociology of the family, general and special part, Belgrade:
Publishing company Rad, 1969, p. 241.
26
With industrialization in western European countries and the United

States has been a decline in the number of born children, but in the sixties
there was a rise in the birth rate in this country.17 In European countries since
the mid-60s began to drop the birth rate (except for the Netherlands, which
traditionally has a high birth rate). In the mid 70’s of the 20th century in
southern Europe, there was a decrease in this rate. In the early 90s is increased
the differences in demographic trends between northern and southern Eu-
rope. To a significant increase in the birth rate comes in France since the end
of the 20th century - in the 1994 amounted to 1.65‰, in the 1999 1.77‰,
and after the 2000 it reaches 1.9‰. This increase in the number of births was
observed in women employed in France, and the birth rate was 1.94‰ in
2005. After the unexpected increase in the number of children per woman in
1990 in Sweden (2.17‰), the birth rate falls and now amounts 1.75‰. With
the exception of Ireland (1,98‰), the birth rate in the countries of northern
Europe is between 1.6‰ and 1.7‰. In Germany, this index is 1.37‰. Fall
of the birthrates in southern Europe is recorded a little later, and the lowest
birth rates have Italy and Spain (1.32‰).18 The general fertility rate for the
whole world in the period from 1990 - 1995 is estimated at 24‰. Countries
in Central, East and West Africa (46, 45 and 45‰ respectively), South Africa
(32‰), North Africa, West Asia and South-Central Asia (30‰) and Central
America (29‰) had the highest birth rate, and the countries of North Amer-
ica and European countries had the lowest birth rate (15 to 12‰).19
The literature often does not differentiate between birth and fertility rates,
because both of these terms are used to express the birth rate of the popula-
tion.20 Fertility of the population is the main factor of many social and eco-
17
“In this period, it was observed more frequent enter into marriages between boys and girls.
In the United States, of the entire population, 90% establishes the family. Particularly wide-
spread are the student marriages. In the US, from the total number of students, 10% of women
and 27% of men are married; young men usually marry between 22 and 27 years, and girls
between 20 and 22 years.” Marko Mladenović, Introduction to Sociology of the family, general
and special part, Belgrade: Publishing company Rad, 1969, p. 241.
18
19
Natality, M. Rašević Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and Marija Bog-
danović, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks, 2007, p. 349.
20
“This is particularly the case in Anglo-Saxon literature. This practice has significantly been
contributed by the analytical value of the general birth rate, which is calculated according to
the formula n = (N / P)1000, where N is the total number of live-born children born between
the January 1st and the December 31st of the observed year, and P is the number of inhabitants
in the mid of the observed year. This rate, in addition to being used to determine the influence
of the components of giving birth to the level of natural growth and population growth, is used
as a measure of birth, although less precise, because it is influenced by the age structure of
the population.” Natality, M. Rašević Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and
Marija Bogdanović, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks, 2007, p. 348 – 349.
27
nomic processes, as well as demographic changes. It indicates the number of

live births compared to the female population in the childbearing age (from
15 to 49 years).21 The biological, social and psychological factors cause the
fertility rate. While these represent the first possible frame of the reproduc-
tion, the social and psychological factors condition the level of fertility - their
effect is reflected in the number of births.22
In the EU countries (15 members) in the fifties and sixties was an increase
in the total fertility rate (the average number of births per woman in her fer-
tile period), and already in the seventies and eighties is recorded a visible
decline in this rate. In these European countries in the 1965 the total fertility
rate was 2.72, in the 1975 was 1.96, in the 1985 was 1.60 and 1.45 in the mid
nineties.23
In the developed countries today fertility of the population is low. But this
is not the case only in the developed countries of the Western civilization,
but also in Japan, other Asian countries, as well as the populations of Latin
America and North Africa. About half of the population in the Third World
lives in the countries with the lower fertility than it was a few decades ago
(low mortality, socio-economic development, family planning, etc.).
If we look at the situation in the post-socialist countries, in them in the
past few decades, has also decreased the total fertility rate (in the 2003 Ukraine
21
In the analysis of fertility are used the two approaches - longitudinal and transversal. In the
first approach is analyzed the number of children who were given birth by a cohort women
during all or part of the reproductive period, and within the second approach is viewed the
procreative activity in a calendar year for all women who are in the childbearing period of life.
Fertility, M. Rašević, Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and Marija Bogdano-
vić, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks, 2007, p. 145 – 146.
22
According to Marina Blagojević, in the demographics are dominant three directions of deal-
ing with fertility: the first, which is in line with the theory of demographic transition, that fo-
cuses on the individual and its decision-making on fertility, and the third which to the fertility
problem approaches from the perspective of biology or physiology. The first approach links the
various indicators of the global process of modernization (industrialization and urbanization)
with the changes in fertility - changes in fertility may lead the way or be delayed in relation to
industrialization, which is conditioned with some specific social factors. In this explanation,
the family is treated as an entity that represents a mere transmission of the requirements of
global society and boils down to the institution under which the individual is subsumed. The
second approach, the so-called. micro approach of the explanation of changes or the absence
of changes in fertility starts from the individual. How Ryder believes in this concept the en-
vironment of the individual is treated as a set of conditions. The third approach to explaining
fertility starts from the biological essence of fertility, which is actually constituted from sexual
intercourse, conception and birth. Marina Blagojević, Parenthood and Fertility: Serbia in the
nineties, Belgrade: Institute for Sociological Research of the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade,
1997, p. 51 – 55.
23
Conseil de l’Europe, Evolution démographique en Europe, Strasbourg, 2003, p. 70.
28
Asian countries, as well as the populations of Latin America and North Africa. About half of
the population
had in the Third
a total fertility rateWorld livesCzech
of 1.17, in the countries
Republic with1.18,
the lower fertility
Slovenia thanSlovakia
and it was a
few decades ago (low mortality, socio-economic development, family planning, etc.).
1.20). In these countries is still recorded an appreciable decline in this rate,
If we look at the situation in the post-socialist countries, in them in the past few
and it ishas
decades, uncertain when
also decreased theittotal
willfertility
stabilize, because
rate (in the 2003in themhad
Ukraine it does
a total not always
fertility rate
exist the
of 1.17, condition
Czech Republicfor
1.18,the realization
Slovenia of the
and Slovakia parental
1.20). In these role (unemployment,
countries is still recorded
an appreciable decline in this rate, and it is uncertain when it will stabilize, because in them it
underdevelopment of measures of social and family policy, etc.). From these
does not always exist the condition for the realization of the parental role (unemployment,
data we can see that in all these
underdevelopment of measures countries
of social and familythe totaletc.).
policy, fertility
From rate
thesefell
datawell
we canbelow
see
the
that level at which
in all these thethesimple
countries reproduction
total fertility ofbelow
rate fell well the population is performed
the level at which the simple
reproduction
(2,10). of the population
In Europe, the highest is performed (2,10).continue
fertility rates In Europe,tothe highest
have fertility
Albania rates-
(2.62
continue to have Albania (2.62 - 1995)24and Turkey (2.43 - 2003).24
1995) and Turkey (2.43 - 2003).
Table 2. The total fertility rate, EU-28, 1960 – 2012. (the number of live births per woman)
Table 2. The total fertility rate, EU-28, 1960 – 2012. (the number of live births
per woman)
Source: European Commission eurostat, Fertility statistics, Total fertility rate,

1960–2012 (live births per woman) YB14.png, 3 June 2014, http://epp.eurostat.
ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/File:Total_fertility_rate,_1960%E2%

80%932012_%28live_births_per_woman%29_YB14.png,
24
Vlado Puljiz, Demographic trends in Europe, Documentation - Journal [14/11/2014]
of Social Policy, Vol. 12, no. 2,
Zagreb, 2005, p. 268 – 269.
7
24
Vlado Puljiz, Demographic trends in Europe, Documentation - Journal of Social Policy, Vol.
12, no. 2, Zagreb, 2005, p. 268 – 269.
29
From the above table it can be clearly seen that in all the European coun-
tries shown from the 60s of the 20th century is visible a decline in fertility
rates. This rate in the 2012 was the highest in the following countries: Turkey
(2,09), Iceland (2,04), Ireland (2,01), France (2,01), United Kingdom (1,92),
Sweden (1,91), Norway (1,85), Finland (1,80), Belgium (1,79), Denmark
(1,73) and the Netherlands (1,72). So, in the Scandinavian countries, the fer-
tility rate is high, which, however, reveals that the development of society in
terms of socio-economic impacts the level of fertility rates (high level of the
economic development and quality of life, the possibility of reconciliation of
professional and family obligations etc.).
However, we must bear in mind that the socio-economic development of
the society does not always have a crucial role to play in terms of the num-
ber of births of children. This can be seen in the example of countries in the
underdeveloped world, where it is still generated a great number of children,
and the poor economic conditions are conducive to deterioration in the ma-
terial, social and health conditions of family members (illness and mortality,
particularly of women and children). Here an important role still have tra-
ditional attitudes toward family size - it is desirable to have a large number
of children, so the fertility rate is very high. In this way are created the re-
sources of workforce on family farms. Some religions or support the birth of
many children or are opposed to birth control.25 In some countries, in order
to reduce fertility, are undertaken certain measures. This can be seen in the
example of China, whose population is increased more in a year than in some
countries is the population in general. Due to the large increase in population
during the seventies of the last century there was a need to limit the increase,
and also to reduce the size of the family. Thus resulted the appearance of the
so-called. one-child policy.26
From previous data we can assume that in the future will continue the
worsening of demographic situation - in the low fertility areas can be expect-
ed a decline in population and the increase in the share of older individuals,
and that in the high fertility areas will come to the increase in the total pop-
ulation.
25
Anthony Giddens, Sociology, Belgrade: Faculty of Economics, 2005, p. 622.
26
See more in: Vera Graovac, China’s population policy -The successes and shortcomings, geog-
raphy. hr, 11/02/2005, http://www.geografija.hr/clanci/540/kineska-populacijska-politika-us-
pjesi-i-nedostaci [10/02/2010.]
30
The causes of the fall of natality and fertility
Changes in birth and fertility rates can be linked to a number of factors:

biological (medical), social, cultural, economic, etc. In 15% of couples there
are medical (biological) reasons why they can not have offspring (the organic
sterility). Also, since the middle of the last century, the mass employment of
women, the achievement of financial independence, education, and expressed
aspirations for career achievement, the widespread use of contraceptives, rid-
ding the body of reproduction, family planning, changes in the overall status
of women in family and society, have resulted in reducing the number of
children to which a woman gives birth, the family structure and the like. Also,
the causes of this may be found in changing attitudes with regard to the num-
ber of children - lowering reproductive norms. But no less significant are the
increasing standards related to raising children - the children today for the
parents present a financial burden. In the most developed countries there are
no adequate measures of family and social policies that would help parents
to alleviate the burden that carries the parenthood, but also to combine the
family responsibilities and job requirements.
In the past few decades, it is notable the delay of marriage after achieving
certain life aspirations, which moves the boundaries of the age of mothers at
birth of first child (it is now ranging between 25 and 29 years).27 Postponing
the childbirth to a later age, is reducing the possibility that couples have more
children. That is how in the most societies the norm of having children de-
scends from two to only one child, and it is not uncommon for individuals to
voluntarily give up having children.
In the demographics the connection between marriages and fertility is of
great importance. This can be seen in the example of populations that are not
enforcing the birth control and those that do. The age of getting into marriage
is a direct variable of fertility in populations that are not enforcing the birth
control. In populations where it is implemented the birth control, couples
in the first years after marrying are starting and terminating their reproduc-
tion.28 Thus, a sudden drop in birth rates in developed countries, lower social
norms about family size compared to the previous generations are a clear
indication of, among others, and widely accepted birth control. Thanks to the
innovations in the field of contraception and its wide use, the beginning of re-
production is not directly related to marriage and the enter into a partnership
27
Vlado Puljiz, Demographic trends in Europe, Documentation - Journal of Social Policy, Vol.
12, no. 2, Zagreb, 2005, p. 270.
28
Marriage, M. Bobić, Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and Marija Bog-
31
union, which affects the total fertility rate. Here is an interesting fact that with
time there was an improvement in living conditions which have resulted in
the creation of favorable conditions for raising potential female fertility (the
threshold of the age of entering the puberty is decreasing, and the mortality
rate of women during pregnancy), but, as can be seen from the above data,
there was a reduction in fertility rates, that is to its limitation. The reason for
this is the limitation of the physiological, the natural abilities of individuals,
marital couples and populations to participate in reproduction (fecundity) by
using different methods of birth control. “An important phenomenon is that
sexuality and reproduction became separated, and that the modern contra-
ception is female. The responsibility for making life are first taking those who
give life.”29 While in the 60s of the last century control of the marital fertility
resulted in a decrease of birthing, in the upcoming decades, this phenomenon
is associated with changes in marital structure of the population (the fall of
the conclusion of the classic marriage). The natural potential for having chil-
dren is high, so, theoretically speaking, a potentially fertile woman could give
birth to one child a year or 35 children during the reproductive age (15 - 49
years old). But and in those populations which do not use methods which
could limit the natural potential, a woman gives birth to usually six or seven
children during her reproductive period (5.8 in Lesotho, between 6 and 7 in
Nepal, Pakistan, Cameroon, Mauritania and Ghana, in Ivory Coast 7.4, 8.2 in
Kenya, 8.5 in Yemen). The theoretical set framework for birth differs from the
actual childbirth without limitation, and for it can be found an explanation in
biological factors and individual behavior.30
29
Martin Segalan, Sociology of the Family, Belgrade: Clio, 2009, p. 244.
30
„A large number of researchers documented the relationship between the woman’s age and
her ability to give birth. The age model of fecundity means lower or higher individual dif-
ferences. Frank Lorimer has developed it by emphasizing the heterogeneity of individuals in
the acquisition or loss of ability to give birth. In fact, all members of a population who are in
the childbearing age are not able to participate in the reproduction of the population during
the whole period. The differences that in this respect are formed because the individuals (1)
at different ages acquire the procreative capacity; (2) lose it at different times of life, and (3)
during the entire period, influenced by the accumulation of factors of biological and social
background that weaken the fecundity, can be caused the permanent loss of fertility. A hy-
pothetical model of fecundity of women Lorimer made on the basis of assumptions for each
of the three above-mentioned elements, ie. the function of fecundity, and thus obtained the
number of women capable of childbearing from 14 to 53 years of age in a population. The
number of fertile women by age is obtained by multiplying the values for all three functions.
In order to calculate the average procreative capacity by a woman in a hypothetical population,
Lorimer has introduced the probability of conception in fertile women, as a fourth essential
element. He adopted the hypothesis, which he did not explain, that with a probability of 0.36
each fertile women, regardless of age, can give birth to a live child per year. In this way, it
was found that for his model of fecundity the average procreative capacity per woman is 8.32
child during the reproductive period. ...In the last few decades it has been developed a num-
32
The decline in fertility can be attributed to the changes in society and the
values on which the family life is set, first of all, the change of the role that a
child has in the family and the attention that is paid to him by modern soci-
ety (child-centered family), and it is not about, as some authors interpret, the
rejection of the child (not having wishes for the birth of a child), selfishness
of the partners, etc.
Problems related to natality, that is the fertility, can not be considered in-
dependent of mortality, because these processes form the key elements of the
population, and have a pronounced impact on the age structure, as the most
important population structure.
The decline in mortality
The negative component of natural population growth is mortality.31 Al-

though essentially a biological process, its structure and the level is influenced
by numerous factors: demographic (age and sex structure of the population),
socio-economic (standard of living, employment, education, housing and nu-
trition levels, conditions of health care), cultural factors (behavior and habits
of the population of the importance for their health).32
Mortality has a significant impact on population growth, so in the be-
ginning of the development of human society, the mortality rate was very
high, and only with the industrial revolution it came to its decline. Due to
ber of models of probability of conception. ...Individual differences in the level of fertility in
conditions when giving birth is not controled in any population are significantly higher than
macro-differences among different populations. In the historical as well as in traditional envi-
ronments in development, more than a quarter of married women has less than three or more
than nine children born alive at the end of the reproductive period.“ Fecundity, M. Rašević,
Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and Marija Bogdanović, Belgrade: Institute
for Textbooks, 2007, p. 143.
31
General mortality rate is the main indicator of the level of mortality. It represents the ratio
between the number of dead persons in a given territory over a certain period of time (usually
a calendar year) and the respective total population in the middle of that period. The height of
this rate depends on the intensity of dying by age and by the age structure. General mortality
rate is higher, as a rule, in a very old population, than at an extremely young population. The
specific mortality rate by age (and features of the gender) is used for precise measurement of
mortality (ratio of the number of dead persons of certain age per 1,000 people of the same
age and sex). The standardized mortality rate was comparable to the mortality level for two
or more of the population, and is calculated using the appropriate specific rates by age, thus
eliminating the disadvantages of general mortality rate.
32
Mortality, B. Radivojević, Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and Marija
Bogdanović, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks, 2007, p. 336.
33
these factors that affect mortality, the decrease was not observed in all the
countries in the world (developed and underdeveloped) at the same time.
This process in developed countries began a century before than in under-
developed countries, but took place much more slowly. Along with the social
and economic progress that has been made in these countries, there has been
progress of knowledge in the field of medicine and the provision of health
care, social welfare and so on. In underdeveloped countries the decline in
mortality was not related to these factors, but primarily through the use of
health care programs and the establishment of prevention and control of the
spread of diseases, especially infectious. The major reduction in mortality in
almost all parts of the world in the second half of the last century, was visible
in the growth of the population.
Differences in the level of mortality exist with regard to age, gender, pro-
fession, education and the like. For this reason it is necessary to test the dif-
ferential mortality of certain population groups. Mortality of the population
has a certain regularity in terms of age and sex of the population. In all the
age groups, women generally have lower mortality rates than men. Women
have a higher mortality rate compared to the male population in the period
of childhood and childbirth. In the 17th century, the founders of “political
arithmetic” J. Grant and V. Peti pointed to the regularity in the structure of
deaths by age, sex and cause of death. The effect of age of the sex on mortality
is apparent in all populations. In terms of shape, mortality by age shows great
stability and has a distinctive flow. In the first year of life, mortality is high, af-
ter it comes to the rapid decline and it is the lowest between ten and fourteen
years of age. The constant increase in mortality was recorded with age, first
gradually and then rapidly, the highest is in the oldest years of life. Consider-
ing that mortality by age is conditioned, above all, by biological factors, the
shape of the curve of mortality by age is the same in all populations. The level
of mortality curve is not the same for all populations, because, as we said, is
conditioned by the social, economic and other environmental factors.33
The increase of the old population
If we look at developed countries, we can say that they in the past few
decades, have faced with the problem of an aging population, and the contin-
uing increase of the aged population (one of the most dominant demographic
processes). The composition of the population by age is among the biological
structure of the population. Under an aging population implies an increase
33
The same.
34
in the share of the elderly population (aged 60 and 65 years old) in the total
population.34 An old population is the one in which is recorded more than 7%
of the population older than 65 years of age. In Europe over the past five dec-
ades, the population above 65 years of age increased from 46 million to 112
million, and their share in the total population increased from 8% to 14%.35
The biological structure of the population - the structure of the popula-
tion by age, are in interdependence with the population movement compo-
nents (fertility, mortality, migration), as well as the biological, intellectual,
socio-economic structures and the like. Reductions in fertility, mortality and
migration are the most important demographic characteristics that cause ag-
ing of the population. The decline in fertility causes reduction in the propor-
tion of young people and increasing the proportion of elderly. If a longer peri-
od of time, is kept a low fertility rate, the age structure is increasingly formed
under the influence of trends in mortality. Because of the decline in fertility,
since the eighteenth century in the developed countries of Western Europe
began the process of the aging of the population. In addition to low fertility,
the aging of the population, in modern society, especially from the 60s of the
last century, has a lower mortality especially in older groups. The life span of
people is significantly extended, and is a result of improving the conditions in
which people live, as well as the progress made in medicine. Underdeveloped
countries, on the other hand, are facing a very high population growth and
the large share of young population.
If we look at the share of elderly population in some countries in the world
at the beginning of the XXI century, we can see that in developed countries,
mainly the percentage of the population far exceeds those 7 percent. Thus, in
the United States it is 12.4%, Japan 17.6%, Sweden 17.2%, Norway 14.8%, but
in some less developed countries, such as, for example, in Poland is 12.5% and
Czech Republic 13.7%. However, in the underdeveloped part of the world
there was a significantly lower proportion of elderly population in the total
population compared to the previous countries - for example, in Pakistan
3.5%, Mexico 5.0%, Brazil 5.9%. When comparing continents, Europe has the
34
In addition to these, there are other definitions and classification of the population aging by
age group. Another definition of aging puts in a relationship nursing and working contingent
(15 - 64 years old). Age structure is one of the most important structures of the population,
because it has a large impact on the social and economic development of the population - aging
influences the decrease or increase in the population of working (active) age. Of course, some
definitions in determining the aging process take into view the number of elderly population
in relation to the contingent of the young people. Thus is determined the aging index.
35
“According to the medium projections of the United Nations for 2050 in southern European
countries, the share of people older than 65 years will reach 35% of the total population, while
in other parts of Europe it will be 28-29%.“ Vlado Puljiz, Demographic trends in Europe, Doc-
umentation - Journal of Social Policy, year 12, No. 2, Zagreb, 2005, p. 265.
35
most elderly population (14.7%), and Africa the least (3.3%). In the middle of
the last century, the old population of the world was 5.2% and at the end of it,
it was 6.9%.36 If in the current demographic trends do not occur major chang-
es, the average age will continue to increase. P. Peterson called the process of
population aging as a grey dawn and predicts, based on current demographic
trends, that by the 2030 the share of the people over 65 years of age in the
population will amount to 33% in Australia and 50% in Germany. He also
notes that the number of people older than 85 years of age increased faster
than the number of those aged over 65 years, and that by mid of this century
Figure 1. Structure
the number of the population
of elderly according
will increase to thecompared
six times basic age groups in the
to their EU-28, in
number 2013-
the
80 Figure
(1) (% 1.
ofStructure of the population according to the basic age groups in the EU-28, 2013-
total population)
beginning of the century.
80 (1) (% of total population) This process is sometimes referred to as the aging
of the elderly.37 The following charts give the basic structure of the population
by the age groups in the European Union (EU-28):
Figure 1. Structure of the population according to the basic age groups in the
EU-28, 2013-80 (1) (% of total population)

