CHAPTER

Combustion in SI and
CI Engines
7

Section - I : Combustion in S.I. Engines

7.1 Combustion Related Concepts and Definitions : (GTU - May 2011)

 The internal combustion engines derive their energy in the form of heat by combustion
of homogeneous mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
 An enormous amount of research has been carried out, both theoretical and
experimental, regarding the burning of this homogeneous mixture, but in actual practice the
mixture inside the cylinder is never homogeneous.
 The reasons for such existent of heterogeneous mixtures in the cylinder may be non-
uniform distribution of fuel and air in the combustion chamber or due to the dilution of
mixture by the left over residual (burnt) gases in the clearance space of the cylinder of its
previous stroke or for other reasons.
 The combustion problem of such mixtures is quite complex and intricate.
 However, the researches carried out in case of combustion of homogeneous mixtures
in spherical bomb by igniting the fuel by a spark at a point have shown that there is a
development of a flamedefined as gas rendered luminous by liberation of chemical energy,
which starts from the point of ignition and spreads continuously in outward direction.
 If the flame travels from the point of ignition upto the end of combustion chamber
without any change in speed and shape, thecombustion is said to be normal.
 If the mixture of fuel and air ignites prior to reaching the flame front, this phenomenon
of combustion is called auto-ignition.
 The temperature at which the fuel will ignite itself without a flame is called self ignition
temperature (S.I.T.).
 The auto-ignition of fuel is affected by various factors like density of charge (mixture
of fuel and air); its temperature and pressure, turbulence and the air-fuel ratio.
 In case of normal combustion the forward boundary of reaction zone of a flame is
called flame front. It is defined as the surface or area between the luminous region and the
dark region of the unburned charge.
  The velocity of flame by which it moves in space is called spatial velocity which
depends upon the shape and size of the combustion chamber.
 It has two components viz. transformation velocity and gas velocity.
 Former is defined as the relative velocity of burned gases with which the flame front
moves from burned to unburned gases and it is the velocity by which the unburned gases
approach the burning zone.
 The combustion is defined as the rapid and high temperature oxidation of fuel with
liberation of heat energy.
 The main constituents of most fuels are carbon (C) and hydrogen (H2) and their burning
involves the rapid oxidation of C to CO or CO2 and of H2 to H2O. Usually the combustion
processes take place in gaseous phase.
 The requirement for initiating a combustion process are the presence of a
combustible mixture of air and fuel, a means for initiating the combustion, the formation of
a flame and its propagation across the combustion chamber.
7.2 A Brief on Mechanism of Combustion :
 The term mechanism of combustion refers to reaction by which the fuel is transformed
chemically to combustion products e.g. consider the combustion of octane (C8 H18) in
presence of air,
C8 H18 + 12.5 O2 + 12.5  3.76 N2  8 CO2 + 9 H2 O + 12.5  3.76 N2
 There are various theories which have been proposed for combustion of fuel.
 According to one of the theory, if above reaction is to take place in one step, it is
necessary that molecule of octane fuel to collide with 12.5. molecules of oxygen.
 But, from theory of probability it has been shown that the probability of one molecule
colliding with more than three molecules is negligible. Hence, any complex reaction
involving more molecules must occur as a series or chain reaction.
 Another widely accepted theory of combustion is known as chain reaction theory.
 According to this theory, a self sustaining chemical process consists of different
reactions in which intermediate products are formed in one step and these are destroyed in a
succeeding step.
 The intermediate products formed are called chain carriers which may be free atoms
like (H or O), may be free radicals like hydroxyl (OH) and aldehydes (CHO) or organic
compounds like formaldehyde (HCHO). A chain action consists of three phases, namely
(i)Initiation phase(ii)Propagation phase
(iii)Termination phase.
 During its initiation phase the chain carriers are formed as follows :
H2  2H
O2  2O
H2O  OH + H
Above reactions may take place either due to molecular collisions or thermal dissociation
or excitation from an electric spark.
 During propagation phase the combustion of fuel takes place with propagation of flame
front and release of heat energy. Simultaneously, during the period the chain branching
reaction take place e.g.
OH + H2  H2O + H
H + O2  OH + O
O + H2  OH + H
 It could be seen that one (OH) group is destroyed by combining with H2 but two new
chain carriers are formed which may start their own chain reactions and the reaction process
may accelerate at explosive velocity.
 During the termination phase the chain breaking reactions take place by absorbing the
chain carriers e.g. cold combustion chamber absorbs chain carriers to form soot on
combustion walls.
 The experimental results have shown that at low temperature and pressures the
formation of chain carriers are very slow with negligible chain branching reactions.
 At temperatures about 400C, the rate of reaction is high because the chain branching
reactions become prominent.
 Therefore we conclude that the combustion reactions depends upon :
(i)Rate of formation of chain carriers.
(ii)Rate of destruction of chain carriers.
(iii)Temperature, pressure and density of the explosive mixtures.
 Another accepted theory of combustion is known as hydroxylation theory which is
based on kinetic theory of gases.
 It suggests that the initial combustion of a hydrocarbon molecule with oxygen results
into formation of alcohols which in turn reacts with more oxygen to form an aldehyde.
 These aldehydes may either breakdown in CO and H2 or may completely burn into
CO2 and H2O in a chain reaction.
7.3 Combustion Stages in S.I. Engines : (GTU - May 2011, Dec. 2011, Dec. 2012, May 2014,
Dec. 2014)
 In case of spark ignition engines, the combustible mixture of fuel and air is supplied in
a desired ratio with the help of carburettor and the combustion process is initiated with the
help of a very high intensity spark provided by a spark plug few degrees before the end of
compression stroke.
  This spark burns the few molecules of mixture in the vicinity of spark gap and initiates
the combustion process by transfer of heat to molecules in neighbourhood.
 Once a flame is created, the advancement of this flame into the unburned mixture will
depend upon the rate of heat transfer between the flame and surrounding envelope of
unburned mixture, temperature and pressure.
 Though the mechanism of flame propagation is unknown but the presence of flame
itself is the evidence of chemical reaction between the fuel and air.
 To study the combustion phenomenon of these engines the experiments were carried
out by Recardo using a quartz cylinder and employing high speed photography.