Source: European Commission eurostat, Population structure and ageing, Popu-

lation
structure by major age groups, EU-28, 2013–80 (1) (% of total population)
YB14.png, 6 June 2014, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.
php/File:Population_structure_by_major_age_groups,_EU-28,_2013%E2%80%
9380_%281%29_%28%25_of_total_population%29_YB14.png [01/11/2014.]
Source: European Commission eurostat, Population structure and ageing, Population structure by major age
groups, EU-28, 2013–80 (1) (% of total population) YB14.png, 6 June 2014,
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/File:Population_structure_by_major_age_groups,
_EU-28,_2013%E2%80%9380_%281%29_%28%25_of_total_population%29_YB14.png [01/11/2014.]
36
VeraEuropean
Source: Graovac,
Migration, The aging
Commission
at the of the
eurostat,
global population
Population
level, does not -directly
the problem
structure andaffect of Population
ageing,
the the modern
formation ofdeveloped
structure society,
by major
the age age
groups,
geografy,
structureEU-28, 2013–80 Because,
hr,the14/10/2003,
of population. (1)http://www.geografija.hr/clanci/61/starenje-stanovnistva-prob-
(% in of total in population)
the areas which it was YB14.png,
recorded the 6extreme
June 2014,
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/File:Population_structure_by_major_age_groups,
immigration or emigration, the composition of the population by age is strongly determined
lem-modernog-razvijenog-društva [10/02/2010.]
_EU-28,_2013%E2%80%9380_%281%29_%28%25_of_total_population%29_YB14.png [01/11/2014.]
37 by the migration due to the particular selectivity of migrants by age.
Peter G. Peterson, Gray Dawn: How the Coming Age Wave will Transform America – and the
In addition to the fact that aging can be seen from a physiological (medical) aspect, it
World,
can be
New York: Random
Migration,
seen in the at
House,
the global
socio-cultural
1999.
level,
context. does
The notofdirectly
status old peopleaffect the formation
is different in modern andof the age
structure of the population.
the pre-modern Because,
societies, as well in the areas non-Western
as the contemporary in which itsocieties.
was recorded
While inthe
the extreme
36last one older
immigration or people
emigration, the composition
have certain privileges andof the population
preferred bymodern
status, in the age is societies
stronglythey
determined
by have a lower status
the migration andthe
due to areparticular
excluded from all important
selectivity social by
of migrants activities,
age. ie. they have no
power.InWhen it comes
addition to fact
to the attitude
thattowards
aging the
canaging
be seenby the people
from themselves, it has
a physiological recentlyaspect, it
(medical)
can be seen in the socio-cultural context. The status of old people is different in modern and
13
Migration, at the global level, does not directly affect the formation of the
age structure of the population. Because, in the areas in which it was recorded
the extreme immigration or emigration, the composition of the population
by age is strongly determined by the migration due to the particular selectiv-
ity of migrants by age.
In addition to the fact that aging can be seen from a physiological (med-
ical) aspect, it can be seen in the socio-cultural context. The status of old
people is different in modern and the pre-modern societies, as well as the
contemporary non-Western societies. While in the last one older people have
certain privileges and preferred status, in the modern societies they have a
lower status and are excluded from all important social activities, ie. they have
no power. When it comes to attitude towards the aging by the people them-
selves, it has recently changed significantly. “The progress of medicine and
nutrition demonstrates that all that was once unavoidable, when aging is con-
cerned, can now be prevented or delayed. People on average live longer than
a century ago, as a result of improved nutrition, hygiene and health care.”38
In terms of the length of the life span and the way people perceive ag-
ing, can be observed gender differences. So far it is reported that women live
longer than men, so the aging can be referred to as the birthplace of the phe-
nomenon, but also as a consequence of the existence of specific gender dis-
parities in aging between men and women. Since women are, as a rule, more
engaged in the performance of their obligations in relation to household and
raising children, they are less able to engage in the performance of work or
income, and if included, are earning less. It is in later life reflected in their
financial status. Women; otherwise, earn less than men and are less in the
possession of material goods (house, car, etc.), and disability for women in
old age is more present than for men. However, regardless of whether they
are women or men, it is clear that when they are older, they are in a mate-
rially less favorable position than the rest of the population. Retirement is a
substantial part of the revenue decline, which is reflected in the standard of
these people, it intensifies in them the feeling of disorientation, loss of status,
loneliness and the like.39 However, here are also observed the changes. Once
the retirement was perceived as a social death, but this is not the case today.
“When they reached the retirement age, the elderly of the 20th century were
imbued by the values of effort and work. Pensioners from the beginning of
the third millennium are the same ones who went through all the social and
economic changes, participated in the sexual liberation, they supported the
rise of individualism. These old people and in this stage of life are looking for
38
Anthony Giddens, Sociology, Belgrade: Faculty of Economics, 2005, pp. 176.
39
The Same, pp. 178 – 179.
37
independence and personal development.”40 However, it is not uncommon

for old people to face discrimination merely because of their age.41
Reducing the number of children or not having children at all, can af-
fect the quality of life of the individual in the old age, but also the increased
pressure on the social protection system (security), pension funds and the
like. Of course, in the pre-modern period when there was no extrafamilial,
institutional protection of individuals (financial, health, etc.), a large num-
ber of children meant for parents in old age, among other things, that kind
of security. In modern times, people have begun to carry out income-based
work, which included in addition to remuneration, the separation of certain
funds for various forms of social protection and the realization of the right
to a cash payment upon the termination of employment (pensions), which
means owning resources to maintain a certain level, lifestyle. This weakens
the importance of the family in the terms of providing the material assis-
tance to their elderly members, while family members are relieved of this
pressure. However, the family does not lose its importance either for the in-
dividual or for society - from the number of births, or increasing a young,
working population depends the maintaining the system of social protection
and pension systems, as well as their quality. Therefore, it is essential that at
the working age are present younger generations who pay contributions for
pensions and other social insurance, and to a greater number than the num-
ber of users of these rights. In modern societies, is emphasized the aging of
population as a demographic crisis of the pension and other social security
systems. The aging of population is due, on the one hand, the extend of the
average duration of the human life (aging from the top), and the declining of
the birth, declining of the fertility rates (aging from the bottom). By reduc-
ing the number of working age people is deteriorating relationship between
the working population and retirees, which is reflected in the so-called. the
index of dependency (the dependency ratio), which is disadvantageous or
has a tendency of deterioration in the most European countriesThe increase
in the elderly population, especially over 80 years in developed countries, is
reflected in the increase in the cost of social benefits and social services for
these people, providing health care, and the pressure on the pension system.
In many Western European countries (in the EU in 2000, the costs for pen-
sions amounted to 10.4% of GDP)42, as well as the post-socialist countries
40
Martin Segalan, Sociology of the family, Belgrade: Clio, 2009, pp. 270 – 271.
41
Discrimination against people based on their age is called the Age-ism. Today in the world
there are a lot groups that fight against this kind of discrimination in order to promote a posi-
tive attitude towards the elderly.
42
B. Palier, La réforme des retraites, Paris: PUF, 2003, p. 23. in: Gojko Bežovan and others.,
Systems of social policy, in: Vlado Puljiz and others, Social policy: the history, systems, glossary,
38
(World Bank experts predict in the 2050 pension expenses 14.2% of GDP)43
significantly increased public pension costs. Pension crisis deepened and the
increased unemployment, changes in the structure of the work, the processes
of globalization, the liberalization of world markets and the like.44 Consid-
ering that after the 2010 started to move into retirement generations born
in the 50s of the 20th century (“baby boomers”), is predicted the deepening
crisis of the pension system (a large number of these pensioners compared to
the current generation of the few employees). Therefore, in this case, we can
assume the need for greater family solidarity and support (various forms of
tangible and intangible aid).
However, aging can not be accessed only in a negative context (illness,
poverty, powerlessness, etc..), but also in the positive - this is the age at which
people can start many activities, but also be released of many parental and
professional obligations.
Changes related to marriage
In all European countries in previous decades is shown a decrease in the

number of marriages (gross rate of marriages).45 This rate has, for example, in
France from the year 1960 to 2000 fell from 7.0% to 5.1%. In Germany during
the same period, the rate of marriages has dropped from 9.5% to 5.1%, Italy
7.7% to 4.9%. And other European countries have reported similar trends.
Post-socialist countries that emerged after the breakup of the Soviet Union,
except for countries with an Islamic majority, now have the lowest rate of
marriages.46 The changes are present in terms of the age of partners at their
first marriage. The decline in the percentage of marriages in the age group
below thirty years was visible first in Sweden and Denmark. This trend is
spreading in the early 70-ies of the XX century and to the other countries:
the USA, Britain, West Germany and France. In the period between 1981
to 1990, the rate of marriages in all age groups is decreasing in the UK from
7.1% a year per thousand people to 6.8%, and in 1995 to less than 6.47 The rate
Zagreb: Faculty of Law in Zagreb, 2005, p. 185.
43
The World Bank, The Evolution of Pension Systems in Estern Europe and Central Asia, Wash-
ington D.C., 2000, p. 9.
44
Gojko Bežovan and others, Systems of social policy, in: Vlado Puljiz and others, Social policy:
the history, systems, glossary, Zagreb: Faculty of Law in Zagreb, 2005, p. 186 – 187.
45
Gross Marriage rate - the number of marriages per 1,000 inhabitants.
46
Vlado Puljiz, Family policy, in: Vlado Puljiz and others, Social policy: the history, systems,
47
Source: Social Trends, London: HMSO, 1998.
39
of first marriage for women to fifty years of age in the 1960 in Europe stood
at around 0.95, meaning that 95% of women under the age of 50 for the first
time entered into a marriage. However, four decades later, less than two thirds
of women first got married to 50 years of age (in the year 2002 the rate for
the whole Europe was 0.62).48 Disposal of marriage is under the influence of
the aging marital contingent, that is the decrease of new entering generations
and disposal of marriage to a later age. Changing the position and the role of
women in society and in the family, changes in the marital dyad, as well as
the changes in its content and meaning which it has for the actors, introduced
changes in the traditional institution of marriage.49 In modern society, one of
the causes of marriage later in life is and the change of the treatment of the
traditional institution of marriage. It is the average age at marriage that is a
significant indicator of marital transition model. If the rate of marriages of
older cohorts compensates for the behavior of young people, moving the age
for getting into marriage, does not necessarily mean resistance to marriage.50
However, the postponement of marriage to a later age may be the result of
consciousness “that the life expectancy is extended, that is, for those decisions
in life there is time and later.”51 However, this reduces the deposition of the
biological potential of partners for obtaining seed, which has resulted in the
birth of a small number of children. On the other hand, marriage is no longer
a necessary framework for reproduction, and marriage does not necessarily
have to be associated with reproduction, ie. partners can have children before
marriage or do not want to have children so the marriages and fertility do not
need to be brought into close connection.
48
“The lowest rate of marriages of women under 50 years were recorded in Georgia (0.28),
Slovenia (0.43) and Hungary (0.47), and the largest in Turkey (0.85), Romania (0.69) and Den-
mark (0.69).” Vlado Puljiz, Demographic trends in Europe, Documentation - Journal of Social
Policy, Vol. 12, no. 2, Zagreb, 2005, str. 267.
49
See more in: Mirjana Bobić, Marriage and/or partnerships, demographic and sociological
studies, Belgrade: Čigoja stamp, 2003.; Mirjana Bobić, “The transformation of marriage - a strat-
egy of preservation and disposal of changes” in: Anđelka Milić and others, Social transformation
and strategies of social groups. Lifestyle of Serbia at the beginning of the third millennium, Bel-
grade: ISI FF, 2004.
50
Marriage, M. Bobić, Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and Marija Bog-
51
Mirjana Bobić, Demography and Sociology - connection or synthesis, Belgrade: JP Official
Gazette, 2007, p. 180.
40
The frequency of celibacy
Also, in modern society we can see an increase in the number of those

who are permanently opting for celibacy, that is, to live alone, and those who
do not want to have children. In all populations, the frequency of celibacy by
generations has the same basic shape, and this is its negative correlation with
age - it is high among younger generations, while in the old age is very low,
and to its reduction comes at an age when people usually opt for marriage -
it is more common in men up to thirty years of age than in women, due to
their subsequent getting into marriage. With the emergence of new styles of
partnership these differences in the behavior of the poles are reduced, which
results in changes in the content of marriage, specific marital structures (wid-
owed, divorced) and celibacy. The recent emergence of permanent withdraw-
al from the partnership (committed singles) is increasing, and some of the
authors “fear that the current globalization of the economy would not only
increase voluntary withdrawal from birth (‘sociological sterility’, childless-
ness) due to the tendency of decreasing state support for families and chil-
dren but also the polarization to the two population groups within the family
and the outside-family households.”52 The term completion of celibacy im-
plies the habitants in the age of 50 who have not entered in the first marriage.
Due to the direct connection of variables of marriage and birth, a signifi-
cant proportion of the female population is in the completion of a celibate.
In modern industrialized societies, there is a gender asymmetry, so it is more
likely that some women remain in the celibate and outside the reproduction.
Also, with changes in the status and role of women in society, the possibility
of extending the voluntary celibacy and in the later years of the reproductive
cycle is open. Education, employment, career, contraception, individual life
goals, aspirations, and (class conditional) system of values, the decline of state
support for families, increase the likelihood of not only biological but also the
willing infertility (sociological sterility).53 It is the share of completed celibacy
that is a clear indication of falling popularity of marriage as an institution.
Divorce in contemporary society
The institution of divorce is a universal social fact and as old as marriage

itself. Divorce is a process for legitimate and legal annulment of marriage
(disassembly or separation) of a spouse, who for some reason can not or do
52
The Same.
53
Celibacyt, M. Bobić, Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and Marija Bog-
41
not want to live together.54 There are also cases of (illegal) dissemination of
wedlock which derive from leaving families and partners by a spouse whose
new place of residence is unknown.55
In all the countries in the world since the middle of the last century, the
rate of divorces (divorce rates) are constantly increasing.56 One of the most
significant trends that are reflected in family patterns in most industrialized
societies is to increase these rates (in the mid sixties around 10% and the
eighties 30%). In some European countries today is divorcing almost every
second marriage (for example, the divorce rate in 2000 was 0.55 in Sweden,
0.51 in Finland, Denmark 0.45, 0.43 in the Czech Republic and Austria 0.43).57
Along with a reduction in the rate of marriage in the most European coun-
tries, there is an increase in the number of divorces compared to the number
of marriages, which can be seen from the following graph:
54
The collapse of marriage can be divided into three main categories:
1. divorce, which means the legal end of marriage,
2. separation, which means the physical separation of spouses; they no longer have the
common habitat,
3. the so-called ‘empty’ marriages in which the spouses live together, remain before the law
married, but the marriage exists only on paper. Michael Haralambos and Martin Hol-
born, Sociology - Themes and perspective, Part I, Zagreb: Golden marketing, 2002, p. 566.
55
Especially for men from minority groups in America (Blacks, Mexicans and others.) this is
a characteristic pattern of behavior, because they do not have the financial resources to take
care of their family members when they cease to live with them, and large geographic distances
allow them to disappear without trace. Anđelka Milić, Sociology of the family - critics and chal-
lenges, Belgrade: Čigoja stamp, 2001, p. 121.
56
To be able to monitor the incidence of divorce, as well as other characteristics that are
related to divorce, are founded demographic measures - the divorce rate (the rate of divorce
- lat. Divortium - divorce, breakup, goodbye), which expresses the number of divorces per
1,000 inhabitants in the married ages or in the appropriate number of marriages. ...The general
divorce rate represents the ratio of divorces per 1 000 inhabitant during the year: d = D/P x
1.000 (D = the number of divorces, P = the number of a mid-year population). There are also
specific divorce rates, which measure the frequency of divorce with regard to some of the char-
acteristics of the population that is divorced (the spouse age, years of marriage, permanence of
marriage), as well as the total divorce rate, which represents the ratio between the number of
divorces per 1,000 marriages. Divorce, M. Ljubičić, Dictionary of Sociology, Belgrade: Institute
for Textbooks, 2007, p. 86.
57
Source: Counseil de l’Europe, Evolution démographique en Europe, Strasbourg, 2003, p. 62.
in: Vlado Puljiz, Family Policy, in: Vlado Puljiz and others, Social policy: the history, systems,
42
Chart 2. Rates of marriages and divorce rates, EU-28, 1970 - 2010 (per 1,000 inhabitants)
Chart 2. Rates of marriages and divorce rates, EU-28, 1970 - 2010 (per 1,000
inhabitants)
Source: European Commission eurostat, Marriage and divorce statistics, Crude

marriage and divorce rates, EU-28, 1970–2010 (per 1 000 inhabitants) YB14.png, 18 June
2014, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/File:Crude_
marriage_and_divorce_rates,_EU-28,_1970%E2%80%932010_%28per_1_000_in-
habitants%29_YB14.png, [14/11/2014.]
Source: European Commission eurostat, Marriage and divorce statistics, Crude marriage and divorce rates, EU-
28, 1970–2010 (per 1 000 inhabitants) YB14.png, 18 June 2014,
Changes in marriage and divorce in the same time periods were not equal-
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/File:Crude_marriage_and_divorce_rates,_EU-
ly among all European countries. So today divorce [14/11/2014.]
28,_1970%E2%80%932010_%28per_1_000_inhabitants%29_YB14.png, in the individual coun-
tries of Europe occurs in varying degrees, in the south is relatively low and
includes between
Changes 10 andand
in marriage 20% of marriages,
divorce in the samewhile in thewere
time periods northnotisequally
between 40 all
among
and
European 45% of marriages.
countries. So today 58
This phenomenon
divorce somecountries
in the individual authorsofexplain
Europe with
occursthe dif-
in varying
degrees,
ferent in the south
religious is relatively
traditions low andcountries,
in certain includes between
then a10variety
and 20% of marriages,and
of economic while
in the north is between 40 and 45% of marriages.58 This phenomenon some authors explain
social
with the development,
different religious which some insocieties
traditions reachedthen
certain countries, aftera variety
World ofWar II, butand
economic
also
social development, which some societies reached after World War II, but also due to theinfact
due to the fact that women have become more independent, especially
the
thateconomic
women haveterms. become more independent, especially in the economic terms.
From the statistical data on divorce rates we can not get a real picture of the true state
From the statistical data on divorce rates we can not get a real picture of
of things, because, as noted by A. Giddens, "divorce rates do not include those people who
the
are trueseparated statebut of things,
not legally because,
divorced.as Moreover,
noted by people
A. Giddens,
who are“divorce
unhappyrates do notcan
in marriage
include
remain together those people - becausewho they are separated
believe but not
in the sanctity legally divorced.
of marriage, or are unableMoreover,
to cope with
people who are unhappy in marriage can remain together - because they be-

lieve
58
Martin inSegalan,
the sanctity Sociologyof of marriage, or areClio,
the Family, Belgrade: unable to187.
2009, p. cope with the financial and
emotional consequences of the break or else stay together for the kids.”59 The
18
frequency of divorce this theorist explains with the factors that are related to
58
Martin Segalan, Sociology of the Family, Belgrade: Clio, 2009, p. 187.
59
Anthony Giddens, Sociology, Belgrade: Faculty of Economics, 2005, p. 193.
43
broader social changes (economic independence of women, greater overall

wealth of society, changing attitudes to divorce, etc.). As an important fac-
tor in the incidence of divorce is “increasingly evident tendency to estimate
marriage through the level of personal satisfaction it provides. It appears that
the increasing divorce rates are not an indication of the deep discontent with
marriage as such, but the increasing determination to make it a much richer
relationship.”60 This would mean that the higher divorce rate indicates a great-
er value that is attributed to marriage, growing expectations from marriage
than before, which may be justified with an increase in re-marriages.
Some theorists seek the causes of marital breakdown in the specialization
of the family in a small number of functions that took place in the industrial
society, which has resulted in the weakening of the sense of community and
intimate relationships between family members, especially spouses.
Divorce in the contemporary society is present in all marital groups, re-
gardless of the age of the spouse and the time they spent in a marriage.61 The
age of spouses in divorce proceedings is not negligible. It has demographic
implications various of the male and female population, which largely de-
pends on the socio-cultural model that determines the re-marriage and the
resume of reproduction.
Population policy - a response to adverse demographic trends