Fig. 7.3.1 : Combustion stages in S.I. Engines

 The results are shown on pressure (p) and crank angle () diagram in Fig. 7.3.1.
In Fig. 7.3.1 curve ABMN represents the motoring curve i.e. when the engine is not firing
and ABCD represents the actual combustion curve.
 Point A represents the point of ignition where the spark is supplied by a spark plug.
 The crank angle before T.D.C. at the instant spark is given is calledangle of spark
advance.

Various stages of combustion :

Based on the experimental results the combustion in S.I. engines takes place in three stages as
follows :
1.Period of ignition lag or preparation phase
2.Flame propagation phase
3.After burning or flame termination phase.
1.Period of ignition lag or preparation phase :
  The experimental results have shown that there is a certain interval of time
between the instant of spark is given at point A and the instant the first tiny flame
reappears at point B which corresponds to the point where there is a noticeable rise in
cylinder pressure due to combustion.
 This time interval corresponds to period AB and this period is called ignition
lag or ignition delay period.
 The angle turned by the crank between the points A and B is called ignition
delay angle.
 Ignition lag represents the period of preflame reactions in which the chain
carriers are formed as explained in the chain reaction theory of combustion.
 The ignition lag depends upon the molecular structure of fuel, temperature,
pressure, density, air-fuel ratio and the proportion of residual gases in the mixture.
2.Flame propagation phase :

 Once the self sustaining flame appears at point B, the flame travels outwards
and burns the fuel in layers.
 Initially the rate of burning of fuel and flame speeds are low with small rate of
pressure rise.
 However as the combustion proceeds, the pressure and temperature keeps on
rising with heat energy release which is transferred from burned to unburned charge,
the flame propagates across the combustion chamber at high speeds. (almost at
constant speed) in the range of (15-35) m/s.
 It is difficult to distinguish between these two phases of combustion i.e. the
phase of ignition lag and flame propagation phase. However, the start of second phase
is considered when an appreciable pressure rise can be seen on (p - ) diagram at
point B and the second phase ends when the peak pressure is attained in the cylinder
i.e. at point C.
 The slope of curve BC represents the rate of pressure rise.
 It should be noted that the rate of heat transfer to cylinder walls is low at the
beginning of this phase since only the small part of the burning mixture comes in
contact with the cylinder walls.
 The rate of heat energy released during combustion depends on the intensity of
turbulence and the air-fuel ratio.
3.After burning or flame termination phase :
 Actually the combustion is not completed at point C though it represents the
completion of flame travel.
  It is due to the fact the burning continues due to left over fuel and the
reassociation of dissociated gases existing in the combustion chamber.
 This combustion beyond point C continues during the expansion stroke and it
is called as after burning representing the third stage of combustion upto point D.
 The flame velocity decreases during this phase of combustion.
 The effects of engine variables on ignition lag and flame propagation are being
discussed below.
7.4 Effect of Engine Variables on Ignition Lag : (GTU - Dec. 2011, Dec. 2012, Dec. 2014)
The various engine variables which affect the ignition lag are as follows :
(i)Pressure and temperature :
 At high pressures the molecules are nearer and their rate of collisions increases.
It helps in forming the chain carriers and reduces the ignition lag.
 The increased temperatures increases the kinetic energy of molecules which
tend to increase the rate of collisions and also the mobility of reaction.
 Therefore ignition lag reduces with increased temperatures. The effect of
pressure and temperature on ignition lag is shown in Fig. 7.4.1.
(ii)Compression ratio :

 Higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the working
substance.
 Therefore, the effect of increased compression ratio is similar to increased
pressure and temperature as discussed above i.e. increased compression ratio decreases
the ignition lag.
 (iii)Mixture strength :

It is observed that the ignition lag is minimum for about 10% rich mixtures as shown in Fig. 7.4.2.
(iv)Residual gases :

 The residual gases in the combustion chamber dilutes the mixture charge,
consequently increases the ignition lag.
 Therefore, higher the amount of residual gases in proportion to fresh charge,
higher will be the period of ignition lag.
(v)Nature of fuel :

 The ignition lag depends on the chemical nature of the fuel.

 It is found that the fuels with higher self ignition temperatures have
comparatively higher period of ignition lag.
(vi)Speed :

 It has no effect in terms of time period but it shows in terms of crank angle
turned.
 Therefore with higher speeds the ignition advance should be increased.
(vii)Electrode gap :

 The air gap between the electrodes of a spark plug is important from the point
of establishment of nucleus of flame.
  If the electrode gap is too small, quenching of the flame nucleus may occur and
the range of working with range of air-fuel ratio is reduced.

Fig. 7.4.3 : Effect of electrode gap on air-fuel ratios

 It is further affected by compression ratio, it is seen that the electrode gap
required reduces with the increased compression ratios.
 For a compression ratio of 7 or higher a gap of 0.625 mm. is generally found
satisfactory. For Fig. 7.4.3 gives the required air-fuel ratio for stable flame as function
of electrode gap and compression ratio.
 It is found that the voltage required at the spark plug electrode to produce spark
is found to decrease with increase in fuel-air ratio and with decrease in compression
ratio and the load on the engine.
7.5 Effect of Engine Variables on Flame Propagation : (GTU - May 2015, Dec. 2015)
 Understanding the effect of engine variables on speed of flame propagation has a large
bearing on smooth or abnormal operation of the engine. These factors are being discussed
below :

(i)Compression ratio :

 Higher compression ratios results in high density of the mixture with higher
pressures and temperatures.
 These factors increase the number of collisions of molecules and the rate of heat
transfer, therefore, higher compression ratios will increase the flame speeds.

(ii)Intake or suction pressure :

It is similar to case of increased compression ratio, increase in intake pressure increases the flame
speeds.

(iii)Intake temperature :

Higher the intake temperature, higher is the flame speed.

(iv)Air-fuel ratio :

 Chemically weak mixtures will give low temperatures because of lesser

chemical energy released.
 It reduces the rate of heat transfer and results into low flame speeds.
 On the other hand the rich mixture will not have sufficient oxygen to burn due
to which carbon is burnt to CO instead of CO2 with less heat energy release, again the
flame speeds are low.
 Therefore the correct or stoichiometric mixture will result into high flame
speeds.
 However, due to dilution of fresh charge by the residual gases, in practice,
slightly rich mixtures are needed to give high flame speeds.

(v)Engine load :

With the increased loads on the engine, the cycle pressure also increases, hence the flame speed
increases.

(vi)Turbulence :

 The flame speeds are low in non-turbulent mixtures.

 Due to turbulence the relative motion between the burned and unburned charge
increases and it intensifies the rate of heat transfer between them.
 It results into higher flame speeds.
  The extent of turbulence present in the cylinder depends upon the speed of the
engine and the geometry of the cylinder head and piston.

(vii)Engine speed :

 The piston speed is proportional to engine speed. Since the inlet velocity of air
is proportional to piston speed, it follows that the air velocity at inlet will increase with
increase in engine speed.
 High velocity of incoming air causes the formation of small vortices and these
are believed to persist during compression and combustion processes.
 These vortices increases the rate of heat transfer, hence, increases the flame
speeds.
 It is found that the flame speeds are directly proportional to engine speed. If the
engine speed is doubled, the time required by the flame to traverse across the
combustion chamber will be halved.
 Since the engine speed is doubled and time required by flame to travel is halved,
it follows that the crank angle (  N l) required for the flame propagation will
nearly remain the same.

(viii)Engine size :

 Generally the engines of similar design run at the same piston speed. It follows
that the smaller size engine will run at higher speed compared to larger engine, the
proportion of their engine speeds being equal to proportion of their sizes.
 Since the piston velocity is kept same for similar engines, it would give the same
intake air velocity, degree of turbulence and flame speed irrespective of their sizes.
 Consider two similar engines, one engine being double the size of other engine.
The distance required to be travelled by the flame in case of smaller engine would be
half that of the larger engines and the flame speed is same for both the engines.
 It follows that the time required for flame travel for larger engine will be twice
that of smaller engine.
 Since the smaller engine would run at twice the speed of larger engine, the time
of flame propagation in terms of crank angle turned would be same in both the engines.
 Therefore we conclude that the crank angles turned by the similar engines for
flame travel across the combustion chamber will nearly be same irrespective of their
engine sizes.
7.6 Rate of Pressure Rise : (GTU - May 2011, May 2013)
 The rate of pressure during the combustion process has a considerable influence on the
peak pressures obtained and consequently it affects the power output and the smooth running
of the engine.
  The rate of pressure rise depends on the rate at which the mass of mixture burns in the
cylinder and the ignition timing.
 Fig. 7.6.1 shows the pressure-crank angle diagram for three different combustion rates.
Curve-1 represents the high rate of combustion starting at point C with its peak pressure
occurring closer to top dead centre.
 Such pressures exert a larger force on the piston during its almost the entire expansion
stroke, hence, results into high power output of the engine with high rate of heat losses.
 The high rate of pressure rise causes rough running of the engine due to vibrations and
jerks produced on the crankshaft.
 However, in case the rate of pressure rise is very high, it may create the undesirable
situation of abnormal combustion calleddetonation (Refer next section 7.7).
 Curves II and III represent the cases of normal and low rates of combustion
respectively.
 In these cases it is necessary to initiate the combustion earlier in the compression stroke
since these cases require longer time for combustion of mixture compared to the case of high
rate of combustion. In these cases the power produced is reduced since the expansion work
is reduced as it is evident from Fig. 7.6.1.

Fig. 7.6.1 : Different rates of combustion

Conclusions :