(Objectives, Measures and Effects)
Since men have always met with population problems, population policy
elements can be found and in an early human communities.62 But only since
the modern era, there is a continuity in policy implementation, as well as the
most important and generally accepted principles, institutions and objectives
of population policy. The intensification of political activities in connection
with the population characterized the previous century (mortality policy,
improving health, migration policy, policies in the area of fertility, etc.). In
some societies, there have been attempts of state to directly shape the family
60
The Same, p. 194.
61
According to the information given by Mirjana Bobić, earlier marriages were divorced more
in the younger age of spouses (characteristic crisis years were after three and a half or seven
years of marriage). Divorce, M. Bobić, Dictionary of Sociology, prepared by Aljoša Mimica and
Marija Bogdanović, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks, 2007, p. 481.
62
“Population policy, as a conscious, deliberate, mainly explicit government intervention in
demographic trends...” Marina Blagojević, Parenting and fertility - Serbia in the nineties, Bel-
grade: Institute for Sociological Research of the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade, 1997, p. 26.
44
life, where family policy was marked by population objectives (in the former
USSR, Romania, China and France).63 In China the situation is different -
individuals have to seek permission to have more than one child, there are
certain measures and sanctions in order for all to be engaged in reducing
the birth rate. In the UK families were treated with the area of privacy, and it
was considered inappropriate for the government to take any measures which
would mean the interference in this private sphere.64
The consequences that population factor creates in many economic and
social areas, in the past two decades, have made the population policy in the
field of population fertility as an important precondition for development
in the broadest sense. In response to the unfavorable demographic trends
(population size, age structure, etc.), have been introduced the pronatalist
measures in developed countries and measures to discourage having chil-
dren in underdeveloped countries. In the most modern societies there is an
indirect approach through the many social policies (employment, housing,
etc.), and in particular through policies to support the family, trying to create
the conditions that might be conducive to having children. This approach is
practiced for the reasons of resistance to direct political interference in the
reproductive behavior of individuals.
The effects of population policy measures do not have in most cases the
desired results. Thus arises the question of adequacy of measures of popula-
tion policy, and the issue of (not) adequate operationalization of these meas-
ures (the maximum effect of the measures applied is the increase in com-
pleted fertility up to 10%, which is in conditions of extremely low fertility
insufficient.).65
63
The communist government in the Soviet Union in the 20s of the last century took measures
whose aim was to weaken and destroy the family, so it has adopted measures which greatly
facilitated the procedure of divorce and abortions. During the communist regime in Romania
by N. Čauševskog, people were encouraged to start a family, so for the individuals who by the
age of 25 were not married was imposed to pay the excise tax, which is aimed at increasing the
birth rate. Here one can mention the example of France in the first half of the 20th century.
As the part of Malthusian demographic framework in the service of national and military
objectives between the two wars, family policy was aimed at encouraging the birth of more
children. It was promoted by the movement for the procreation of children and the family -
they highlighted the moral sense of the family and fought for the family to receive help. It is
in this context, in 1920, established the national holiday of mothers with several children, for
whose organization is in charge the National Association for the dissemination of the French
population, led by Bertillon. Martin Segalan, Sociology of the family, Belgrade: Clio, 2009, p. 31.
64
A. Wilson, Family, London: Tavistock, 1985, in: Michael Haralambos and Martin Holborn,
Sociology - Themes and Perspectives, Part I, Zagreb: Golden marketing, 2002, p. 572.
65
Population Policy, M. Rašević, Dictionary of Sociology, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks,
2007, p. 410.
45
Looking at demographic trends in the developed and in the underdevel-

oped parts of the world, it is obvious that, if they continue in the same direc-
tion, it will leave negative effects on social and economic development from
local to global levels. Therefore, the developed and undeveloped parts of the
world must be seriously engaged in the development and implementation of
the appropriate population policy.66
The diseases that are lifestyle-related, degenerative diseases, environmen-
tal protection, health promotion and the like. in developed countries are at
the center of the attention of mortality policies. Another important area of
activity within the population policy becomes the international migration, as
in many developed countries comes to an influx of population due to immi-
gration from other countries, which goes beyond their capacities and needs.
Thus, in these countries are taken a series of measures to reduce the influx of
immigrants. In recent years, developing countries have adopted population
policy as part of their development plans. Reduced population growth as the
primary goal of population policy adopted and governments which through
the long history were advocating for the pro-birth policy. Today explicit pop-
ulation policy is implemented by 62% of the countries of Asia and the Pacific,
58% of African countries, and about 40% of the countries of Latin Ameri-
ca and the Caribbean. Bearing in mind the consequences and demographic
inertia, a large number of countries have started too late to intervene. The
central components of population policies pursued by developing countries
are maternal and child health, family planning, public health, status of wom-
en, information and education of the population. Within these policies fully
informative differences are not significant and consist of inclusion or non-in-
clusion of less important topics such as migration, urbanization, rural devel-
opment, social welfare, environmental protection and inclusion of young or
old population as a specific target group.67 However, it must be borne in mind
that developing countries face many problems and difficulties in securing
funding for the realization of the program of population policy.
66
This means that in the underdeveloped world, where there have been a natural growth, must
be taken measures to reduce the birth rate, equalizing the age structure and improving the
living conditions. On the other hand, the developed world had to work on population policy
measures which would encourage people during the reproductive period to have children at
all, or the birth of a large number of children, in order to prevent the process of population
aging and low, in some countries negative rate of the natural population growth.
67
Population Policy, M. Rašević, Dictionary of Sociology, Belgrade: Institute for Textbooks,
2007, p. 410 – 411.
46
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48
Some characteristics of leisure time of
Ivan Šijaković et al. young people in the Republic of Srpska
Ivan Šijaković1 Original scientific paper

Mirjana Čeko2 UDC 379.8.093:316.7-053.6 (497.6RS)
Vanja Nišić3 DOI 10.7251/ SOCEN1509049Š
Faculty of Political Science Accepted on July 9, 2015.
Banja Luka
Some characteristics of leisure time of young people

in the Republic of Srpska
Abstract
This paper analyzes several aspects of the leisure time of young people
in the Republic of Srpska on the basis of the data obtained from the
sample, which served as the basis of the study with which we have
examined the attitudes and perceptions of young people about their
free time at the age from 15 to 25 years. The aim of this study is to
determine how young people in the Republic of Srpska spend their
free time and how it affects other segments of their personal and so-
cial life, as well as the overall image of young people. The paper pays
special attention to the impact of economic and social factors on the
quality of leisure time, as well as monitoring the level of interest of
young people in the RS for cultural, educational and sports facilities
in their free time.
Keywords: Leisure time, the youth, young people in the Republic of Srpska, content
and quality of the leisure time
Introduction
Throughout the history, leisure time had a different role and meaning.
Once there was no division and differentiation of work and leisure time, then
the free time belonged only to the privileged social classes and in the industri-
1
Professor at the Faculty of Political Science in Banja Luka, the study program of Sociology,
sijakovici@gmail.com
2
Master studies at the Faculty of Political Science in Banja Luka, the study program of Sociol-
ogy, miraceko@gmail.com
3
Master studies at the Faculty of Political Sciences in Banja Luka the study program of Soci-
ology, vanjanisic@gmail.com
49
al age began a struggle for the shortening of working hours and increasing the
leisure time. Today again there is a predominance of the working time over
leisure time and thus leisure time occupies the particularly important place in
the life of every man and especially in the area of social research.
Leisure time of the youth is important and deserves special attention of
the researchers, scientists and social institutions. It is important to find out
how young people use their free time, that is, whether they use it in the high-
est quality, creativity and diversity?
Martin Holt4 mentions the leisure time as a space for expression of the
authentic I in every man. In his research, he stated that young people have
argued that the free time, especially the time spent with friends in places such
as cafes or home space is where they can be who they really are. Leisure time
is one area where there are no barriers as there are in working, educational,
social or family milieu. It is a space where young people can relax and express
their true identity.
By observing the everyday conditions and on the basis of some prelimi-
nary research in the Republic of Srpska, we can see that young people most of
their free time spend on social networks, surfing the Internet and in the cafes.
Before the evaluation of empirical data collected, it is necessary, in an ab-
breviated form, to mention the several general attitudes about who are the
young people, what is the notion of free time, including to what is related to
the population of young people in our society.
The concept of young people in different countries has a different defi-
nition and meaning depending on the factors such as: value-cultural orien-
tation, the socio-economic living conditions, educational features, political
orientation and the like. What is universally true for young people is that
they are the transitional category (social group) at the transition between
childhood and full adulthood, “when they have to overcome the complexi-
ty of mutual relations of personal and socio-economic changes in order to
overcome the transition from the dependence to independence, the taking of
the effective control over their life and the acceptance of social roles and the
specific social engagement. “5
Leisure time is the subject of interest of most scientific disciplines which
are centered around the man. While in the past it was the subject of the strug-
gle between social classes as a human right, in the present, and especially in
the future, the free time becomes a segment of time that is expanding every
4
Martin Holt, Young People, Leisure and the Construction of Sexual Identities: A report on work
in progress, UK: University of Birmingham, 1998.
5
Enes Pašalić, The youth of Brčko District of Bosnia and Herzegovina (research), Brčko, 2006.
50
day. As such, at the same time it brings advantages but also the threats to the
individual and to society as a whole. The free time is important for the social-
ization of children and young people and provides them the opportunities
to meet the different needs and interests. It also helps them in activating the
creative abilities for which satisfaction and expression they did not have the
opportunity in other segments of life.
In this study, we put in the spotlight the current state of the free time of
young people in the Republic of Srpska, specifically looking at the two as-
pects: a) the impact of socio-economic factors on the quality of free time and
b) the interest of young people for educational, cultural and sporting activi-
ties that can potentially improve the quality of their free time.
1. Review of the literature
The famous researcher of the leisure time, Joffre Dumazedier, gave the
following definition of the free time, “Leisure time is the collection of occupa-
tions where an individual can deliver his heart, be at rest, whether for enter-
tainment, whether for voluntarily develop of their social participation, their
information or their subsequent education, since is freed from all the pro-
fessional, family or social obligations. “ He shared the daily life into 3 parts:
work, commitment out of work and leisure time and showed that casual lei-
sure time has three important functions: the relaxation that occurs in the
reproduction of energy (recuperation) for the work again; entertainment, (a
function that frees us from boredom) and the third function is related to per-
sonality development (it releases from the stereotypes of everyday life, clichés
and uniformity and predictability). This function of the free time allows more
free social participation and selfless care of the body and spirit. It provides
new possibilities for voluntary integration into the life of recreational, cul-
tural, social groups. It provides a free complement of the affective or intel-
lectual knowledge, the fostering of competencies acquired in the young age,
but which are always outbalanced with the constant and complex evolution
of society. “6
Free time is usually defined as the time outside the work commitments,
family responsibilities and the additional work in preparation for a job or
performing the tasks from the previous jobs. With the free time individual
disposes at its discretion and preferences. It is not caused by any external
6
Cited from: Aleksandar Todorović, Sociology of the free time. Belgrade: Interpregled. 1984.
p 76.
51
requirements that are beyond the wishes and the will of the individual. Free
time is the time of the active rest, leisure, personal development, spontaneous
socialization, creative personality confirmation independent from the com-
pulsory labor. “An important characteristic of thus conceived leisure time is
therefore not the formal waste of time, but the creative design of the time
which to individual remains available after meeting the given obligations.”7
The famous theorist in the field of industrial sociology, Georges Fried-
mann, distinguishes the free and the liberated time. In his opinion, liberated
time is the entire time outside the compulsory labor. However, this is not the
time in which he can come to the fore with his free choice. Free time means
the time interval that is exempt from any obligation, in which one person is
trying to express himself by choice and, if he has the ability and resources to
develop.8 So if we think along the lines of Friedman, a total budget of time
outside of work can be divided into liberated and free time. Here is the word
about the time exempt from the compulsory labor, which is important for
obtaining the man’s existential funds or exempt from work that is used for a
man to be institutionally educated and to create opportunities for career ad-
vancement and to acquire skills to perform certain tasks important for raising
the living standards. The liberated time can be devoted to family obligations,
professional obligations or doing some traveling for the following obligations.
Only when that time is excluded from the total out of work and out of man-
datory budget time, what remains is the free time that individuals can devote
to their wishes, personal satisfaction, creation and enjoyment. Free time in
which man feels no obligation and pressure of any external factors and for
which he can decide how to use it, is also called the leisure time.
Leisure time can be seen as the part of an overall “time budget” to which
man rejoices because it is a haven and refuge (escape) from coercion, duties,
supervision, frustration and stress. Symbols of such free time are mostly fun,
entertainment, recreation, relaxation, peace of mind, dedication to yourself
or hanging out with friends. Freedom, creativity and imagination are the el-
ements which are used to build and fill the free time that can qualify as the
leisure. The way the free time will be filled, implemented or used depends on
the social situation, standard of living and professional status, age, gender and
education, but also of the overall situation in the society and the immediate
living and working environment. Members of different social groups differ-
ently understand and experience their free time and we do not have the uni-
versal understanding of what is leisure or free time, in different cultures and
7
Vlatko Previšić, Free time between the pedagogical theory and the educational practice. In the
Magazine „Napredak“ no. 4. Zagreb: HPKZ. 2000.
8
Cited from: Ratko Božović, The temptation of free time.Belgrade: Mladost. 1979.
52
social groups. There is a significant difference in the way of spending leisure

time between the poor and the richer societies. As absurd, the poorer, have
more free time, but it is burdened by poverty and is not perceived as happi-
ness and satisfaction, it is not creative, fulfilled, meaningful and liberating,
while the richer societies and the environments have less free time, but it can
be used in a meaningful and quality manner.
There are different social phenomena, circumstances, aspirations and
motives of different groups and organizations and institutions to “occupy”
the man’s leisure time. Such tendencies are characteristic of various sports,
cultural, political spectacles and mass gatherings in the squares and streets
that are distracting people from their desired ways of spending the free time.
Even Henri Lefebvre warned that it is “increasingly difficult to distinguish the
manipulative and false needs from the authentic, human needs,” which will
bring people into a situation that their “human essence is realized through the
trivial activities and facilities” that they will expensively pay their free time,
“not only economically, but morally and mentally” and in that way the en-
tertainment industry is beginning to “kill” the man’s leisure time.9 The spec-
tacle which the media promotes and exposes (mass entertainment, sporting
events, betting, reality shows) becomes a separate marketing product that
people (especially young people) are buying like buying any other goods in
supermarkets.
Young people are less direct and immediate organizers of leisure and en-
tertainment, and more and more consumers of what is offered by the highly
professional machine designated as the entertainment industry. Consumers
are becoming the passive audience, unprepared for the active spending of
the leisure time. Instead of their creativity and active participation, consumer
advertising industry competes in facilities where young people are the passive
participants and often only the observers.
The notion of the free time today is different than in the past century, es-
pecially the middle of that century. The classic definition of the free time does
not meet the current needs of the scientific research of the problem, because
it relies on the distinction between the free time and the time spent on paid
and unpaid work in addition to personal daily duties. As Roberts says, such a
definition today can not include unemployed people, pensioners, housewives
and some other social categories. Therefore Roberts talks about two kinds
of definitions of free time10, one is “out of date”, inherited from the previous
theoretical discourse and the other is a definition that includes contemporary
experiences that are not related only to the classical form of labor spent on
9
Henri Lefebvre, The critique of everyday life, Zagreb: Naprijed, 1988. p. 143.
10
Roberts, Ken., Leisure in Contemporary Society. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 1999.
53
a job that is separate from the house. This is the classic definition of the free
time, which relies on the “normative dimension” of relations of work and
leisure time. Roberts points out that the economic and technological changes
in recent decades have influenced the change of the character of free time
(as well as the character of work), and it is needed its conceptual redefini-
tion. Haworth and Veal11 underline that in the late twentieth and the early
twenty-first century appears again the problem of theoretical and scientific
understanding of free time, because there is the fewer classic work and in-
creasingly the casual labor, as well as the time “without work”, with which are
affected many social categories, especially young people. The key question is,
underlined by Haworth and Veal is how to find a balance between the deficit
of free time of the certain social categories and the “surplus” of the free time
for other categories.
The modern concept of leisure time involves a completely new elements
such as recreation, hobbies, volunteer activities, group and individual creative
satisfaction and leisure activities, acquiring new skills, traveling and visiting
of the interesting places, various other activities in the political and NGO or-
ganizations and movements . For the quality leisure time the most important
is the “positive perception of the individual and the feeling of the satisfaction
in the recreational and other activities” that individuals carry out individually
or in groups.12
Different countries have different definitions and meaning of young peo-
ple depending on factors such as: value-cultural orientation, socio-economic
living conditions, educational characteristics, traditions, ideologies, political
orientation and the like.
According to the United Nations a young person is any person between
10 and 24 years of age 13 and by the following categories: Teens 10-19 (10-14
early phase, late phase 15-19) Youth 15-24; Young people 10-24. It follows
that one-sixth of the world’s population are young people 14.
The Council of Europe considers the young person until its 30th years
of age, while in Indonesia this boundary moves to the age of 40, and young
people in Bosnia and Herzegovina are persons between the ages of 14 and
29, though officially it is not yet adopted the policies for young people, and it
11
John T. Haworth, A. J. Veal, Work and Leisure, New York: Routledge, 2004.
12
Liu, Huimei, “Personality, Leisure Satisfaction, and Subjective Well-Being of Serious Leisure
Participants”, Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal. Volume: 42. Issue: 7,
August 10, 2014.
13
Retrieved from www.un.org
14
OIA. SIROP no. 5- Special report on the development of youth policy, the theme: “Effective
youth participation in the international conferences”. 2003.
54
is not agreed the age limit that will be common for the whole of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. However, according to the Youth Organization of the Republic
of Srpska by youth are considered the faces between the ages of 16 and 30.15
We will, in this study, be based on the notion of young people, which is de-
fined by the Law on Youth Organization of the Republic of Srpska.
2. Youth and leisure time in BiH
In this part of the paper we considered and we rely on those studies or

parts of the studies containing data and indicating the problems, tendencies
and aspirations among young people, and that correspond directly with our
subject of research.
With the help of the Institution of Ombudsman for Human Rights in
Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2013 a survey was conducted,, Ombudsman in
your school “in six cities and twelve schools.16 School visits are used to create
a space for dialogue with children in order to obtain their opinion on the
importance of the right to rest, play and recreation. Representatives of the
Council of students of each school filled the questionnaire, which staffed ex-
clusively created for the purpose of this report. With questionnaires we want-
ed to find out information about how children usually spend their free time,
do they have it enough, and with which activities are they engaged in their
leisure time. Respondents were of different ages, which ranged from ages 7 to
18. The question of whether, in addition to school and other commitments
they have enough time to play and socialize, most children said they have
enough free time, while only a handful of students pointed out that they do
not have enough time to play and socialize. Slightly more than half of stu-
dents have more than three hours of free time a day, 2/3 of respondents daily
use about 1-2 hours of free time, and only 11 respondents said that daily they
have about 30 minutes of free time. Their spare time, young people tend to or-
ganize with friends or alone, and in the lowest number of cases they organize
their leisure time including parents.
The subjects of that research usually spend about two hours a day to so-
cialize and play with friends. When it comes to the types of activities that
15
The Government of the Republic of SrpskaBanja Luka, the Law on Youth Organization,
2004: http://www.mladi.gov.ba/ba/doc/ZAKON%20O%20OML.%20ORGANIZOVANJU.pdf
16
More about this look in a Special Report of the Ombudsman for Human Rights in Bosnia
and Herzegovina,, Children and Leisure Time ‘, Banja Luka, 2013. http://www.ombudsmen.gov.
ba/documents/obmudsmen_doc2014051313564240bos.pdf
55
children are engaged with in leisure time, research has shown that it is usually
hanging out with friends, then sports, the Internet, different courses, music,
whereas in the smallest number of cases, young people spend their free time
with TV, while some respondents did not respond to this question. A large
number of young people surveyed said they play sports. Although the major-
ity of young respondents did not answer the question what literature they like
to read, still some respondents indicated that they like to read. Respondents
who prefer to read pointed out that they prefer different types of literature, ie.
to have a free choice of books to read, as well as a variety of magazines and
comics.
The company “BH-GFK Market Research Centre Sarajevo” on a repre-
sentative sample of 1,500 randomly selected respondents across the BiH in-
vestigated how young people spend their free time. According to the results
of this study young BiH citizens spend their leisure time mostly with family
and friends. At least once a week (49% of respondents) in their spare time
goes to the tavern; 60% of respondents never visits the cinemas; 48% of them
never goes to concerts and more than 70% of young people never went to the
theater and exhibitions. This study has established that among young people
are largely represented sports activities, then watching TV, listening to music,
going out and excursions, and in the last place is travelling.17 In particular,
it seems paradoxical the fact that 63% of young people do not perceive the
school as the one that can support them in the planning of leisure time.
Another study was conducted in Tomislavgrad in the period from January
to April in the 2014 with a focus on young people and their leisure activities.
The survey was conducted on 200 subjects, mostly high school population
groups, the number of males and females is equal. Based on this survey, 34%
of young people said they spend most of their free time on Facebook, while
23% spend their free time in cafes, and 15% of those polled said they are en-
gaged in sports. Also, 49% of them are going out with friends every day, while
28% of the respondents said they only go out on weekends. Like the time of
going out 69% of respondents said that they are not limited with time, but
40% said that the best time for going out is from 23h to 5h. Those outs are
often in bars (80% of respondents).
There is also another survey conducted in October 2012. The survey
method of young people residing in the municipality of Novi Grad.18 Public
17
More about that see in: Izet Pehlić, A small number of young people spend their leisure time
in a quality manner, http://novovrijeme.ba/izet-pehlic-mali-broj-mladih-kvalitetno-provodi-
slobodno-vrijeme/
18
More about that see in: http://www.novigradsarajevo.ba/public_html/obrasci/Istrazivanje_
Mladi_u_Novom_Gradu_Sarajevo_final.pdf
56
opinion research was done for the purpose of creating the new municipal
Youth Strategy from 2012 to 2016, which treats the position and needs of
young people in the municipality of Novi Grad. The research results should
to municipal bodies dealing with youth, but also other institutions in the mu-
nicipality and the city, provide insight into the needs of young people. For
the purposes of this analysis were interviewed 500 people aged from 18 to
28 years old. The survey method used was a face-to-face and was carried out
through the visits to homes (door to door) - about 20%, at various venues of
young people (cafes, shopping and sports centers, clubs) - about 30% , uni-
versities - about 30% and on the street - about 20%. For the study was made
the gradation in three levels based on age. The majority of respondents were
aged between 22 and 25 years old. When the survey was conducted in ac-
count was taken that both sexes are equally represented. Of the total number
of respondents, 53,80% were women. In this study it was found that young
mostly use their leisure time on the fun and socializing. More than half of the
respondents their leisure time spend mostly on entertainment and socializing
(52%), followed by the sporting activity, but significantly less (17%). For cul-
tural events leisure time is mostly consumed by 10% of respondents.
Based on these studies, we have some indicators of how young people in
Bosnia and Herzegovina spend their leisure time. Based on these indicators
we learn that spending free time in various parts of Bosnia and Herzegovi-
na in some segments coincides and in some is different. In the first research
students have sufficient time for the rest and relaxation while only a hand-
ful of students pointed out that they do not have enough time to play and
socialize. In all studies it was shown that their leisure time, young people
tend to organize with friends or alone, and in the smallest number of cases
in the organization of free time young people include parents, school or any
other institution. In these researches results was shown that young people in
BiH leisure time usually spend with family and having fun with friends. Also,
when it comes to the types of leisure activities, indicators show that young
people spend their free time socializing with friends, playing sports, using
internet, listening to music, while on the other hand, indicators show that
young people spend the small amount of time watching television.
57
3. Methodological approach to research
3.1. The subject of research
In this paper we set the subject of research as the search for the answer
to the question of how young people in the Republic of Srpska spend their
leisure time?
We were especially interested in how much influence have the social and
economic factors, and the money and the standard of living of young people
and their families in the ways and forms uf using the leisure activities, as well
as how education, culture and sports activities are present in the content of
their free time.
The survey started from the basic hypothesis that young people are the
passive consumers of the media culture and social networks as well as the
passionate visitors of cafes and clubs. To this was added the claim that the
standard of life has a decisive effect on the quality, type and forms of spending
the leisure time, as well as the claim that cultural and sports activities occupy
a significant portion of total leisure time of young people in the Republic of
Srpska.
3.2. The Sample
Survey of the opinion and attitudes of young people in the Republic of Srp-
ska on the options that they currently have and would like to perform in their
free time was done using a questionnaire to a sample of 750 respondents, of
which 646 were obtained by the correct questionnaire. 300 respondents were
interviewed in Banja Luka, and 346 in other cities in the Republic of Srpska:
Prijedor, Doboj, Mrkonjić Grad, Čelinac, Trebinje, Vlasenica, Prnjavor, East
Sarajevo and Teslić. In determining the sample it was taken into account the
size of the city and population, so in Banja Luka, as the largest and the most
developed of these cities, was surveyed the most of the respondents of the
planned sample. The questionnaire was subjected to the statistical analysis
by which we obtained all the relevant information for the targeted research.
a) The age of the respondents
The age of the respondents ranged from 15 to 25 years old. Subjects were
divided into three age groups:
 The first sub-group: from 15 to 18 years old (this group includes mostly
high school students)
58
 The second sub-group: from 19 to 22 years old (this group includes stu-
dents of the first cycle of studies)
 The third sub-group:: from 23 to 25 years old (this group includes stu-
dents, mostly graduates or students of the second cycle of studies, as well
as employed and unemployed young people).
b) The gender of respondents
The study represented both sexes. The selection of respondents from the
basic group was selected randomly.
3.3. Data collection and processing
In the research of the opinion and attitudes of the young people was used
the questionnaire. Each member of the representative sample was subjected
to the poll. The questionnaire or the instrument of the survey in the present
study, is composed of a series of closed questions or questions with the an-
swers provided in advance which the respondents, depending on their atti-
tudes and opinions relating to the research topic, could choose. The question-
naire consists of the three main parts:
1. introduction to the questionnaire;
2. issues relating to the general information about the subject (making
sure that we do not seek information that jeopardize the anonymity of re-
spondents);
3. issues relating to how they currently spend their free time, how satisfied
are they with the offering activities and what would they like to change in the
terms of the offer for the leisure activities.19
Data processing is performed within the SPSS statistical package. The an-
swers are usually presented as frequencies, percentages and arithmetic means,
and the Chi-square test.
19
This work is part of a research project so it will not be covered with all the material that has
emerged as a result of implementation of the Questionnaire.
59
4. Results of the Research
4.1. Socio-demographic structure of young people in the research
The total number of respondents (646) on the whole territory of the Re-
public of Srpska, is divided into three age groups: 15 to 18 years old (41,3%),
19 to 22 years old (41,8%) and 23 to 25 years old (16,9%). The questionnaire
comprised 39,9% of men and 60,1% of women. According to the type of set-
tlement participants usually live in the metropolitan area with 58,5%, in the
second place are the suburbs with 25,9% and in the third the rural areas with
15,6% of the total number of respondents, which is certainly in line with the
earlier rapid deagrarianism and the quasi-urbanization of the BiH society.
The first age group (15 to 18 years old) was related mainly to people who
are attending high school. From the total number of respondents this group
includes 306 of them or 47,4%. The type of education they gained in high
school, is also divided into three groups: professional schools enroll 2,8% of
total highschool students, grammar 20,3% and 24,3% is for technical schools.20
The second and third group (from 19 to 22 years old and from 23 to 25
years old) refer mainly to the students of the first and second cycle of the
studies, namely 52,6% of the total number of respondents. With an insig-
nificant number of those who completed college or they did not attend it.
Taking into account that and the members of the first age group circled the
answer to this question, we have the following results: From the total num-
ber of respondents 49,7% go to university (mostly the second and the third
age group), while 50,3% does not go to college (which mainly includes high
school students and an insignificant number of young people who have com-
pleted high school and do not go to college).
Given in mind this socio-demographic structure of the respondents we
feel that we can reach the relevant knowledge about what young people mean
by free time, how they use it, how satisfied are they with high-quality offer of
leisure activities, and what they propose for the improvement of the quality
of implementation of social life in the form of free time in the Republic of
Srpska.
4.2. The impact of social and economic factors on the quality of free time
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and therefore the Republic of Srpska as its inte-
gral part, in its transition period is characterized primarily, as in the case of
20
Note: For easier processing of data, subjects who do not belong to this age group, rounded
the option of not going to school.
60
many other transition economies, by high unemployment. Because of inad-

equate qualifications on the supply and demand of labor force, as well as the
lack of job creation comes to the major imbalances in the labor market. The
removal of these imbalances poses a major challenge for economic, social,
educational and other policies. The employment rate increased from 2006
to 2008 (29,7% vs. 33,6%), followed by decline in 2009 and 2010 (33,1% and
32,5%). It is especially characteristic the sexual difference in this category,
which in 2010 amounted to 42,1% among men and 23,3% among the unem-
ployed women.21
Although the employment situation is for concern, the question of how do
with caution, bearing in mind
you assess your the fact status,
material that themost
assessment of the
respondents situation
answered by so relatively
by rounding the
option mediocre, even 64,4%, while the material situation as poor assessed
young people is questionable (Table 1.5).
only 6,8%, and as very well 28,8 %. This was the answer, mostly by the first age
group - high school, so we certainly observe it with caution, bearing in mind
Table 1.5:that
the fact How thedoassessment
you assessofyour materialby
the situation situation?
so relatively young people is
questionable (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: How do you assess your material situation?
Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Valid Very good 186 28,8 28,8
Mediocre 416 64,4 64,4
Bad 44 6,8 6,8
Total 646 100,0 100,0
When we talk about the influence of material factors on the way and qual-
ity of leisure time of young people, we have come to the following findings.
On the question relating to whether the money affects the quality of leisure
When wetime,talk 52,5%
about ofthethe respondents
influence said it affects,
of material factors but thatway
on the it is and
not crucial,
quality while
of leisure
19,8% said it affects to a large extent and 21,2% of respondents said that it
ime of young people,
does not weaffect.
have come to the following findings. On the question relating to
By crossing
whether the money affects questions
the quality about time,
of leisure housing and of
52,5% thethe
impact of money
respondents saidonit affects,
the
quality of free time we got results that indicate that young people from the ur-
but that it is not crucial, while 19,8% said it affects to a large extent and 21,2% of respondents
ban areas consider significant the influence of money on the quality of leisure
aid that it does not affect
time, (Table
as well 1.6).
as that young people from suburban areas consider the influence
of money important, but not decisive. (Chart 1.1).
By crossing questions about housing and the impact of money on the quality of free
ime we got results
21 that indicate
Labour that
Force Survey young
(LFS) people
2010, the from
Agency the urban
for Statistics BiH. areas consider significant
he influence of money on the quality of leisure time, as well as that young people61from
uburban areas consider the influence of money important, but not decisive. (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Place of residence and the influence of money on the quality of leisure time
Chart 1.1: Place of residence and the influence of money on the quality of lei-
sure time

By crossing the questions on employment and the impact of money on

the quality of free time, we see that young people who are employed feel that
money

is very important or that it is important but not decisive for quality
leisure time. Only 20% of young people believe that money does not affect
the
quality of free time. Young people who are unemployed still do not see
a huge role of money in achieving the quality leisure time. Thus, 53,6% of
respondents think that money is important but not decisive for the quality of
free time, while the
By crossing 19,1% of them
questions considersandthat
on employment the money
impact ofismoney
“largely”
on theimportant
quality of
for the quality of leisure time (Table 1.2.). Here, one can conclude that young
free time, we see that young people who are employed feel that money is very important or
unemployed people, who are mostly high school students, have “idealistic”
that it isTable 1.7. Employment
important and for
but not decisive the quality
influence of money
leisure time.on the 20%
Only quality
of of leisure
young time believe
people
experience of the (small role) of money in everyday life, especially in the or-
that money does
ganization andnotimplementation
affect the quality ofof
free time.
the Youngof
quality people
free who
time.are unemployed still do
not see a huge role of money in achieving the quality leisure time. Thus, 53,6% of
respondents think that money is important but not decisive for the quality of free time, while
Table 1.2. Employment and the influence of money on the quality of leisure
19,1% of them considers that money is "largely" important for the quality of leisure time
time
(Table 1.7.). Here, one can conclude that young unemployed people, who are mostly high
school students, have "idealistic" experience ofthat
Do you think themoney
(small role)theofquality
affects money in everyday life,
of free
time?
especially in the organization and implementation of the quality of free time.
Yes, to a Yes, but it is It does not
Are you employed?
great extent not decisive affect No opinion Total
YES 13 14 8 5 40
32,5% 35,0% 20,0% 12,5% 100,0%

NO 116 324 129 36 605
19,1% 53,6% 21,3% 6,0% 100,0%

Total 129 339 137 41 646
20,0% 52,5% 21,2% 6,3% 100,0%
Looking at the results of this study, we observed that the socio-economic

status of young people in the cities of the Republic of Srpska, is indeed low,
62
Looking at the results of this study, we observed that the socio-economic status of
young people in the cities of the Republic of Srpska, is indeed low, to the level of social
to the level of social alarmism. Most young people have the status of a stu-
dent- unemployed and it is very small percentage of those who are employed,
whether they are students or not, at least watching this pattern. The picture
did not change even on a larger scale. It is the imperative to develop strate-
gies for finding new jobs and better offers for leisure activities, otherwise the
society is threatened by the expansion of risky, delinquent behavior and the
emigration of young people to the developed Western countries.
4.3. The interest of young people for educational, cultural and sports facilities
4.3.InThe
this part of the paper we will observe how the respondents are interested in
interest of young people for educational, cultural and sports facilities
educational, cultural and sporting activities as part of the activities in their free time. We
believe that these contents can be a significant indicator of the quality of free time, and
In this part of the paper we will observe how the respondents are interest-
striving for it to be meaningful, creative and to resist routine and spiritual emptiness. Please
ed in educational, cultural and sporting activities as part of the activities in
note that by education in this context we do not refer to the standard school, systematic
their free time. We believe that these contents can be a significant indicator
education,
of but on of
the quality a personal, freely,
free time, of his
and own choosing
striving for it education that will further
to be meaningful, enhance and
creative
human
to capabilities
resist routineand andintellectual
spiritual profile.
emptiness. Please note that by education in this
context we do not refer to the standard school, systematic education, but on
a personal, freely, of his own choosing education that will further enhance
human capabilities
Figure 1.6: andgroup
Crossing the age intellectual profile.amenities for young people
with the important
Chart 1.2: Crossing the age group with the important amenities for young peo-
ple
A more detailed study of the previous graph (1.6.) gives us the following
information: that young people aged from 15 to 18 years are mostly interested
in the music content (37,8%), followed by the literary content (20,2%) and
the least for the other types of art. Young people aged from 19 to 22 years,
A more
are also detailed
mostly study of the
interested in previous graph (1.6.)(39,3%),
music content gives us the followingby
followed information:
the literary
that young(20%),
content people and
aged then
from for
15 to
the18movie
years are mostly (15,9%).
content interested The
in theinterest
music content
in sports
(37,8%), followed by the literary content (20,2%) and the least for the other types of art.
Young people aged from 19 to 22 years, are also mostly interested in music content (39,3%), 63
and sporting events in the first age group is (9%), and in the second (7%).
The third
followed ageliterary
by the group (23-25
content (20%),years old)
and then for is
the also
moviedominated
content (15,9%). byThetheinterest
interest in
concerts
in sports andand other
sporting music
events in the content (29,4%),
first age group is (9%), in
andthe
in thesecond place
second (7%). Theisthird
engaging
in
agevarious
group (23-25workshops
years old) at youth
is also centers
dominated by (21,1%),
the interest and sportsand(15,6%),
in concerts other music then lit-
erary
content activities
(29,4%), in (12,8%),
the second whileplace isthe lowestin interest
engaging is in dance
various workshops content
at youth centers(2,8%).
The final
(21,1%), andoverview of the
sports (15,6%), thenrespondents’
literary activities perceptions,
(12,8%), while the tells us that
lowest interestthe
is ingreatest
interest of young
dance content (2,8%). people
The finalisoverview
for concerts and otherperceptions,
of the respondents' music content tells us (37%
that theaverage
of the whole
greatest group
interest of young of respondents),
people followed
is for concerts and by the
other music literary
content content
(37% average (18,9%),
of the
for
wholemovie
group content (13,9%),
of respondents), followed slightly
by theless interest
literary contentis(18,9%),
in sports activities
for movie content(9,3%),
while
(13,9%),the lowest
slightly interest
less interest is in is in activities
sports toys and dance
(9,3%), facilities
while the lowest(5,3%).
interest is We
in toyssee that
young
and dance facilities (5,3%). We see that young people are little interested in creative activities (more
people are little interested in creative activities in their free time
than 50% is monitoring the music and film content) as sports, dance, other
in their free time (more than 50% is monitoring the music and film content) as sports, dance,
forms of art and creative workshops. Youth leisure time is more oriented to-
other forms of art and creative workshops. Youth leisure time is more oriented towards a
wards a passive acceptance of cultural events and entertainment, than to the
passive acceptance of cultural events and entertainment, than to the creative content.
creative content.
Table 1.13: Crossing place of residence with the existence of facilities for young people
Table 1.3: Crossing place of residence with the existence of facilities for young
people
Does in your place exist?
Place of residence Youth House of Another There is no
center Culture object object Total
town 136 148 55 39 378

36,0% 39,2% 14,6% 10,3% 100,0%
suburb 39 53 43 32 167
23,4% 31,7% 25,7% 19,2% 100,0%

Total rural 193 231 114 108 646
29,9% 35,8% 17,6% 16,7% 100,0%
Based on the research, we found out whether young people in the com-
munities in which they live (town, suburb, rural) have facilities and institu-
tions which provide them a variety of cultural, educational, sports and other
facilities,
Basedwhich
on the would
research,have affected
we found the quality
out whether of their
young people free
in the time. In inthe part
communities
of thethey
which population
live (town, that lives
suburb, inhave
rural) the facilities
city, 36% and respondents
institutions which responded
provide themthat
a they
have
varietyaof
youth center,
cultural, 39,2%sports
educational, thatandthey have
other a House
facilities, which ofwould
Culture,have 14,6%
affected answered
the
that
qualitythey have
of their freeanother
time. In thefacility that
part of the provides
population that them
lives in with similar
the city, opportunities
36% respondents
for cultural
responded that activities. Also,center,
they have a youth there39,2%
werethat those
they who
have asaid
Housethey do not14,6%
of Culture, have such
facilities
answered thatduethey
to have
lackanother
of facility,
facilityor institution
that provides them that would
with similarinitiate suchforcontent
opportunities
(10,3%). For young people from suburban areas, 23% responded that they
have a Youth center, 31,7% that they have the House of Culture, and 25,7%
that they have a facility where they have cultural, educational and sports facil-
ities. Also, it is considerably higher percentage of respondents in the suburb
64
of facility, or institution that would initiate such content (10,3%). For young people from
suburban areas, 23% responded that they have a Youth center, 31,7% that they have the
House of Culture, and 25,7% that they have a facility where they have cultural, educational
Some characteristics
and sports facilities. Also, it is considerably higher percentage of respondents of
in leisure time
the suburb of
Ivan
who Šijaković et al.
responded that there young
is no facility that provides them people
with theinopportunity
the Republic
to useofthe
Srpska
facilities listed (19,2%).
who responded that there is no facility that provides them with the opportu-
nity toBy usecrossing
the facilities
the genderlisted (19,2%).
structure of the respondents with the proportion of certain
programs in their free time, we followed what is the interest of young people for cultural and
By crossing the gender structure of the respondents with the proportion of
sports events, now through the prism of gender perceptions. Respondents circled positions on
certain programs in their free time, we followed what is the interest of young
a scale from
people for 1cultural
to 8, where 8 is sports
and the lowestevents,
and 1 thenow
highest value. the prism of gender per-
through
ceptions. Respondents circled positions on a scale from 1 to 8, where 8 is the
lowest and 1 the highest value.
Table 1.14: Crossing the gender with the representation of the activity in the free time (theater)
Table 1.4: Crossing the gender with the representation of the activity in the free
time (theater)
THEATER
Gender
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
male 15 7 10 7 9 12 29 168 257
5,8% 2,7% 3,9% 2,7% 3,5% 4,7% 11,3% 65,4% 100,0%
female 33 20 25 14 25 23 50 198 388
8,5% 5,2% 6,4% 3,6% 6,4% 5,9% 12,9% 51,0% 100,0%
,0% ,0% ,0% ,0% ,0% ,0% 100,0% ,0% 100,0%