 From the above discussion, it is evident that high rates of combustion, though develops
high output, it may cause the undesirable condition of detonation.
  In view of this, the engines are so designed and operated in such a manner that
approximately one-half of the total pressure rise takes place by the time piston reaches at
TDC.
 It results into peak pressures and temperatures reaching very close to the beginning of
expansion stroke, approximately 10 after TDC.
 It ensures smooth running of the engine with a very small power loss due to high rates
of heat transfer and expansion work.
7.7 Theory of Detonation and Knock : (GTU - May 2013)
 Self ignition temperature (S.I.T.) was defined as the temperature at which the fuel
will self ignite without the flame front reaching to it. This process of ignition of fuel is
called auto-ignition.
 Experimental results have shown that the auto-ignition of the fuel does not occur
simultaneously as soon as it reaches to its self ignition temperature or higher temperatures.
 There is a time lag between the instant the mixture attains the temperatures equal to or
higher than S.I.T. and the instant the fuel auto-ignites.
 This time interval is called delay period which is affected by the density of charge, the
air-fuel ratio, temperature and pressure.
 It is difficult to separate these factors, however, higher the pressures and temperatures
of the charge lesser is the delay period and it would assist in auto-ignition of fuel.
 The process of auto-ignition may follow several paths. In case the flame is propagated
from the point of ignition in outward direction at normal velocity of propagation of (10– 35)
m/s.
 In such a case, the combustion and expansion of each layer of mixture occurs at a
uniform rate and more or less in unison with uniform pressure rise throughout the combustion
chamber, though the pressure rise is rapid. It refers to normal combustion.
 However, in some cases a part of the fuel may auto-ignite with rapid release of energy
which is much more than the normal combustion because of multiple flame fronts. This rapid
release of energy may cause two types of vibrations as follows :
(i)In case a large amount of mixture auto-ignites, it will give rise to a very rapid rise in pressure
through the combustion chamber.
 If the pressure equalization takes place as soon as the pressure rise
occurs, the gases will give a direct blow on the engine structure.
 Ears will detect a thudding sound from this impact and as a result give
rise to free vibrations of engine parts. It is called knock.
(ii)The localised pressure difference arising due to instantaneous explosion of a part of mixture
will cause high pressure waves to travel across the combustion chamber at sound velocity
if the equalisation of pressure in combustion chamber is not fast enough.
  These pressure waves travelling across the chamber at very high velocity
will be reflected back and forth several times by the cylinder walls (as echo in
room).
 These gas vibrations can force the walls of the chamber to vibrate at the
same frequency as gas. An audible sound or ping may be evident. It is
called detonation.
 It is very difficult to separate knock and detonation.
7.8 Detonation in S.I. Engines : (GTU - May 2012, May 2013, Dec. 2013, May 2014, Dec. 2015)
 In an S.I. engine once the spark is supplied at the spark plug and a flame nucleus is
formed, the flame travels across the combustion chamber in an orderly manner.
 The pressure keeps on increasing continuously and uniformly throughout the
combustion chamber.
 The peak pressures are normally attained when the flame reaches far side of the
combustion chamber.
 Let us focus our attention on last part of the charge called end gas in the combustion
chamber as shown in Fig. 7.8.1.
 The flame originating at point A travels across the combustion chamber upto point E.
The end part of the gas is represented by DED. This end gas has experienced rapid
compression during the compression stroke and later on by advancing flame front. Therefore
the pressure, temperature and density of end part of the gas is high.
 If the combustion process is normal the pressure of end gas will almost be equal to peak
pressure when the flame front is about to reach to this end gas.
 Fig. 7.8.1 : Combustion with detonation in S.I. engine
 If the ignition lag or ignition delay of the unburned end gas is consumed before
the flame front reaches it, the end part of the charge will auto-ignite because it is at much
higher temperature than its self ignition temperature.
 This auto-ignition of end gas is completed in almost negligible time and causes a violent
pressure rise due to extremely high rate of liberation of chemical energy and almost at
constant volume.
 This rise in pressure of end gas is almost (3-4) times the anticipated peak pressures with
normal combustion. This large pressure differential caused by the auto-ignition of end gas
results into severe pressure waves travelling across the combustion chamber at very fast
speed.
 The pressure wave is reflected back and forth several times by the cylinder walls and
sets the engine parts vibrating, giving rise to a pinging or ringing sound and the detonation
is said to occur.
We conclude that detonation will take place in case of S.I. engines if,
(a)End part of the charge reaches to its self ignition temperature and its delay period is over.
(b)The flame does not reach the end part of the charge.
7.9 Effects of Detonation in S.I. Engines : (GTU - May 2013, May 2014)
Following are the harmful effects of detonation :
1.Mechanical failure : High rate of pressure rise and the severe vibrations of engine parts may lead
to their mechanical failure like erosion of piston crown, pitting of cylinder head and valves etc.
2.Local melting of piston and rings : Because of rapid release of heat energy in a very short interval
of time, the heat transfer rates increase and give rise to high temperature gases compared to
normal combustion. These high temperature gases may cause local melting of piston and rings.
3.Overheating of spark plug : Due to violent gas vibrations, the hot gases flow repeatedly in and
out of spark plug cavity and increases its temperature to a great extent. It may alter the electrical
characteristics of spark plug and render it useless.
4.Noise and roughness : The gas vibrations in the cylinder causes the engine parts to vibrate and the
engine runs rough because of these vibratory motion.
5.Power and efficiency : Due to high rate of heat transfer in case of detonating engine the power
output and its thermal efficiency decreases.
6.Pre-ignition : Due to high rate of heat transfer and increased temperature of hot gases, it may cause
local heating at certain spots in the combustion chamber and especially the spark plug may
become red hot. In such a case it will act as ignition source to ignite the mixture of fuel and air
before the supply of spark, thus causing pre-ignition. This pre-ignition may lead to auto-
ignition and detonation of the engine causing severe damage to the engine before the pre-
ignition is detected.
 Pre-ignition can be detected by shutting off the ignition. If the engine continues firing, it
is possible that the engine is subjected to pre-ignition.
7.9.1 Surface Ignition : (GTU - May 2014)
 Surface ignition relates to the combustion detonation in S.I. engines caused by factors
other than the spark. Hot surfaces are formed on the spark plug electrode, hot carbon particles
deposited on the surface of combustion chamber or hot exhaust valve head etc. These hot
spots/surfaces may initiate combustion without a spark.
 Surface ignition may occur before pre-ignition or after the normal ignition. It is not
necessary that the surface ignition will cause detonation.
 Following are the effects of surface ignition :
(a)Run-on surface ignition relates to engine which keeps on firing even if the ignition system
is shut –off.
(b)Run away surface ignition relates to continuous firing by the engine because of the very
high hot surface temperature. This may cause server detonation, melting of piston/piston
rings or even the engine may catch fire when the intake valve is open.
(c)Wild ping relates to occasional and sudden knocking of the engine. It may be caused due to
ignition by some fragments of a glowing deposits which breaks away from surface of the
combustion chamber. This occasional wild ping will stop as soon this break away
fragments of hot particle leaves the engine alongwith exhaust gases.
(d)Rumble : Engine is said to rumble if the abnormal pressure rise due to surface ignition
causes detonation, low noise and vibrations of the engine. It may be caused due to
ignition at several hot spots formed on the surface of combustion chamber before or after
the normal spark.
7.10 Effect of Engine Variables on Detonation in S.I. Engines : (GTU - Dec. 2013, Dec. 2015)
It has been seen that the detonation in S.I. engine sets in if the end part of the gas auto-
ignites before the flame front reaches it. The tendency to detonation will be reduced if the fuel
has long ignition lag, high S.I.T. and high flame speeds or reduced time for flame travel.
Therefore the onset of detonation is very dependent on the properties of fuel.
Hence, those engine variables which tend to increase the ignition lag and increase the
flame speeds would tend to reduce the detonation tendency. The factors are :
1.Intake temperature :