Total 48 27 35 21 34 35 80 366 646
7,4% 4,2% 5,4% 3,3% 5,3% 5,4% 12,4% 56,7% 100,0%
Based on the table above (1.4), which analyzes the visits to the theater, we
see the bigger growing interest among women 8,5% than among men 5,8%.
We seeBased thatonthere is very
the table abovelittle
(1.14),interest among
which analyzes thethe
visitsyoung for thewetheater
to the theater, see the as a
form
biggerof leisure
growing activity,
interest among even
women56,7%
8,5% thanof among
(average) young
men 5,8%. people
We see showed
that there is very little
interest in the
little interest theater.
among Oneforreason
the young may
the theater as be the oflack
a form of theaters
leisure in all
activity, even theofplaces
56,7%
where our respondents come from.
(average) young people showed little interest in the theater. One reason may be the lack of
Table 1.15: Crossing the gender with the representation of activity in the free time (literary evenings)
theaters in all the places where our respondents come from.
Table 1.5: Crossing the gender with the representation of activity in the free
time (literary evenings)
LITERARY EVENINGS
Gender
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
male 21 7 6 5 8 3 28 179 257
8,2% 2,7% 2,3% 1,9% 3,1% 1,2% 10,9% 69,6% 100,0%
female 36 8 12 16 19 16 45 236 388
9,3% 2,1% 3,1% 4,1% 4,9% 4,1% 11,6% 60,8% 100,0%
,0% ,0% ,0% ,0% ,0% ,0% ,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Total 57 15 18 21 27 19 73 416 646
8,8% 2,3% 2,8% 3,3% 4,2% 2,9% 11,3% 64,4% 100,0%
65
Also, when it comes to literary evenings (Table 1.15) it is the greater interest among
Also, when it comes to literary evenings (Table 1.15) it is the greater in-
terest among women (9,3%) compared to men (8,2%). Yet, here we see that
the interest in literary evenings is even smaller than for the theater (64,4%
average of both gender groups) which confirms the low level of creative and
meaningful cultural component in the free time of youth in Republic of Srp-
ska. If we gather the interest in literary evenings of both genders (17,5%),
which was recorded as the highest value (1), then we see that it is near the
18,9% of those stated in the chart 1.2. where the interest for the literature took
the second place of all the cultural activities. It shows the stability of a group
of young people in their perception of the role of literary content in their free
time.
Table 1.17: Crossing the gender with the representation of activity in the free time (sports and
recreation)
Table 1.6: Crossing the gender with the representation of activity in the free
time (sports and recreation)
SPORTS AND RECREATION

Gender
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
male 112 37 24 23 14 9 18 20 257
43,6% 14,5% 9,3% 8,9% 5,4% 3,5% 7,0% 7,8% 100,0%

female 62 30 43 52 49 36 49 67 388
16,0% 7,7% 11,1% 13,4% 12,6% 9,3% 12,6% 17,3% 100,0%

Total 174 67 67 75 64 45 67 87 646
26,9% 10,3% 10,4% 11,6% 9,9% 7,0% 10,4% 13,5% 100,0%
The interest in the sports and recreation (Table 1.17) is dominant in males
(43,6%) compared to females (16%). Overall interest in sports (26,9% average
of both genders) is not large, which suggests that young people are more fo-
cused on The passive
interest inelements of fulfilling
the sports and their 1.17)
recreation (Table free time.
is dominant in males (43,6%)
Based on the above indicators, we can conclude that
compared to females (16%). Overall interest in sports (26,9% average of the
both interest
genders) isofnotyoung
people for suggests
large, which cultural, thateducational
young people are andmoresports facilities
focused varies
on passive in relation
elements of fulfillingto the
age
theirstructure,
free time. gender, and place of residence. An important task of the crea-
torsBased
of activities
on the abovethatindicators,
will appeal
we can toconclude
young people is the of
that the interest search
young for forms
people for that
will interest
cultural, young
educational and people to fulfill
sports facilities variestheir free to
in relation time with
the age the certain
structure, cultural
gender, and
and
placesports facilities.
of residence. An important task of the creators of activities that will appeal to young
people is the search for forms that will interest young people to fulfill their free time with the
certain cultural and sports facilities.

5. Discussion
When it comes to leisure time of youth, our research has shown that young people
66
most of their free time spend on fun, use of the Internet content, listening to music, watching
movies, spending time with friends, while reading books, visiting other cultural events and
recreational activities are suppressed. Here we will once again consider two aspects through
which we traced the quality of free time of young people (the impact of socio-economic
5. Discussion
When it comes to leisure time of youth, our research has shown that
young people most of their free time spend on fun, use of the Internet con-
tent, listening to music, watching movies, spending time with friends, while
reading books, visiting other cultural events and recreational activities are
suppressed. Here we will once again consider two aspects through which we
traced the quality of free time of young people (the impact of socio-economic
factors and the interest in the cultural and sports facilities).
When we talk about the impact of socio-economic factors on the quality
of free time, we see that (although the employment situation is worrying)
the question of how do you assess your material status, most respondents
answered by circling options mediocre, even 64,4%, while their material con-
dition as bad estimated only 6,8%, and a very good 28,8%. These data suggest
that the “fair” and “poor” material state should negatively affect the quality of
leisure time, and the diversity and richness of content that fulfill the leisure
time. However, young people have not explicitly declared in that direction,
but forms of spending free time (mass, cheap fun) suggest that this is still a
fact that young people do not notice right away or hide it.
When we talk about the influence of material factors on the way and quali-
ty of leisure time of young people, we have come to the following findings: the
question relating to, “whether money affects the quality of free time”, 52,5%
responded that it affects, but it is not decisive, while 19,8% said it affects in
a large extent and 21,2% of those surveyed responded that it does not affect.
Here we see that the one-fifth of youth is committed to the full impact of
money on the quality of leisure time or full rejection of capabilities of that
influence. So these two poles are balanced, we are left with the mean (half of
the respondents) that accepts the possibility of the influence of money on the
quality of free time, but does not consider it crucial, implying that it is possi-
ble to find quality content with little or no money. Now we see that two thirds
of respondents accept that there is some degree of influence on the quality of
free time, and we can say that money affects the quality of the time for the
most of the youth population. Therefore, our starting hypothesis that “social
and economic status has a decisive effect on the quality of free time” in the
statements of our respondents, was not confirmed.
When it comes to cultural and sports activities in fulfillment of the free
time of young people, in our research we found out that young people aged
from 15 to 18 years old are mostly interested in music content, then the liter-
ary content and at least for the other forms of art (painting, fashion, classical
67
music, visual arts). Young people aged from 19 to 22 years old, are also the
most interested in music content, then the literary content, and for movie
content. When it comes to music content, it should be noted that young peo-
ple by that mean the pop music and folk music as the most important part
of mass entertainment and mass culture (concerts in squares, stadiums and
sports halls).
Interest in sports and sport activities in the first age group is 9%, and in
the second 7%, while in the third age group sports activities were present
in 15,6 percent. Surprisingly low is the interest of younger age groups for
sports facilities in their free time. The reason may lie in the fact that it is
talked about young people who are in the process of education where there
are physical education classes, which compensates the need for participation
in sports activities. We see that the oldest group of young people is the most
interested in sporting activities, which may be a result of increased activities
and recreational sports among the students who are at the end of the studies
or those who have already completed their studies so they can devote more
time to sports and recreation. Of course, it is known that a large number of
youth sporting events follow via media. Our initial assertion that “education-
al, cultural and sports activities occupy a large part of their free time” was
confirmed in the statements of our respondents.
Conclusion
Based on indicators in the survey we can conclude that the interest of

young people for cultural, educational and sports facilities varies in relation
to the age structure, gender, and place of residence. An important factor is
the weak tendency of young people to fulfill their free time with certain ed-
ucational, cultural and sports facilities, which largely depends on the family,
schools, institutions that are engaged in these facilities and, of course, the
environment in which our respondents live.
Leisure time gives young people opportunities for cultural and creative
development of personality. The use of free time through cultural and sport-
ing activities provides the opportunity for young people to meet their own
needs and interests, and significantly improve their overall abilities and skills.
Relationship to the free time is a contemporary social phenomenon of mod-
ern society and youth in it, which includes all spheres of their life and is re-
flected in all spheres of life and work. Young people in Republic of Srpska
leisure time experience as fun and leisure mixed with elements of passive
68
consumption of mass culture (in fact seeking satisfaction), rather than as a

creation, freedom, enjoyment in the values of true culture, recreation and
sporst facilities or the commitment to charity and volunteer work.
Cities in the Republic of Srpska possess different capacities of educational,
cultural and sports facilities and centers, and therefore young people have,
the different possibilities for meeting their own interests. Young people from
the underdeveloped municipalities of Republic of Srpska do not have the op-
portunity to spend their free time visiting a variety of high-quality cultural
events (theaters, galleries, ballet, classical music), and thus they direct their
free time towards the other, “quasi-cultural” aspects of the fulfillment of free
time.
This research has shown that young people in the Republic of Srpska are
not entirely the mere consumers of everything that is available to them, ie.,
that they are still able to resist the rush of the culture of the spectacle, culture
without true values (sometimes without any value), which is represented with
the culture of reality shows and Harry Potter and the various manifestations
of kitsch and trash, all supported by media culture.
Literature
Labour Force Survey (LFS) 2010, the Agency for Statistic of BiH.
Božović, Ratko. The temptation of free time. Belgrade: Mladost. 1979.
Haworth, John T. and A. J. Veal. Work and Leisure. New York: Routledge.
2004.
Huimei, Liu. “Personality, Leisure Satisfaction, and Subjective Well-Being of
Serious Leisure Participants”, Social Behavior and Personality: an interna-
tional journal. Volume: 42. Issue: 7, August 10, 2014.
Holt, Martin. Young People, Leisure and the Construction of Sexual Identities:
A report on work in progress. UK: University of Birmingham. 1998.
Ken., Roberts. Leisure in Contemporary Society. Wallingford, UK: CAB Inter-
national. 1999.
Lefebvre, Henri. The critique of everyday life. Zagreb: Naprijed. 1988.
Mujanović, Enes. Youth unemployment in BiH, The current situation, challeng-
es and obstacles. Sarajevo: Fridrich Ebert Stiftung. 2013.
Pašalić, Enes. Young people of Brčko District of Bosnia and Herzegovina (re-
search). Brčko. 2006.
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Pehlić, Izet. A small number of young people spend their leisure time in
a quality manner, http://novovrijeme.ba/izet-pehlic-mali-broj-mla-
dih-kvalitetno-provodi-slobodno-vrijeme/
Previšić, Vlatko. Free time between pedagogical theory and educational prac-
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70
Pop-art and criticism of reception of vacuity
Nataša Vilić (the society) in the works of Andy Warhol
Nataša Vilić1 Review article

University of Banja Luka UDC 75.071.1:929VORHOL E.
Faculty of Philosophy DOI 10.7251/SOCEN1509071V
Banja Luka Accepted: 17.3.2015.

(the society) in the works of Andy Warhol
Аbstract
With the advent of pop art and artistic creativity of Andy Warhol are
changed the classic works of reception of art and art in general. Andy
Warhol in his artistic action is insisting on the immediate actions and
the naked form - those are so-called the works of “pure” form, which
create a confusing gap; whose “content” is necessary to construct, that
is, to invent. That in the opinion of Andy Warhol can only audiences
and critics - with that he actually makes room for interpretation of his
artistic work. Andy Warhol was aware of the existing “gaps of entity”.
He wants the freedom which he enjoys in his artistic expression to also
provide to the recipient, he is trying to leave his artwork fully open for
reading and interpretation. In his quest he comes to the intelligible
symbolic acts spontaneously. When the artist himself once firmly jus-
tifies his image - he imposes the audience and the lasting perception
of his work. Andy Warhol observes that in the creation of mass indus-
trial society is a source of the anxiety of the West. The causes of this
condition are different: the money, the androgynous future of man,
machines which are replacing man and colonizing his consciousness
and thus enslave him. Andy Warhol wonders - whether the contem-
porary art can offer the optimism?! His optimism could be seen as his
opposition to European pessimism and decadence.
Keywords: pop art, aesthetics of emptiness, mass culture, cultural decadence
To be able to talk about the art of Andy Warhol we must first say some-
thing about the time and culture in which they arise.2 Why is it important to
1
Dr Nataša Vilić, assistant professor at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Banja Luka,
major in Aesthetics; E-mail: natasa.vilic@unibl.rs
2
Here we actually talk about a very important matter of aesthetics, but also the philosophy of
art in general, and that is the relationship between art and reality. “The relationship of art to
71
say that? Artists and their works testify to us from one specific co-relation
between art and (cultural) reality in which they arise, and “... from that ten-
sion that exists between these two members of the relationship, from their
incommensurability becomes understandable and the only question of that
relationship. In this consideration should be taken on the structure of works
of art in different eras, the difference between organic or autonomous classi-
cal works of art and the avant-garde works.”3 The relationship between art and
reality can be considered in the time in which the work is produced, but also
in the world of culture in which the work of art becomes an object of artistic
perception and reception. We are used to talking about works of art with a
time distance, that is, from the period in which are incurred and the time in
which the audience is receiving them. However, it may be noted that in the
history of aesthetics and in art history comes to a major shift in the percep-
tion of creativity, and in the reception of the created works of art produced
in the second half of the twentieth century. In the period from the fifties to
the mid seventies due to the expansion of American influence and meteoric
economic rise is created a new trend in art called pop art, which is based on
the use and disclosure of symbols that express the meanings and values of the
consumer, mass society of high modernism.4 This artistic direction its artistic,
aesthetic and cultural values inherited from the existing state of society and
its new value attitudes toward reality, life, creativity and art in general. Rightly
some aesthetes, art theorists and critics of society raise questions of whether
the pop art is really art at all or is it just an expression of protest of spirit of
artists and creators in general against the situation in which a man is found,
but not by someone else’s fault, but his own. Pop art only at first glance may
seem superficial, addressed to commercialism. On the contrary! It testifies
about the state of mind of a man who by entering into the relationship with
reality, binding to the real world, holding fast for it, he loses the contemplative
dimension of his existence, because, as we were warned by Jean-Paul Sartre,
man is increasingly turning to the bare existence, from his spiritual sight is
disappearing the essence. Emptiness does not exist. The place that the man
actually appoints as the emptiness is the place of his fear, distress and anxiety
because of forgetting the true way of being. And that pain of the spirit and
soul echoes in the works of pop art artist.
reality is set from gnoseological and ontological point of view - as a relationship of illusion, so-
called aesthetic appearance as a way of being of works of art, or as the ratio of fiction to reality.”
(In: Nataša Vilić, Philosophy of (work) of art, Banja Luka: Kasper, 2009, p. 109.) This relation-
ship certainly becomes problematic in the work of Andy Warhol, who himself is sometimes
lost trying to reach from the abyss of illusion to reality itself.
3
NatašaVilić, Philosophy of (work) of art, Banja Luka: Kasper, 2009, p. 109.
4
The term Pop Art was first used by Lawrence Alloway in the fifties to mark a new popular art
that was created as a product of mass culture.
72
In order to be closer and to be able to understand what is and what is the

significance of pop art for aesthetics and general philosophical thought of the
second half of the twentieth century and early twenty-first we have to ask how
and why is resulting pop-art as art direction, but also as the tenor of the times
in which is incurred. The term pop art is used for so called high art, which
for their own motives, themes and contents is taking the consumer society
and its “by-product” the mass culture5 and the mass art. Mass culture and
art their “popularity” owe to the modern means of mass communication.6
Such cultural reality gave birth to a new artistic direction, and it is a pop-
art with roots in Dadaism7 and Cubism8. The Dadaists were disappointed by
5
Mass culture is called and popular culture. It represents the totality of cultural, and pseudo
cultural products that are primarily intended for mass consumption. The mass industrial soci-
ety has actually caused the emergence of mass (“pop”) culture. The specificity of this culture is
that it rapidly expanded, thanks to the technical equipment and scientific achievements which
are produced by means of mass communication, which enabled that almost all the members of
such a society can be consumers of its various products.
6
Lat. communicatio means an act of transmission of the understandable information, both
in time and in space. Modern forms of communication are realized in three basic ways: Voice
methods (Word of Mouth), in writing (using signs and symbols) and visual effects (using signs
and symbols, which are designed as a combination of one or more words and/or symbols of
the observed object).
7
Dadaism as an artistic direction is one of the first modern global movement of the twentieth
century in art, which aims to convey the artistic expression in provocative actions. The term
dada was formed in 1916 in Zurich (where Richard Huelsenbeck and Hugo Ball were searching
for the name of their theater, by the process of accidental opening of the Franco-German vo-
cabulary) and derives from the French word which means “wooden horse”. Dadaists prefer ir-
rational over the rational, and all of them declare themselves as anarchists. They deny the very
concept of art, and the result of its operations they directly put in the context of classified art.
Dadaist movement from Zurich is soon expanding to all former centers of art - Paris, Cologne,
Berlin and New York. The main representatives of Dadaism were in Zurich: Hans Arp, Tristan
Tzara, Hugo Ball, Richard Huelsenbeck and Marcel Janco; in Berlin: Raul Hausman, Johannes
Bader, Georg Gros and Sean Hirfild. Hans Arp and Max Ernst in Cologne in 1919 founded the
Dadaist group. In Hanover Kurt Schwitters starts a new twist called “Merc”, and the name of
the movement was derived from Commerzbank. He his paintings - merc implements through
a subjective poetic expression, thereby using trivial, rejected or worthless objects. The spirit of
the movement Dada and Surrealism emerge in New York and Paris, and the credit for that goes
primarily to Marcel Duchamp, Max Ernst, Man Ray and Francis Picabia. Known dadaists are
also Guillaume Apollinaire, Jacques Your Artur Kravan, Emmy Hennings, Sophie Taeuber etc.
8
Cubism as an artistic direction in modern art (mainly refers to the painting) occurs at the
beginning of the last century. It certainly leaves a significant influence on the formation of ab-
stract painting. The term Cubism was given by a critic of Fine Arts, with which was marked the
painting Georges Braque (Georges Braque, Woman with a Guitar, 1913) which was appointed:
the Cube. The artistic direction of Cubism was known for having a simplified form in the inter-
pretation of reality in the form of cubes, balls and rollers. It originated in the works of Georges
73
the consequences that have brought great world wars. These consequences
gendered in the contradictions that arose as immense gulf between the real-
ity of life and the traditional understanding of art in which reigns supreme
harmony, proportion, beauty; such a widespread understanding in the opin-
ion of the Dadaists is unbearable and with their artistic work they lead it to
contempt. These artists are searching for new ways of expression in the new
situation using satire and irony as artistic expression, they target themselves
to shock the audience and to provoke a scandal, and, indeed, in their artistic
works they succeed in it. Actually, what was until then considered absurd and
worthless in reality acquires a new meaning in the new artistic expression of
Dadaists, starting with the demolition of traditional forms of art, phonetic
poetry, music and re-installation of the broken objects from the everyday life.
Braque and Pablo Picasso. There are two phases in the development of Cubism and two meth-
ods of the cubists that have emerged in each of the phases: the method of multiple views on the
motives in the Analytical cubism and the methods of views from multiple angles in Synthet-
ic Cubism. Cubism has played an important role in the subsequent development of abstract
painting. The famous Cubist painters are Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Fernand Léger, Juan
Gris. Interesting is the fact that Cubism is divided into several phases: the pre-Cubist phase
(1906-1909.): Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso; at this stage the Cubism was influenced by
previous trends and it comes up to discovering the cubist perspective. The fact is that paint-
ers are gradually starting to decompose objects in paintings on geometric shapes, colors are
unstressed and it is only used the palette of gray and brown tones; Analytical Cubism (1909 –
1912.) is the period of the early cubism; its characteristic is the structural analysis of the form.
Braque and Picasso are viewing objects as geometric structures and those forms in them do
not have fixed characteristics of objects but are formed by series of levels and areas that indi-
cate the external and internal borders of forms, but these limits are not absolute because they
permanently merge with the borders of the other levels. The process of opening the geometric
shapes does not contribute to their strength, but it causes the effect of the dispersion of volume
through the present area, whose almost non-existent depth articulates over the broken plans
that form overlapping angles, which leads to partial abstraction and objects are substituted
by other objects that are similar to them and divided into simple geometric shapes that are
represented by ignoring completely the laws of perspective; Synthetic Cubism (1912 – 1914.)
is the second phase of Cubism arising from new techniques which began by Georges Braque
in 1912, and whose quality is construction of composition starting from apstract figuration of
the previous period. At this stage, it is once again taking its place, and the forms are becoming
more decorative, and which is contributed by the use of newsprint, cut printing letters, etc .;
These elements are glued onto the canvas and combined with the drawing in oil, thus fulfilling
a dual role: they are becoming an integral part of the pictorial plane and are getting their place
in the space of the painting; Orphism (1914 – 1923.) is the period in which artists are coming
to the abstraction and in it they are exploiting the effects of color; At this stage artists are not
imitating or trying to divide the cases and to put it together from the geometrical shape and
from which are given the painting elements that are completely independent of reality; after
the 1923. there was a further development of Cubism, which as such is no longer the pure cub-
ism, but it is the cubism, which is under some other influences (for example, the imaginative
cubism, which is under the influence of Surrealist art). The famous cubist are: Georges Braque,
Marcel Duchamp, Juan Gris, Paul Klee, Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera and the like.
74
What they actually mean with that? Their goal was to introduce the concept
of chaos in the work of art as the method to revitalize the established artistic
expression. Cubism, however, on the other hand, primarily in the art works
of famous painters Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, has been a kind of
critique of the classical painting. Cubism emerges as a reaction to fauvism
and the need for space in the painting. The method of Cubist artists is the
abstract perspective. Dynamic observation of reality and the movement of
Cubism gave an undeniable contribution to the development of painting and
in this way it becomes its fundamental characteristic. Paul Cézanne feels that
the entire reality consists of cubes, balls and rollers; or that the whole world
consists of geometric forms in which all forms can be dismantled in order to
be painted. He is searching for a new reality in which there is universal un-
enforceable quality, which is located below the surface of matter, and which
can be reached through the observation, and assert it by emphasizing its basic
geometric structures. His artistic quest is the search for a universal forms
of nature through geometric forms, cube, cone and ball. Artists who create
their art based on Paul Cézanne’s understanding of reality, lightly go over the
Fauvism and reach the visual language that would later give birth to the style-
which is called Cubism. Paul Cézanne left a big impact on Pablo Picasso9
who himself begins to explore the new avenues in the modes of expression
in his painting. Those “experimentations” in his art are based on the analysis
of the volume and spatial structure. He is also unhappy with the external
characteristics of objects and seeks a new way to express their inner structure.
The starting point of his artistic quest can be seen in the solutions to which
he comes and on which is based his painting expression by showing more
sides of the same object. For this, he finds the ideological inspiration in the
works of Paul Cézanne, as well as in the pieces of archaic Greek sculpture
and African sculpture. The most dominant aspect of the geometrical forms of
cubism is the crystallization of the surface of objects, with which the artists
tried to reach the more stable order of the form from that which at first glance
appears in the nature itself. They argue that the traditional illusionistic rep-
resentation of space has been given otherwise, that is in the way that the artist
himself considered the more stable form of spatial relationships, independent
of changes in brightness and distortion created by non viable laws. From the
standpoint of aesthetics P. Picasso working on the new structure of matter
and the primary interest in the global structure of the painting, is creating his
works of art by narrowing the choice of means of expression.10 This process
9
Pablo Picasso was one of the members of the young artists of fauvistic movement in Paris
(1903-1906.).
10
Pablo Picasso had done it in the way that he was narrowing the colors.
75
of reduction applied by P. Picasso gives as the result - a new visual language