 Increased intake temperature reduces the delay period, therefore, increases the
detonation tendency. However, it should be noted that the increased temperatures also
increases the flame speed, thereby, reducing the detonation tendency.
 But, the effect of increase temperature has more pronounced effect on delay
period compared to flame speeds due to which the detonation tendency is increased
with increase in intake temperature.
 2.Intake pressure :

Increased intake pressure increases the density of charge and reduces the delay period but increases
the flame speed. The overall effect is to increase the detonation tendency.
3.Compression ratio :

Increased compression ratio increases both the pressure and temperature and reduces the delay
period, hence, the tendency to detonation increases.
4.Ignition advance :

Advancing the spark timing increases the peak pressures of the cycle and thus reduces the delay
period of end part of the gas in the combustion chamber, hence, tendency to detonate increases.
5.Coolant temperature :

 Raising the coolant temperature will increase the cylinder wall temperature and
reduce the heat transfer rate between gas and cylinder walls.
 Increased temperature of the gases would reduce the delay period and increase
the detonation tendency.
6.Engine load :

 Higher loads on the engine increases the heating of the engine and reduces the
delay period. Therefore the increased loads increases the detonation tendency of the
engine.
 It is for this reason the spark ignition engines are never overloaded.

7.Engine speed :

Increase in engine speed increases the turbulence in the combustion chamber thereby increasing the
flame speeds while the effect on the delay period is negligible. Due to this the increased speed
of the engine reduces the detonation tendency.

8.Air-fuel ratio :

 It has been mentioned earlier that about 10% rich mixtures have the minimum
delay period and the flame speeds are high.
 But, it is observed that the effect of slightly rich mixtures on delay period is
more dominant compared to flame speeds due to which the detonation tendency
increases.

9.Engine size :

 Similar engines of various sizes have the delay period nearly the same.
However, in case of larger sized engines the flame has to travel longer distance of
combustion space compared to smaller sized engines.
  Therefore, the larger engines have more tendency to detonate compared to
smaller engines.

10.Combustion chamber design :

 In general, more the compact combustion chambers, shorter will be flame travel
and combustion time, hence, it will give better anti-knock characteristics.
 Also, if the combustion chamber design is such that it promotes turbulence then
the flame speed will increase which would reduce the tendency to detonate.
 For above reasons the combustion chamber are designed nearer to spherical
shape to reduce the distance of flame travel and shaped in such a way to promote
turbulence

11.Location of spark plug :

In case the spark plug is located centrally in the combustion chamber, it reduces the length of flame
travel, hence, reduces the tendency to detonate. The flame travel can also be reduced by using
two or more spark plugs.

12.Type of fuel :

 The fuels with lower self ignition temperature or with its greater preflame
reactions will have more tendency to detonate.
 Fuels of paraffin series have maximum tendency to detonate and of aromatic
series have minimum tendency to detonate.
 The naphthalene series fuels come in between the two.
Table 7.10.1 gives the general summary of engine variables affecting the detonation in
S.I. engines.
Table 7.10.1 : Effect of engine variables on detonation in S.I. engines
 7.11 Objectives of Combustion Chamber Design for S.I. Engines : (GTU - Dec. 2011, Dec.
2012, Dec. 2013, May 2014)
A combustion chamber needs to be designed to meet the general objectives of developing
high power output and high thermal efficiency with smooth running of engine and minimum
octane number requirement of fuel. In order to achieve these objectives, following factors are
to be kept in mind while designing the combustion chambers of S.I. engines.
1.The length of flame travel from the spark plug to the farthest point should be kept minimum to
avoid detonation problem.
It involves the problem of location of spark plug and shape of combustion chamber. Usually the spark
plugs are located at the central location or in some cases dual spark plugs are used.
Also, the shape of combustion chambers should be as far as possible spherical to reduce the length
of flame travel.
2.To achieve high speed of flame propagation, an adequate amount of turbulence also ensures more
homogeneous mixture by scouring away the layer of stagnant gas clinging to the chamber
walls. However, excessive turbulence should be avoided since it increases the heat transfer
losses to cylinder walls and affects the thermal efficiency of the engine.
3.It should have small surface to volume ratio to minimise heat losses. A hemispherical
shape provides minimum surface to volume ratio.
4.It should provide large area to the inlet and exhaust valves with ample clearance around the valve
head. It reduces the pressure drop across the valves, therefore, improves the volumetric
efficiency. Use of sleeve valves are said to have low tendency to detonate compared to poppet
valves due to absence of any high temperature area.
5.Exhaust valves should not be located near the end gas location of combustion chamber to reduce
the possibility of detonation since these valves are hottest spot in the combustion chamber.
6.The combustion chambers should be so designed that it can burn largest mass of the charge as soon
as the ignition occurs with progressive reduction in the mass of charge burned towards the end
of combustion.
7.Exhaust valve head is the hottest region of combustion chamber. It should be cooled by water jacket
or by other means to reduce the possibility of detonation.
8.Octane number requirement of fuel increases with bore at the same piston speed when other factor
remaining the same. Combustion time and cylinder inner surface temperature also increase
with bore. For this reason the S.I. engine cylinder diameters are usually limited to 100 mm.
9.Thickness of cylinder walls should be uniform to avoid non-uniform expansion.
7.12 Different Types of Combustion Chambers for S.I. Engines in Use :
Few important types of S.I. combustion chambers used are being discussed below :
7.12.1 T-Head Combustion Chamber :
This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.12.1. It was used by Ford in 1908
but it is obsolete today. It has the followingdisadvantages :
(i)It needs two cam shafts to operate each valve separately.
(ii)Long flame travel, therefore, it has more tendency to detonate. Compression ratios were limited
to 5 : 1.
(iii)Has high surface-volume ratio.

Fig. 7.12.1 : T-head combustion chambers

7.12.2 L-Head or Side Valve Combustion Chamber :

 Original form of L-head combustion chambers used upto 1930 is shown in Fig. 7.12.2.
The top surface of the combustion chamber is in the form of a flat slab. Its intake valve and
exhaust valve are kept side by side with spark plug location above the valves. Length of the
combustion chamber covers the entire piston and valve assembly.

Fig. 7.12.2 : L-head combustion chamber

Advantages of L-head combustion chamber :

(i)Easy to cast.
(ii)Easy to carry out maintenance.
(iii)Easy to lubricate the valve mechanism.
(iv)Cylinder head can easily be removed, therefore, decarbonizing can be carried out without
disturbing the valve gear mechanism.

Disadvantages of L-head combustion chamber :

(i)There is a loss of velocity of intake air since it has to take two right angle turns before reaching
the cylinder. It results into poor turbulence.
(ii)Distance to be travelled by flame is more and it is super imposed by poor turbulence, therefore,
tendency to detonation is more. Compression ratio is limited to 4 : 1.
(iii)Mixing of air-fuel is unsatisfactory.
(iv)It has low power and low thermal efficiency.
7.12.3 Recardo Turbulent Combustion Chamber :
 The design of combustion chamber as suggested by Recardo in the year 1919 is shown
in Fig. 7.12.3. However, modifications have been carried out in the design given at later
stages.
 The Recardo combustion chamber overcomes the disadvantages experienced in the L-
head combustion chamber.
 Recardo combustion chamber provides a turbulent head. The salient features of this
combustion chamber are :
 Fig. 7.12.3 : Recardo turbulent combustion chamber