that does not respect the surface appearance of the case, which was indeed
the paramount consideration in the visual arts since the Renaissance. Paint-
ers from then create their works to accentuate their fine structure; alone art
assets cease to be in the service of imitation of nature. Traditional acceptance
of the form and the appearance of the buildings are starting to become clear
or mostly only forms. Highlighting the fore of the most important qualities of
visual elements, such as lines, textures and colors, is resulting in the need for
the creation of new terms, which could explain what the artist is now working
on or trying to create. That is why it is considered that the Dadaism and Cub-
ism helped to create the new art movement pop art, which literally translated
would mean popular art. What was actually the motive and the goal of these
artists? Pop artists are not intended to create new things but to on a subtly
ironic artistic way impose comments on matters posed by the mass culture.
Their specificity is that they play with the previously set limits of unimportant
and banal presence in the so-called. high art.
The main characteristic of pop art as an art form is that it has done the in-
tegration of art into the very sociological context, and what is its very essence.
The main objective of this art form is to elevate what only seems like a seem-
ingly banal subject and the product of modern everyday life in the very act
of art. If we see pop-art as artistic direction, then we must ask the question of
its aesthetic and artistic values. The aesthetic value of this trivial repertoire of
the industrial revolution in modern society can be seen only as the use-value
and to which after use alone we no longer pay attention. The so-called com-
bined paintings from Robert Rosenberg testify the way that the artist himself
uses the industrial products, photos and cloths as a kind of collage which
aims to illustrate the exposure of modern man to an unlimited number of
different visual stimuli.11 On European soil, namely in England, pop-art was
established as authentic subculture whose main medium for spreading were
advertising posters, illustrations of science fiction and comics. On the other
hand, in America, Dadaist demonstrations against the “Art” with the capital
“A” are beginning to form the new artistic community in which it can be seen
the beginning of pop art. New York’s artists like Klaus Oldenburg, Roy Liech-
tenstein, Andy Warhol, Tom Wesselmann, Edward Rose and others use (sen-
sory) attractive fluorescent colors, which then men effortlessly notice from
the neon signs and the spectacles, starting from their “accidental existence”,
thus transforming the everyday life into a new spectacle called the “Super
11
The artist (painter), Jasper Jones produces paintings whose motive is, for example, a national
symbol - the flag of the United States, alternating and changing their distinctive coloring, play-
ing with art formalist language seemingly without any other pretensions.
76
star”. The spectrum of where these artists get their ideas is wide. So they feel
that the culture, fashion and the arts have a major impact on product design.
And pop-art like no other artistic direction until then had a big influence on
the commercial design. The significance of the pop-art artists12 for a new ar-
tistic reality is that they have twisted the world of art “upside down”, drawing
everyday life and recycling “reality” as irony - irrelevant to art. Andy Warhol
was the leader in this, because he glorified the American consumerism in his
repeating segments of the scenes of pop culture icons, as he presented it in his
works - like the painting of the can of “Campbell” soup or Elvis Presley. Noting
the importance and role of art and its influence on people, especially the (spe-
cific) influence of pop art to the masses, and the industrial manufacturers are
beginning to use pop-art in the design of their (industrial) products in such a
way that they become the part of everyday life. However, returning to the pop
art as art direction, it should be noted that even it is not unique. The pop art
can distinguish two directions: neo-dadaist and the critical line of pop art13
and display or iconic pop-art.14 Its starting point pop-art finds in the culture
of the fifties and the sixties of the last century, and the historical avant-gar-
de - Dadaist linking of high and low art of the twenties of the last century, as
well as ready-made strategies of Marcel Duchamp. Artists of this direction
in the so-called high art introduced the new techniques from packaging the
industrial and consumer products to serigraphy (screen printing). Initiat-
ed by neo-Dadaist, post-painterly and artistic experiments by Jasper Johns,
Robert Rauschenberg, Jim Dine, George Brecht and even entire New York’s
pop-art seeks to get the painting out of the frame of American modernism
in which foundation is the abstract expressionism and aesthetic formalism.
Artists such as Jasper Johns experiment with inconsistent graphics that show
the numbers, letters and words. There is talked about the post-Duchampian
and Wittgenstein’s ideas and meanings, which were applied in painting. Rob-
ert Rauschenberg in his artistic creation works in a wide range from packag-
ing and image-objects to happenings and actions. What is common to Jasper
Johns and Robert Rauschenberg is that both from the art do not exclude the
aspects, reflections, traces and symbols of contemporary consumer culture.
However, we must note that New York’s pop art scene is characterized by the
work of artists Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Wesselmann Thomas, James
12
The most famous pop art artists: Andy Warhol, Jasper Johns, Roy Lichtenstein, Robert Indi-
ana Pierre Max, Mel Ramos, Ed Rose, Tom Wesselmann etc.
13
Neo-Dadaist and critical line of pop-art works in different spheres of expression from paint-
ing through a ready-made containers to the environment and happenings; in this direction of
pop art is characteristic the parodic display of values and meaning of mass culture.
14
Display or iconic pop-art neutrally, literally and documented displayed symbols, values,
meanings and forms of expressions of mass culture.
77
Rosenquist, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Indiana, George Segal and others. In

this paper we are primarily interested in artistic creativity of Andy Warhol.
Andy Warhol in his artistic creation had several phases: the first phase of
Marilyn Monroe: a series of paintings of the twenty-five identical portraits
of the actress lined up in a matrix of 5 by 5 (work with the icon of the mass
culture); the second phase of Brillo Boxes (screen printing on wood) work
from the series - packaging and pseudo ready-made (work with the symbols
of consumer society); and the third phase the electric chair (serigraphy on
canvas) - is the work from the series of Death and accidents (work with the
symbols of the American social system).15
II
What distinguished Warhol artistic creativity is that he was well aware of

the condition of the spirit of man of that time. Aware of the “gaps” in the sub-
ject, Andy Warhol remained aloof from all the possible choices - ubiquitous
is his neutral attitude towards the fullness16, he is outside of the individuali-
ty and massiveness, satire, comedy, kitsch and art - his synthetic strategy in
artistic creation stretches from the acceptance - the assimilation to the gaps
- rejection. Warhol artwork is the copy of European nihilism. He sets the very
pinnacle of the pop-art in a parody - in contrast, the cultural codes survive
until there is anything to parody, or until there is a final moment of the liter-
alness. Warhol’s work always more or less parody the downloaded facility, as
well as its summary. For him, the irony is the suspicion in value. The parody
challenges them. Otherwise, in the pop-art as the key style figure is irony
because developing the ironic shift is certainly a sign of the decadence of cul-
ture. In the pop-art irony must not only secure the necessary two-dimen-
sionality but to fill the space between parody and literalism. Andy Warhol is
always trying to strike a balance between irony and literalism.
It is interesting to note that from an aesthetic point of view Warhol art-
work insists on the immediate effect and the naked form. His canvases have
almost no summary, in the spot of the summary there is the creative process
and the critical expertise. Such works of art are the works of “pure” form,
which create a confusing void, and whose “content” was necessary to estab-
lish, construct and invent.
15
Andy Warhol also had a notable work on the film, that is on creation of the micro-world of
the art- factory which produces his works of art. Also, with his behavior of a movie stars, he
actually realized the pop art as art of the spectacle of the sixties.
16
Warhol artwork is neither homosexually nor heterosexually characterized.
78
Andy Warhol does not run in his imaginary world of art, but by using ar-
tistic expression he is facing with reality. The reality showed him that the only
significant is the financial burden, and that the spiritual in the art is lost, it
disappears. He becomes aware that when the artist, once establishes his image
as a “logo”, he imposes, and the long-term perception of his work. “Regard-
less of whether the basis of his serenity is mere horror, his work truly repre-
sents the largest process for optimism that this time could have ever given the
taste.”17 Such so-called taste is, on the one hand, the taste of the power elite,
which manifests as the “taste” of power and material wealth, and, on the oth-
er hand, it is the “taste” of mass which is not inherited (nor do they have the
need because of their superficiality, laziness, vanity and pervasive decadence
of spirit and spirituality) aesthetic and artistic value, but they turn to hedon-
ism and consumerism, which does not require any mental or spiritual effort.
This creates a fertile ground for the emergence and spread of the mass culture.
Mass culture emphasizes the dehumanizing effect of industrialization, com-
mercialization and degradation of art. This influence of the mass culture on
contemporary art notices and Giulio K. Argan who says: „1.) Art is the prod-
uct of techniques sui generis, which differs from art to art, but it is constant
in the structure and purpose; 2.) There can not exist special techniques, only
“artistic” because the only legitimate technical system is the one that society
is organizing every time. “18 In this way, in fact, instead of the (artistic) stays
the phenomenon of consumption. Mass production invalidated the work as
a creative act. A true artistic creation comes down to selecting, reflection,
contemplation. However, following the industry, artists create using artificial
(industrial) material. Creative-artistic act is reduced to a mere choice of such
material, and there is a kind of collage technique.
The artistic direction of pop art is turning to reproducing the industrial
reality. By choosing the products of future works of art which are linked to
industrial civilization, pop-art in some way returns us to the link of fine arts
and crafts, from the scratch reestablishing the term “ars”. Aware of the times
in which we inhabit, Andy Warhol sets to himself the task to make the paint-
ing of the “Campbell” soup with the classic painting procedure, which proved
to be a difficult and painstaking job that eventually departs. He turns to the
(industrial) design and right through the design of Andy Warhol comes to the
classical painting process when it comes to multiplication of the same object,
with which he actually mimics the craft production. “It would all have been a
17
De Mot, “Benjamin, king of pop - thoughts”, 1966. In: Slobodan Đorđević, McLuhan galax-
ies, Belgrade: Prosveta, 1982, pp. 164.
18
Giulio K. Argan, Studies of Modern Art, Belgrade: Nolit, 1982, pp.232.
79
masterpiece, because they would all be copying the same painting.”19 The en-
tire Warhol painting technique and the choice of objects have become “indus-
trial”; He began using the screen printing process, which gave him the pos-
sibility of an unlimited number of replicas of the “original” works on which
can still be carried out and modifications of various kinds; and he thereby
achieves the greater distancing of the artist from his work.20 Merit of Andy
Warhol is actually in creating manners, because when the style was once es-
tablished, then the students from one school were able to imitate, to finish or
even paint a new canvas in the name of the master - the artist.
In an era of the mass culture art has become a commodity, and “brand” of
the goods is the signature of the author or his exclusive market position. On
the basis of that achieved “exclusivity” work of art is being “recognized” as the
work of art.21 Strategies of pop-art have actually been based by the artwork
of Pablo Picasso who “remains the model `of the genius creator` (...) as he
has encouraged and initiated the Cubism, thus, around the 1925, he joins the
surrealism, and then he experiments with processes very similar to geometric
abstraction. He does that always and only in order to show how all the cur-
rents and movements (...) are only incidental occasion for the expression of
creativity...”22 Picasso’s artistic creation laid the foundations of a new percep-
tion of art, its impact and importance for the society.
Mass culture would not be possible (or viable!) without the mass media
(of communication). Andy Warhol for his medium of artistic expression uses
the media itself, with which he reaches to the core of postmodern shift. Rob-
ert Hughes for Warhol said: “No seriously understood artist of the twenti-
eth century, possibly with the exception of Salvador Dali, did not devote so
much time and skills to cultivating publicity. Instead of Dali’s energy, which
required the transformation of everything it touches, Warhol designed the
irony, unreflected cold, when everything is allowed to be what it is.”23 Warhol’s
ingenuity was actually built into his strategy, aware of the “gaps” of the spirit
of the mass he is indulging and flattering it shamelessly. “Warhol realized that
you do not have to pretend to be crazy, but to let others to do it for you.”24
19
See in: Andy Wаrhоl, The Philosophy of Andy Wаrhоl (From A to B & Back Again), New
York: Harcourt Brаce Jovanovich, 1975, p. 148.
20
This is from the reason that the artist’s assistants could multiply and that, according to his
idea, realize works just as well as he did himself.
21
Interestingly, Andy Warhol goes as far as cashing his signature.
22
Giulio K. Argan, Studies of Modern Art, Belgrade: Nolit, 1982, 1982, p. 134.
23
See in: Robert Hughes, The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Changes, London:
Thames and Hudson, 1991, p. 346.
24
See in: Robert Hughes, The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Changes, London:
Thames and Hudson, 1991, p. 348.
80
Aware of the situation and the time in which he lives, he is a professional in

appearance, self-promotion, promotion of his work, media manipulation. He
certainly knows how to use the techniques of provocation and exploitation
of the scandal, because he is aware that an essential element of such a world
is just an element of sales.25 „ Buying is much more American usage than
thinking... What they really like is to buy - people, money, the state.”26 In fact,
with this his attitude he confirms the thesis that the very act of creation con-
firms creativity, and not with the completed work, so the purchasing power
is confirmed - with the ritual of purchase. From the process of creating is
discarded the energy of artifacts, and it now becomes a sales strategy. The art
is marginalized when it is launched as profitable goods, and the possession of
the “actual” work of art becomes prestige. To own the portrait with Warhol’s
signature becomes the climax of high-class snobbery.
As a genius of mass media, Andy Warhol is not expecting to be “discov-
ered,” but he is working on his own on that goal - attracting the then incum-
bent “art” and “media” stars he creates the reputation of the “court” artist.
Living in a world of “media stars” and the jet-set, looking at them and ana-
lyzing them, he understands the role of the body, more precisely the naked
body. Andy Warhol is becoming aware that nudity has its own, natural dig-
nity, because the inside of the body is hideous sight for the others. The body
and nudity in pop-art are becoming the object of the game, allowing nudity to
become, in fact, the subject of (and artistic) exploitation. He became a radical
critic of the pop culture in general - in his paintings are archetypal examples
which essentially exceed the threshold of nudity and represent a meditation
on the victims of a destructive civilization.27 In fact, by a careful observation
and aesthetic-philosophical reception of works of art of Andy Warhol, it is
clear that decadence is not in itself the purpose, nor it is the political protest,
but they are actually a demonstration of the artistic freedom of will. However,
he does not stay long in the painting because he realizes that the film is the
ideal medium for overtime painting work; like his painting technique of cop-
ying Andy Warhol’s film is copying the “scenes”. For him, fetishism can be a
film summary28, but also his personal, obsessive voyeurism that becomes an
aesthetic strategy. That his fetishism stems from his perseverance and repe-
tition, because he does not work first to assimilate and aestheticize the facili-
25
For this reason, Andy Warhol creates his works to primarily sell them.
26
See in: Andy Wаrhоl, The Philosophy of Andy Wаrhоl (From A to B & Back Again), New
York: Harcourt Brаce Jovanovich, 1975, p. 229.
27
Warhol’s famous paintings are: Double accident of the ambulances; Saturday’s accident; Green
cars in flames and, Nine times. These images were created by reports and images published in
tabloid magazines.
28
Such A. Warhol’s films are My Gigolo or Trash.
81
ty29, it is in order to deceive the public. On the contrary, he selects objects that
are already stylized and industrial goods as fetishized; with which he really
wants to deprive them of their sexual context.
Andy Warhol has no desire to place himself as an artist/creator, but he
places himself as the craftsman who has the taste and intellect similar to the
consumer; with that he accepts the mediocrity as his philosophical creed, as
well as mediocre as his aesthetic taste. Mass culture erases the border/s be-
tween the stars and their audience. Through his artistic practice, Andy War-
hol discloses the essential truth about the mass culture: he makes it through
his own semantics. He creates his own frequency vocabulary and stresses (as
a characteristic of time in which he resides) a kind of “mental nudity.” In a
perfect way Andy Warhol says with his works of art, for example, that the
disappointment must speak through the language of disappointment. Non-
sense as a phenomenon of the new age he brings to centar of his creation, as
an expression of spiritual emptiness of the subject (man) of his time. But he
himself has deeply intellectually “spoken” through his specific artistic creativ-
ity. Andy Warhol in the codes of clowning and the obsession with follies of
the world in which he lives was showing its perspectives aware of the value of
the new world that raises the quantity over quality. His art is the expression of
a paradox of the spiritually empty world, which is reflected in the emptiness
of the moral connotations and other true values; a man in such a world seems
on the surface self-sufficient and self-satisfied, convinces himself in the ideal
of the existence of optimism of freedom for the sake of freedom. Warhol is in
his art cruel to reality, and he does not offer any alternative value.
III
The whole artistic direction of pop art aims to cause a provocation, be-
cause the reaction that creates is intense and immediate.30 The world of un-
derground broadcasted some kind of the infantilism of rebellion against the
endless chain of industrial reproduction and consumption. Underground
cultivated the cult of intimacy. Conceptual arts of Andy Warhol are techno-
logically and media primitive. They are characterized by absence and, more-
over, the negation of the summary. Their summary is reflected in a single
29
That is the method of classical visual fetishization.
30
Pop-art methods of provocation in the end had its bloody era (Manson, Andy Warhol), as
well as the revolutionary consequences. Of course it turned out that the whole left fraction of
Pop Art is finished identifying with the “revolution”. But the origins of homosexual promiscu-
ity manifested towards AIDS, as an overdose of heroin abuse, historical denial as self-destruc-
tion and destruction, and the pop-provocation as violence.
82
sentence. This summary does not takes away the attention from the used ig-
norant media, and that kind of artistic process is elementary, basic and prim-
itive. “Science does not want to realize that perversity, simply makes us hap-
pier; or, to be more accurate, it produces a surplus; I am more sensitive, more
receptive, more talkative and more amused etc. and and in that excess settles
the difference...”31 With Andy Warhol tolerance, non-commitment, tradi-
tional obscurity of the New World had a starting point for an all-important
egalitarianism, and deletion of all the existing antagonisms and differences.32
Humanity - individuality is deeply hidden in his early films. The protagonists
of these films are different only in external characteristics and voluntarily de-
prived of their identity without the coercion or resistance. “Warhol’s concept
of the film was so much more important than his product that reading a good
analysis was more interesting than watching a movie.”33 Conceptual art tends
to switch the stronghold from the finished product to the process of creation,
that is, from the work of art to the creator himself - the artist.34 Andy Warhol
questioned himself - whether the created is really more important than the
star?! There, the creative assets are transferred to the field of action, as in
acting, music and other performing arts. Some of the conceptual painters
develop this idea, so the ceremony of painting carries the overall “meaning”,
while the “fruits” of the ceremonial process of painting are what is recorded,
casual, often superfluous products. He himself organized the performance
inviting journalists not to the premiere, but to shooting of his films, and from
the results, the shootings were indifferent and careless.35 By introducing a sys-
tem of performance he quit the need for the (art) work, whose clear ideas are
functioning better than just the presentation. He tends to leave the traces of
the non-existent work, whose meaning is being multiplied.
The work of art abolished as an aesthetic experience, so survives with no
direct effect on the audience. It is based on the “sensationalism”. Warhol’s
work contains in itself a dramatic destruction of the mythology, such acts
should be openly exposing. In his films there is nothing hidden, everything
is exposed to the viewer. For him, every phenomenon could be the start, and
every trend the reason for the film.
31
Roland Barthes, Roland Barthes by Roland Barthes, Novi Sad/Podgorica: IP Svetovi/Oktoih,
1992, p. 75.
32
Egalitarianism of the media appearance: clowning, Egalitarianism in choosing the medium:
each is as good as anyone else; Egalitarianism in selecting the summary: from masterpieces of
art to pages of tabloid.
33
See in: David Burdon, Warhol, New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1989, p. 199.
34
It is, therefore, performance.
35
Everyday activities (for example, dining, sleeping, etc.) are getting the meaning of Perfor-
mance when it comes to their “performance”.
83
With the help of the free association, Andy Warhol has borrowed ideas for
his work. As anti-critic of postmodern in the early 70s of the 20th century, re-
alizing that the commercial mainstream is on the scene, which was supposed
to assimilate Warhol’s avant-gardism, he returns to the pure commercialism,
again suggesting the spirit of the mass movement that signaled a new future
of art. The avant-guard members are satisfied by reproducing the Warhol’s
work. Most of his immediate aesthetic followers among the avant-garde looks
consequently to plagiarist. The influence of Andy Warhol on contemporary
art, but also on contemporary culture is undeniable. His creativity in the
foreseeable future have left the definition of avant-garde to become a glob-
al commodity of the global everyday. In his understanding and the use of
ironic figure Andy Warhol overcame his pop-art colleagues / artists since his
launch of pop icons was never clearly idolatrous or satirical. With him ironic
process occurs and with the use of objects; the function of objects is defined
by the user - by becoming the user, the basic purpose is being suppressed or
affirmed, and in extreme cases, even revolutionized.36
In the sphere of the modernist escape from kitsch, the art is left only with
the choice between satire and satire, irony and self-irony. The artist not only
denies his starting point, but also himself. “Warhol has gone into his work
with such intensity, concentration and obsessiveness, that one whole area of
people’s experiences, visual ideas, in which way it was done was so completely
covered that practically nothing left to be done in this area.”37 Each part of the
creative process that is currently being presented to the public contains dif-
ferent conditions of the level of provocation, addressing to different segments
of the audience - such provocations are not insane, but conscious, intentional
and pragmatic. This provocation is in the purpose of promotion - because
in the age of indifference and pragmatism - to provoke means simply to be
noticed.
36
Umberto Eco cites the example of the throne “in which the primary function is suppressed
(...) comfortable seating” for “established and uncomfortable (...) dignified seating ...” In: Um-
berto Eco, Culture of information of communication, Belgrade: Nolit, 1973, p. 223. In this way,
in fact, the object becomes a symbol of rebellion in case the user radically and deliberately
falsifies its function or its semantic meaning.
37
See in: М. O`Pray ed. Andy Warhol: Film Factory, London: British Film Institute, 1989, p. 28.
84
Literature
Argan, K. Giulio. Studies of Modern Art. Belgrade: Nolit, 1982.

Barthes, Roland. Roland Barthes by Roland Barthes. Novi Sad/Podgorica: IP
Svetovi/Oktoih, 1992.
Burdon, David. Warhol. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1989.
Đorđević, Slobodan. McLuhan galaxies. Belgrade: Prosveta, 1982.
Eco, Umberto. Culture of information of communication. Belgrade: Nolit,
1973.
Hughes, Robert. The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Changes. Lon-
don: Thames and Hudson, 1991.
O`Pray, М. ed. Andy Warhol: Film Factory. London: British Film Institute,
1989.
Vilić, Nataša. Philosophy of (work) of art. Banja Luka: Kasper, 2009.
Wаrhоl, Andy. The Philosophy of Andy Wаrhоl (From A to B & Back Again).
New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975.
85
86
Spiritual foundations of
Valentin Jurjevič Katasonov the modern consumer slavery
Valentin Jurjevič Katasonov1 Review

The Moscow State Institute for UDC 366.643:340.137
The International Finance DOI 10.7251/SOCEN1509087K
Moscow Accepted on March 12, 2015.
Russia
Spiritual foundations of the modern consumer

slavery
Introduction
Among the feudal lords was the accumulation of money, but not the cap-
ital. Even when the feudal lords resorted exploitation, based on the use of
credit and debt, it did not make them capitalists. Credit interest, in any form
(cash, in-kind or the form of tillage) went to personal consumption of feudal
lords, it was not turning into capital. However, this does not mean that in feu-
dal society there was no capital and capitalism. Capital and capitalism were as
they were in the Roman slave-owning society. In Ancient Rome, the capital
did not exist in the commodity or production form, but in money, capitalism
was not a commercial or industrial, but usurious. There the “professional”
usury was practiced by people from the stock of horsemen.
In the late Middle Ages there were also the “professional” loan sharks. They
have opposed to the feudal lords “earned” money not to spend it but to make
money again allowed into circulation. They have been the “real” capitalists.
Almost all of them, without an exception, were Jews, which were not related
to the Christian rehabilitated not God-honoring work and who have perma-
nently affected that “niche” of the medieval business. The famous sociologist,
historian and economist Werner Sombart in the early twentieth century pub-
lished the work “The Jews and the economic life”2. In it, he argues that the
Judaism was the basis of the capitalism; he provides a positive assessment of
the role of Judaism in forming the basis of capitalism. He cites the numerous
examples of how the Jews practiced usury and trade even in the bosom of me-
dieval European society and created conditions for the initial accumulation
of capital. It is somewhat Werner Sombart right in his assessment of the role
1
Professor of the International Finance MGIMO, a corresponding member of the Academy of
Economic Sciences and Entrepreneurship.
2
Вернер Зомбарт, Евреи и хозяйственная жизнь./Пер. с нем. — Мoscow: Айрис-пресс,
2004.
87
of Jews in the development of capitalism. But only partly. He himself says that
many Jews escaped from the continent to the British Isles, there were baptized
and became a prominent puritans (Protestants subspecies, which are distin-
guished by special asceticism and fanaticism). And no one forced them to be
baptized; in England, unlike Spain and other continental countries there was
no Inquisition3.
1. Judaism, Protestantism and the desire for consumption
The parallel research of the causes of capitalism in Europe was made by

another scientist - Max Weber. He has also in the beginning of the twentieth
century published a paper, which is now well known as the “Protestant Ethic
and the Spirit of Capitalism“4. He denies the role of Judaism in the devel-
opment of capitalism, pointing out the very substantive principle in the late
Judaism based on the Talmud. However, the main role in the development of
capitalism, he assigns to those changes that have taken place in Christianity.
It is the Reformation that led to the emergence of “a renewed Christianity” in
the form of Protestantism. And protestantism (especially in a modification,
such as Calvinism) abolished the pre-existing “taboos” in the European socie-
ty to engage in usury. Moreover, not only it abolished the “taboos”, but also in
every way it has encouraged the industry for the creation and the accumula-
tion of capital. “Professional” usury could be now done not only by Jews, but
also by “progressive Christians.” And not only usury, but also other forms of
capitalist business - trade, the manufacturing and the agricultural.
Weber, as well as Zombrat, welcomes the transition of society to capital-
ism and highlights the special “merits” of the transition to the subspecies
of Protestantism, such as Calvinism. In the context of this problem M. We-
ber put Calvinism even beyond Judaism. Calvinism, in his opinion, orients
man to the infinite accumulation of capital; Judaism, encourages in every
way possible the acquisition of wealth, but the wealth remains a means, it is
not converted into the purpose in itself. Here is how are summarized these
considerations of M. Weber about the differences between Judaism and Cal-
3
After all, Puritanism had a lot in common, which explains the ease of crossing Judea in that
religion (the study of the Mosaic Pentateuch, respect the Sabbath, keeping the service in He-
brew, a request for the adoption of the constitution on the basis of the Torah.). By the way, later
as easily Puritans passed into Judaism. About closeness of Puritanism and Judaism testifies the
policy of Oliver Cromwell, who, as is known, said that he is the follower of Puritanism and at
the same time was particularly fond of Jews. It is thanks to his efforts the Jews were granted
permission to freely move to the British Isles and deal with the exorbitant activity.
4
Макс Вебер, Протестантская этика и дух капитализма. — Москва: Ист-Вью, 2002.
88
vinism by our domestic philosopher J. Borodaj: “(...) even the principle of

contraction in Judaism is not as universal as in Calvinism: first, it does not
apply to proceedings between” themselves” and most importantly, the collec-
tion here preserved the “traditional” character, that is, it is oriented on con-
sumption and because of that it does not turn into a devouring passion much
like in Calvinism (...). Unlike Judah orientation, where the capital is only the
means of immediate enjoyment or domination, that is the safest means of the
maximum orderliness of the all earthly material life, for Protestants, the true
masters of the new arrangement, the accumulation of capital becomes the
purpose in itself “5. We will add one more clarification in discussions of M.
Weber and J. Borodaj: indeed, during Judaism accumulated capital becomes
the means. But we should distinguish between the Early (Old Testament) and
the Late (Talmudic) Judaism. For the Early Judaism accumulation of capital
was largely “enjoyment”, and for the Late Judaism - the means of “dominance”.
The reorientation of religious consciousness of Jews to the world suprema-
cy, as pointed out by historians of religion, happened before two and a half
thousand years ago, at the time when they were taken into Babylonian cap-
tivity and there came into contact with the Gnostics and Manichaeans (with
their settings on the “chosenness “and” predetermination “). It has been doc-
umented that a reorientation was preserved in the Talmud, which was written
in the first centuries of our era (after the destruction of Jerusalem, when Jews
were already in exile) and which is set in contemporary Judaism beyond the
Torah (Five Books of Moses)6.
And why at Protestants, especially in the Calvinist, the accumulation of
wealth, capital becomes an end in itself? In the early Protestants it is espe-
cially striking. Because they have strived wealth, became rich, but at the same
time led and continued to lead an ascetic lifestyle. Some researchers are try-
ing to give a purely “materialistic” explanation for this phenomenon: they
say, asceticism was for the first capitalists needed to “economize” and quickly
accumulate the capital. But for some reason having even millions, first Prot-
estants continued to keep themselves in the “black body”. Karl Marx wrote in
the Capital: “Capitalist plunder their own bodies” and can not clearly answer
why the capitalists do that. And he can not because on the history of the gen-
esis of capitalism he is looking through the eyes of the materialist. The first
5
Юрий Мефодьевич Бородай, Почему православным не годится протестантский ка-
питализм? „Наш современник“, 1990. №10.
6
About these shades of the early and the late Judaism we can read in the famous work Левa
Александровичa Тихомирова „Религиозно-философские основы истории“, which is also
written in the early twentieth century. From the recent works on this topic we can recommend
the book Игорa Ростиславовичa Шафаревича «Трехтысячелетняя загадка. История ев-
рейства из перспективы современной России».
89
capitalists were not driven by the “economic interest” (as K. Marx thought),
but the religious feeling. The point is, the central dogma of Calvinism was the
dogma that the entire humanity is divided into the “selected” and the “oth-
ers”. This is very similar to the central dogma of Judaism on the division of
humanity to “the Jews” (they are the same - “chosen”) and the “others”). One
can not become a Jew as a result of this or that merit in the earthly life, Jew is
born. But it can not be revealed any external signs of the “chosenness” on the
man’s body, as well as in his mind and the spiritual abilities. The sign of “the
chosen people” lies outside the man and consists of wealth that belongs to
him. Therefore, religious follower of the Calvinism the whole life is torment-
ed only by one question: “Am I the ‘chosen’ one or not?” But by that he does
not bother only his soul, but also his body. He lives on the edge of his physical
and mental strength, gaining and increasing his wealth, trying through this
wealth to prove to himself and his surroundings, that he is the “chosen one”.
A fanatical passion of collecting capital, is not a “substantive”, but “spiritual”
religious passion. He leaves into the background all the other passions, in-
cluding a passion for the material, sensual pleasures.
The existence of the capital is the “ticket”, which gives a man the right to
enter into an “earthly paradise”, and a number that determines the value of
that capital, indicates in which “segment” of that “earthly paradise” can be
found the bringer of the “tickets”. Centuries ago it was somewhat different:
the existence of the capital was viewed as a “ticket” which entitles you to enter
the “Heavenly Paradise”; the capital value determined in which “segment” or
the row of the “Heavenly Paradise” will be the bearer of the “tickets”. Accord-
ing to some authors, in contemporary capitalist activities the religious moti-
vation of man is held in full measure. Most often it is unconscious, and is held
in the form of the programs written into the man’s subconscious. Here is what
about that writes J. Borodaj: “In accordance with the Protestant orientation,
in order to determine the level of the moral virtue, in the US it is enough to
ask: how much is one man? This question does not have only pragmatic, but
also deeply religious significance “7.
In the bosom of Calvinism (and Protestantism in general) was gradually
formed a system of knowledge and the rules of the economics (rational use)
of all the resources, including the time for reaching the maximum cash result
- the profit. The most complete form of this system is received within a line,
called “Methodism” (something like a sect within Protestantism8). Later, that
7
Юрий Мефодьевич Бородай, Почему православным не годится протестантский ка-
питализм? // „Наш современник“, 1990. № 10.
8
Methodism was formed in the first half of the eighteenth century in Britain and North Amer-
ica on the basis of Anglicanism.
90
system of knowledge and rules (similar to the detailed regulations of all sides
of human life in Judaism) got the status of the “economic science”.
Calvinism had nothing to do with true Christianity - the religion of love
for man, which gives every man an opportunity to become the “chosen one”
(within the meaning of salvation and obtaining the “eternal life” after death).
Calvinist fanatic who through their wealth reaffirms its “God-chosenness”
and the “Excellence”, at the same time acknowledges that he has the right to
rule over the other people. They, above all, are necessary to him to continue
increasing wealth. Other people, who did not get the “sign” of “the chosen
people” in the form of wealth are people of the “other species” that Protestant
God predestined to be the slaves of the “chosen one” (here is Calvinism very
similar to Judaism with his scornful attitude towards those who do not belong
to his tribes).
If we do not take into account that “Protestant racism” it is difficult to
understand where it comes from such equanimity, which was shown by the
first holders of the “spirit of capitalism” in the epoch of the primitive accu-
mulation of capital. In Europe, that cruelty was shown in relation to the small
farmers, who were first deprived of countries and then killed or forced to
work as slaves. In America, white Protestant settlers, showed that cruelty in
relation to the Indians, who were until the last one killed “like beasts” (in-
cidentally, the colonists-Catholics, who have won South America, were not
guilty of such cruelty). In Africa, the Protestant traders (together with mer-
chants-Jews) have shown that cruelty in relation to the local residents, who
they have taken or bought into slavery.
After all, the severity was visible and with Catholics. But among Catho-
lics the physical violence was unusually associated with “Christian care of
the soul” of the captured natives. Portuguese monks together with the Pope
sought for slaves to be mandatory baptized. On that occasion it was even
issued a special royal edict in 1519. In the case of slaves, who were hunted in
Africa, then they had to be baptized prior to loading on ships that were sent
to the shores of America. This request was challenged because, a lot of slaves
died during the trip and it was proved to be touching “care for souls” of the
slaves. Later, other Catholic countries also brought analogous laws. Thus the
French king Ludwig XIII in the year 1648 declared the act on the compulsory
baptism of slaves.
In the social behavior of Protestants is observed the religious-cultural
code of Judaism, in which, as is known, is present a clear division of all peo-
ple to “the one of them” and all the others, not merely “foreign”, they are not
even people, but simply living beings, which have the appearance of a man. In
91
the Old Testament we come across a lot of places where it is visible the clear
embarked on “the one of them” and the “foreign”. In the context of discussed
economic issues is very important the following paragraph of Judaism “do
not lend with interest to your brother nor money, nor bread, nor anything
else, that can be borrowed with interest. To a foreign lend with interest, and
to the brother do not lend with interest “(Deuteronomy, part 23). Jews were
almost two thousand years in the Diaspora, ie. among the “others”. Therefore,
the above mentioned paragraph of Deuteronomy was consistently realized
through the practice of usurious exploitation of the carriers of Judaic ideolo-
gy, “his and someone else’s.”
The principle of “his - someone else’s” was developed in Protestantism,
which imposed and continued to impose to society the ideology and psychol-
ogy of the extreme individualism. In Judaism there is the ethnic individual-
ism (ethnos, tribe, nation remains the sole objective, not divisible into parts);
in Protestantism there is a personal individualism. In economic science of
the West the standard model of such individualism is homo economicus -
the economic man. It represents the ultimate degree of individualism, when
among “his” man ranks only himself (ego) and all the others are “foreign”.
Significant are observations to which reached V. Sombart in his book “The
Bourgeois”. In it, he fully justified draws the attention that the most consistent
and the most energetic carriers of the “spirit of capitalism” were foreigners
or the immigrants. They did not have any blood ties with the local popula-
tion and were not burdened with prejudices such as “motherland”, “historical
roots” and the like. For the migrants (colonists) local were all without the
exception “foreign”, to which one could (and should) apply cruel - like cattle
or beasts. Also marauding could in the same way relate to the surrounding
nature and the culture of the local people and its history. He identifies the two
main categories of the ruthless newcomers: the Jews, who were permanent
settlers all over the world, and European the settlers in the New World.
These attitudes of the Protestantism adopted the European philosophy
that emerged immediately after its victory (probably it appeared to fulfill the
“social order” of those who were interested in building capitalism). The sense
of rejoicing “dogma” of European philosophy is very simple: “the war of all
against the all” as an objective, “natural” law society. Then it came into the
world the European economic thought (naturally, also to meet the “social
order”) it “enriched” the formulation of the law of the “universal cannibal-
ism” and called it the “competition law”. Several generations of “professional
economists” constantly gave its contribution to the “breeding” of the cap-
italist competition. Today our students are totally convinced that capitalist
competition is the main “driver of progress.”
92
The foregoing represents a spiritual and religious roots of contemporary

capitalism especially when it comes to countries where it was above all accept-
ed the Protestantism, in its most radical, Calvinist and (or) a puritan variant.
These are the capitalist countries of the “first echelon”: England, Netherlands,
Switzerland, and later the United States.
Admission to the European “civilization” of the capitalist countries of the
“second echelon” occurred at a slightly different algorithm. There it began
with the imposition to the elite of these countries, the desire for consump-
tion, that grew into a passion for mindless consumption. The capitalism of
the countries of the “first echelon” could evolve rapidly at the expense of the
active conquest of foreign markets. This conquest was quite aggressive, fo-
cused on the search for and creation of demand for products of capitalist
manufacturing and goods of such trading companies (primarily East-Indian
English and the East-Indian Dutch). Conquering new markets capitalist prot-
estants have begun to decay elite of the “won” countries as the most capable
part of the society through corruption. Here is how the gradual transition to
capitalism of the countries of the “second echelon” describes J. Brodsky, “Pro-
gress toward Western civilization is the robbery of natural resources and ex-
treme intensification of labor in backward countries that begins with ‘buying’
ruling class in these countries. Among the traditional rulers and those who
have achieved the status of local speculators-upstart are starting the baccha-
nalia of the excessive and mindless consumption: it is rekindled the frenzied
appetite for modern foreign suits, sets and objects for everyday life - “as in
the best houses of Philadelphia. It starts the search for the latest funds for
sophisticated entertainment and debauchery and especially expensive goods
for the purposes of personal prestige. In the epoch of young English capital-
ism epidemic of prevailing usury, is inevitably linked to the strengthening of
fiscal pressure, engulfed even those that are not underdeveloped countries
of continental Europe. It is enough to remember the insane bacchanalia and
luxuries in the foundations of the demolished pre-revolutionary France. This
grandeur is particularly monitored with puritan restraint of the English gen-
tleman who became industrial and financial magnates “9.
Among the aristocracy of Europe is growing interest in the philosophical
teachings that help elite to forget the Christian commandments, prohibitions
and restrictions. Among these are restrictions that have restrained spending
“over the standard”. It is known that in the ancient world the passion of aris-
tocracy for the pleasures found its reflection in the philosophy of hedonism
and Epicurean. On the outcome of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance comes
9
Юрий Бородай. Третий путь. // Наш современник, 1991. № 9.
93
from these teachings. Hedonistic motives are spreading in the epoch of Reviv-
al and then in the ethical theories of educator (Thomas Hobbes, John Locke,
P. Hasende), as well as the French materialists of the eighteenth century who
have in the fight against religious conceptions of morality often resorted he-
donistic interpretation of morality. The most complete expression the princi-
ple of hedonism got in an ethical theory of utilitarianism, which recognizes
the benefit as an enjoyment or the absence of suffering. The main representa-
tives of these theories are J. Bentham (1748-1832) and J.S. Mill (1806-1873)10.
Ideas of two authors were, incidentally, very fashionable among the Russian
nobility at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and they have certainly
played a role in “stimulating” the pursuit of luxuries among our aristocracy.
Thus, in A. S. Pushkin we can read:
You, moody of the senior world,

Left first by Him;
Indeed, today is flourishing with you
Boring, empty, high tone;
Although perhaps some lady
Is interpreting Bentham.
But to consume imported luxury the “indigenous gentlemen” had to earn

money. They begin to rapidly reinforce the oppression of their peasants, to
reinforce fiscal pressures, more actively to address local and foreign money-
lenders for loans. All this has exploded the basics of traditional feudal society,
created the conditions for the initial accumulation of capital (taking the land
from farmers), strengthening the position of usury capital.
The above mentioned algorithm of movement towards capitalism of the
countries of the “second echelon” fully explains the flow of the historical de-
velopment of the Russian empire from XVIII to XIX century. It should be
noted, that “another attempt” of Russia to move to capitalism at the beginning
of the twentieth century began when “among traditional rulers and those
who have achieved the status of local speculators-upstart” began the “baccha-
nalia of the excessive and mindless consumption”. We witnessed those “bac-
chanalia” and after a period of Gorbachev’s government in 1985. Destructive
energy of those “Bacchanalia” became for the Soviet Union more terrifying
and destructive than the energies of tens of nuclear bombs. And after the col-
10
Utilitarianism (especially in version of J. Bentham) not only justifies the “naturalness” and
“harmful effects” of consumption and pleasure, but also justifies the means, to ensure the ful-
fillment of these aspirations, even when that means are contradicting the Christian principles.
94
lapse of the USSR and the formation of the Russian Federation holders of the
“bacchanalia of the excessive and mindless consumption” received almost the
official name - the “new Russians”.
So the passion for profits (money) and a passion for Energy - are two sides
of the same coin, called capitalism. Architects of capitalism sought that in
every member of society (regardless of his social and financial status) at the
same time there are both passions. Our countryman F. V. Karelin (1925-1992)
in his work “The theological manifesto” (1987), justifiably observed: “... the
capitalist mode of production is in need of sin (greedy entrepreneurs and the
abandoned consumers).”
Everything we have said before, shows that capitalism is - not only and not
even so much economic phenomenon, as spiritual and religious. Unfortu-
nately, about that are silent our textbooks and representatives of our science.
Unfortunately we do not see so far serious spiritual reviews of capitalism and
by our church hierarchy and theological scholar. Only sometimes ecclesias-
tical authorities are forced to somehow respond to the serious challenges of
the capitalist present, but even this reaction is somehow cumbersome and
unclear.
2. Modern consumer and spiritual slavery
So, the ordinary pagan of the epoch of capitalism are polytheists. In a

word, they at once worshiped many gods-idols. Those gods-idols are infinite
world of things and virtual performances, produced by modern capitalist
economy. Today’s capitalism is a capitalism of consumption. At the very least,
it is this capitalism that exists in the area of residence of the “golden billion”.
Apologists of modern capitalism proudly speak of the West as the “consumer
society”. But this is not an ordinary “consumption” as an act of meeting the
human lifetime necessary needs.
First, today is “consumption” primarily “over the standard” or the “exces-
sive” consumption, which aims to achieve satisfaction.
Secondly, this objective is a ritual, which involves planning what man in-
tends to spend, it is the process of tracing the source of objects of consumption
(restaurants, tourist companies, companies-manufacturers, stores), then the
act of buying items of the consumption (goods, services), and then the pro-
cess of consumption. After all, the process of “consumption” does not always
end with the consumption as such. An important is the process itself, which
delves into the world of human fantasy and play, taking him away from the
important problems of life. It is the consumption and material process that
95
are partially converted into something virtual. Today listed ritual takes up a
large part of the petty bourgeois life: in one way or another he is immersed in
the process of “consumption” even during working hours and sometimes he
continues to think of “consumption” in his sleep.
On this level contemporary capitalism has some resemblance with the
capitalism of the Ancient Rome; After all, there are differences. Many writ-
ers have talked about luxury, gluttony and wasteful lifestyle of the minions
of Rome (patricians). Only 1% of all the budget (conditionally) is spent on
meeting the needs, and 99% - to meet the so-called ‘disposable’ needs, at the
same time there were even a lot of “unnatural” needs. Master-slave owners
did not forget to satisfy even the basic needs of their slaves, the more they
could not fall into mind to expand the range of these shows. Somehow the
patricians showed concern with regard to meeting the needs of lumpen-pro-
letariat, by pursuing a policy of “bread and games” and that is all.
And here in today’s capitalism, everything is different. We see “touching”
capitalists care about the needs of wage-earners to provide them with the
opportunity to obtain maximum “satisfaction”.
Firstly, with the aim of maximizing the “satisfaction” the capitalist offer
the laborers loans for “stimulation of demand”, ie. for the purchase of addi-
tional goods and services. We have previously discussed that in the context
of “debt slavery”.11
Second, the strategic line of conduct of the capitalists of all colors and
types (cash, commercial, industrial) is the maximum expansion of the circle
of consumption of wage workers. Earlier, the famous American industrialist
Henry Ford remarked that industrial capitalism is different from the financial
capitalism by first meeting the needs of man, and the others creating them.
There are basic needs, and much needed (food, clothing, heating, roof over
your head). Such requirements are necessary for man’s life and minimal sur-
vival. In the structure of needs of the population of periphery of the world of
capitalism, as previously was the case, the basic needs take center stage. While
at the statistical average citizens of the “golden billion” are increasingly reduc-
ing their share and growing a specific weight of the other “new” (or “false”)
needs12. The composition of the “new” needs include:
1. Needs related for increasing comfort. These include the need for large
houses or apartments, air-condition and the most advanced technical house-
hold appliances with microprocessors, mobile phones with dozens of func-
11
See: Валентин Юрьевич Катасонов, O проценте: ссудном, подсудном, безрассудном,
Хрестоматия современных проблем, «денежной цивилизации», Моscow, 2011.
12
This issue is discussed in more detail in the following source: Невидимов Д. Религия денег,
или Лекарство от рыночной экономики. Moscow, 2003.
96
tions, a toilet with music and heating, electric toothbrushes, crocodile shoes
and thousands of other conceivable subjects and services. In some cases, the
comfort really facilitates a person’s life, but 90% of subjects of comfort, which
exist in the market are obviously “superfluous”. For example, in the salons
of the expensive car brands, there are models in which there are an infinite
number of different buttons, but as research shows, the driver and passengers
use less than half of the existing functions (buttons), while about some of
them they have no idea.
2. Virtual needs. These include the need to increase the prestige (image).
Those are the needs for many of those same items of comfort, but at the same
those products have to be with the “brand” (brand-name sign), which in the
eyes of the environment increases the “rating” (“capitalization”) of a man who
has such subjects, and incidentally increases the self-assessment of the man
. Many people do not even buy objects of comfort, but rather “brands”. The
subject, as such, to man is not needed, or almost not needed. “Brand” often
costs more expensive than the object itself; the last one is only the substan-
tive holder of the “brand”. This is the cost of the advertisement (the primary
means of creating a “brand”) can multiple exceed the costs of production.
“There is a whole group of goods that cost more than 99% of the cost of its
promotion, mainly on advertising”13.
3. Unnatural purposes. These are the need for drugs, cigarettes, “sex servic-
es”, pornography, sadism, brutal scenes, games of chance, and the like. These
needs are formed (and partly also met) over the Internet, television and other
media, cinema and books.
On the account of the expansion of the circle of “false” needs capitalists
achieve increased dependence of consumers. Many “new” needs act like nar-
cotics, the man is forced not merely to make regular purchases of goods and
services necessary to meet the “new” needs, but also to increase the “dose” of
the need for such goods and services. After a while, after getting acquainted
with these new goods and services man is even ready because of them to give
up some “essential” goods and services. For example, he will not dine to play
on the “roulette”. Sociologists call this change “the structure of needs”. Many
market experts (company experts who study the structure of customer needs,
their priorities, develop sales policy of the company and the like) came to
simple “discoveries”:
13
Here is what writes Сергей Витальевич Вальцев about the advertisement as a means of
forming virtual man’s needs: «Advertising is not for a long time the information of statement.
The advertising promotion from the middle of last century, actively uses the technique of hyp-
nosis“ (Сергей Витальевич Вальцев, Закат человечества, Moscow, 2014. S. 200)
97
a) modern man is showing the greatest demand for those goods and ser-
vices that meet his “minimum” needs;
b) for further growth, of “low” needs they need to be stimulated, for which
are used special methods.
The lower the spiritual level of the man, he is more prone to sin and pas-
sion; the lower the spiritual needs, higher are the “low” needs; During heavy
spiritual degradation of man “low” needs become more important than even
life-essential material needs.
The spirit of consumption performs a crucial influence on human behav-
ior, who sense of life reduces to needs of spending. Funds are converted into
goals. It is probably the scariest “mutation”, which occurred to a man: from
lectures to God he crossed to things. It is a variant of polytheism, which can
be called consumer polytheism. Earlier, at the time of Christianity, man was a
slave of God. Today, he became a slave of things. The inner spiritual mutation
of a man finds its reflection in all his thoughts, words, behavior, lifestyle. Here
is how these external manifestations of human mutations describe Ameri-
can sociologists: “During 1986, the US still numbered more faculties than
shopping centers. But it has been fifteen years, as the number of shopping
centers was double the number of faculties. In the century of the syndrome of
spending shopping centers have replaced the church as the symbol of cultural
values. Indeed, 70% of US citizens every week visit the shopping centers and
it is much more than the number of people who regularly attend church “14.
Consumer polytheism transforms the buying process (shopping) in a sort
of “narcotic”, without which the modern man, with a very atrophied spiritual
needs, can no longer cope. In most cases the goods purchased are not neces-
sarily needed to such a delusional man15. As every passion, ie. permanent de-
pendence on any bad habits, consumption turns into a disease. Many doctors
believe that the passion for constant purchasing is resulting in severe anxiety.
From it are particularly suffering women (about 25% of women in Western
countries). More than 800 thousand of men are suffering from “shopping”
addiction which psychiatrists recognize as a mat disease such as alcoholism
and drug addiction. It is said in the published study of Technical hospital reg-
isters of Lower Saxony. Number of 800 thousand is effectively “in this or that
way only the number of registered cases,” but the number of “hidden cases” is
14
Джон. де Граф и др. Потреблятство: болезнь, угрожающая миру. Екатеринбург: Куль-
тура, 2005. С.32.
15
Just one example: in American second-hand stores for about 20 percent of clothing that
are sold is new (the one that was never once dressed with a label). Apparently the process of
shopping is not only visiting stores for the purchase of goods, but also the process of delivery
of goods in the second-hand shops (The same, p. 30).
98
obviously far greater16. German scientists gave that sick passion a special term
“oniomania” “Greek onios; mania - madness). In the Russian language similar
expressions are addiction to shopping and “shopping-mania”
That kind of dependence can be called “consumer slavery”. It is wanted to
establish a permanent dependence of man from the world of things, capital-
ists thus increase the efficiency of other forms of slavery - first of all wage and
debt.
Conclusion
In conclusion, here are a few elements that to a reader reveal the spiritual
essence of “consumer slavery” as an inalienable trait of modern financial civi-
lization. According to the strength and extent of the total activity, the civiliza-
tion of money is the second largest industry of pleasures: food, fun, sex, alco-
hol, etc. (first in the civilization of money we put banking and administrative
activity). By the number of employees in the industry of comfort, entertain-
ment, and other pleasures there are employees more than in any other sector
of life activities. The so-called service industry of all sorts of consumer in-
terests, accompanied by physiological pleasure, is a joy and pride of modern
(especially Western) civilization, and its test on the moral depravity, which is
hard camouflaged with fashion attire, colorful containers of consumer goods,
cigarettes, beer, strong alcoholic beverages, luxurious interiors of restaurants,
bars, casinos. All that “civilized” successful audience, overwhelmingly is in-
clined to alcohol, fornication, pedophilia, homosexuality, embezzlement of
state property, theft, murder with premeditation and all the other mortal sins,
but is adamantly considered the best part of humanity which is shining with
splendor, signs of differences, vocations etc. They are converting into a con-
tinuous party not only leisure time, but often the time of the professional
work, and having the handy service for all.
People of the culture of the mass consumption of the available pleasures
lie as easily and naturally as breathing. They steal nearly as common and
everyday, like cleaning teeth. Practically all of their adult life, they have saved
the children’s habits with pleasures, sweets and toys, which only change the
modification and configuration. Balloons, frozen or stuffed bears are replaced
by modern clothing, valuables, “Mercedes”, yachts, TV brands, collection of
weapons, and the like. Civilized splendor, whose types and modifications are
constantly multiplying, are giving amusement and pleasure to adult children
with the lifestyle of cave psyche. The process of restoration and construc-
16
Newsru.com (21.07.2008)
99
tion of all the recent magnificent temples in no way change the main aspi-
rations of people in the civilization of money - getting the pleasures of life
in any ways and means, above all, the tendency to alcohol, smoking, sexual
debauchery. That in itself, even in the minimum and cheapest selection, oc-
cupies all human free time, practically leaving nothing for human spirituality.
All that different people working in different roles of the “sphere of services”,
are specialized and “perfected” only for the skills to challenge and stimulate
physiological instincts “of the masses” as consumers in the increasingly nar-
row and always equal to the poverty spectrum: from gluttony to unbridled
sex, liberally spiced with tobacco, alcohol, drugs and a variety of jokes-wits
on the subject. All these industries of show and leisure not only that take up
almost all the spare time of the “masses” but also take at least 2/3 of the family
budget and their profits.
From the foregoing we can draw three characteristics “of the industry of
satisfaction“:
1) it occupies the first place in the economy of the “mature”, “civilization
of money” by the number of the employed workers in it (as well as per share
in the official GDP);
2) it deprives man of a large part (not less than 2/3) of its cash revenue;
3) it creates not only and not so many goods and services, as the “new
man” (“living machine”), devoid of any spiritual principles that fully meets
the requirements of the “civilization of money”.
In this way it is created a strange situation: all or almost all are in the state
of the “money slavery”, all in one way or another suffer from this slavery (not
just the poor but even the richest), but at the same the faith in money does not
slim but is only getting stronger. Unlike debt, wage slavery and other forms
of slavery the “financial servitude” is voluntary. This proves once again the
spiritual origin of this form of slavery - because to worship the deity you can
only then, when you really believe in the existence of the deity and its omnip-
otence. That is why the society, which is based on such a belief, is best not to
call “capitalism” (in the sense where the emphasis is placed on socio-econom-
ic order of society), but the “financial civilizations.” This term puts emphasis
on money as the spiritual core of the society, money as the object of spiritual
teaching of people, money as a higher goal of the earthly existence.
The intention of the enemy of the human race, which tends to completely
enslave the human soul, is extremely simple: first, make him the voluntary
perpetrator of the commitments of the “financial slave”, and then force a man
to voluntarily fulfill obligations of the wage goods. As we see every day, he
was in fact very successful in the last decade of the twentieth and the first
decade of the twenty first century.
100
Literature
Бородай, Юрий Мефодьевич. Почему православным не годится проте-

стантский капитализм? „Наш современник“, 1990. №10.
Бородай, Юрий Мефодьевич. Третий путь. // Наш современник. 1991.
№ 9.
Вебер, Макс. Протестантская этика и дух капитализма. Моscow: Ис-
т-Вью. 2002.
Вальцев, Сергей Витальевич. Закат человечества. Москва,. 2014.
Граф, де Джон и другие. Потреблятство: болезнь, угрожающая миру.
Екатеринбург: Культура. 2005.
Катасонов, Валентин Юрьевич. O проценте: ссудном, подсудном, без-
рассудном,Хрестоматия современных проблем, «денежной цивилиза-
ции». Моscow. 2011.
Невидимов, Денис. Религия денег, или Лекарство от рыночной экономи-
ки. Моscow. 2003.
Зомбарт, Вернер. Евреи и хозяйственная жизнь./Пер. с нем. Моscow:
Айрис-пресс. 2004.
101
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Banja Luka, October 2015

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Jana Goriup1 Original scientific paper

Some sociological aspects of nurses and their

The paper presents a view on nurses, which imigrated into Slovenian

Key words: migration, nurse, education, Slovenian society, inculturation, nursing.

Migrations and relocations are a complex global phenomenon faced by all

Migrations –some characteristics of XXI century

Theoretical speculations about the causes of migration most commonly

political and everyday strategies of migrants. However, Anthias9 pointed out

Education, women, health care and migration

Carling11 notes that in recent decades we have witnessed a growing num-

The migration of employees in health care has become a characteristic of

circumstances have changed both in the economic field (restructuring of the

Nurses and integration

Integration is understood as “a dynamic and two-way process of adjust-

Purpose and objectives of the research

The assumption of nurses-migrant women as being active social players in

Research method and technique

We hypothesized that analysis of the experience from practical nurses can

We conducted 30 in-depth individual guided interviews with nurses. The

Description of the measurement instrument

With in-depth interviews we collected the following information: general

Results and interpretation

20 are convinced that immigrants in Slovenia are a social problem that

Analysis of the verified research hypotheses

H2: by which we assumed that the majority estimate relationships in their

encies, overlaps or inconsistencies competence, the regulation of immigra-

Based on the analysis of the empirical material and comparing stories of

Anthias, Floya. Metaphors of Home: Gendering New Migrations to Southern

Kofman, Eleanore.The Invisibility of Skilled Female Migrantsand Gender Re-

Dragana Vilić1 Original scientific paper

Causes and consequences of demographic processes

For the functioning and development of society the great significance

Demographic phenomena and processes are prerequisite (a complex,

Table 1. The rapid global population growth

1650 – 1750. 0,29 239

veloping countries there was a reduction in mortality, by downloading the

The decline in the birth rate and fertility

The function that provides birth is influenced by various socio-economic

With industrialization in western European countries and the United

nomic processes, as well as demographic changes. It indicates the number of

Source: European Commission eurostat, Fertility statistics, Total fertility rate,

The causes of the fall of natality and fertility

Changes in birth and fertility rates can be linked to a number of factors:

The decline in mortality

The negative component of natural population growth is mortality.31 Al-

The increase of the old population

Source: European Commission eurostat, Population structure and ageing, Popu-

independence and personal development.”40 However, it is not uncommon

Changes related to marriage

In all European countries in previous decades is shown a decrease in the

The frequency of celibacy

Also, in modern society we can see an increase in the number of those