1.Combustion chamber provides high turbulence. Because at top dead centre position only a
thin layer of charge exists between the piston crown and combustion chamber, due to this
the whole charge is pushed back in the combustion chamber during the compression
stroke, therefore, it provides additional turbulence.
2.Combustion chamber ensures a more homogeneous mixture of fuel and air by scouring away
the layer of stagnant gas clinging to the chamber walls.
3.The piston comes in closed contact with the combustion chamber head in this design, it
reduces the effective length of flame travel. Hence, tendency to detonation is reduced.
4.Because of contact of piston with chamber the mass of end gas is negligible. Therefore impact
of detonation will be negligible even if detonation occurs.
5.The detonation tendency is further reduced since the end gas is a thin layer and it is cooled
by comparatively cooler cylinder head.
6.Spark plug is centrally located in the combustion chamber, the length of flame travel is
reduced. It results into reduced tendency to detonate.
7.13 Modern S.I. Engine Combustion Chambers :
 After the period of 1950 the combustion chambers used are either over head valve, also
called as I-head, combustion chambers or the F-head combustion chambers. Overhead
combustion chambers were first introduced in Ambassador Car in the year 1959.
 The overhead and F-combustion chamber designs are based on principles of Recardo
combustion chamber with certain modifications.
The advantages of overhead valve combustion chambers on L-head combustion
chambers are as follows :
1.Use of large valves or valve lifts and reduced passage ways provides better breathing of the
engine, it increases volumetric efficiency of the engine with reduced pumping losses.
2.It gives less tendency to detonate due to reduced flame travel.
3.Less force on head bolts and reduced possibility of leakage.
4.Exhaust valve is incorporated in the combustion chamber head instead of cylinder block.
Therefore, heat failures limited to head only.
5.Uses low surface-volume ratio, it reduces the heat losses and increases power output and
efficiency.
Few of the important combustion chambers of overhead valve type and F-head type are
described below.
7.13.1 Bath Tub Combustion Chamber :
 This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.13.1. It is simple and easy to cast.
Both valves are mounted on the head with spark plug on one side of the combustion chamber.
 The charge at the end of compression stroke is pushed into the combustion space known
as squish which provides additional turbulence.
 Since the valves are provided in a single row in the head, it reduces the size of the
valves.
 Because of this the disadvantage of this design is that it reduces the breathing capacity
of the engine with increased pumping losses.
 To overcome this difficulty, the modern engine design use relatively larger piston
diameters compared to stroke length.

Fig. 7.13.1 : Bath tub combustion chamber

7.13.2 Rover Head Combustion Chamber :

 Fig. 7.13.2 shows the Roverhead combustion chamber. This design possess all
requirements of a good combustion chamber.
 The shape of combustion chamber approximates the hemispherical shape giving lesser
surface to volume ratio, hence, better power output and efficiency.
 Spark plug is located at the centre which reduces the length of flame travel.
 Thin layer of end charge between piston and cylinder is kept cool by relatively cooler
intake valve and the piston and the mass of this charge is negligible. It reduces the tendency
to detonate, therefore, engine can employ higher compression ratio.
 Fig. 7.13.2 : Rover head combustion chamber

The disadvantages of this combustion chamber are :

(i)Cylinder head cannot be removed without disturbing the valve gear mechanism.
(ii)It has complicated valve mechanism.
(iii)Shape of piston at its crown is peculiar for this design.
7.13.3 Wedge Head Combustion Chamber :
 This type of combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.13.3. Valves are placed in inclined
position.
 The end gas is kept cool by the intake valve and relatively cooler piston.
 Spark plug is approximately kept at the centre and it reduces the flame travel. This type
of combustion chamber has all the advantages listed in section 7.11.

Fig. 7.13.3 : Wedge head combustion chamber

7.13.4 F-Head Combustion Chamber :

 Fig. 7.13.4 shows the combustion chamber similar to combustion chamber used by
Willy's Jeep in India. This combustion chamber is also wedge shaped but similar in design
to Rover head chamber.
 This combustion chamber has all the advantages of modern combustion chambers listed
above. The inlet valve is kept in vertical position with large intake area to increase breathing
of air and reduce the pumping losses.
  The air during compression stroke creates turbulence due to back flow of air into the
chamber.
 Additional turbulence is created by the left hand portion of the piston head when at
TDC by squish action.

Fig. 7.13.4 : F-head combustion chamber

 The spark plug is inclined and so located that it reduces the flame travel, hence, the
detonation tendency.
7.13.5 Combustion Chamber for Jaguar Engine :
 Fig. 7.13.5 shows the combustion chamber shape used for Jaguar engine.
 It utilises the principle that the hemispherical shape gives the minimum surface to
volume ratio.
 Such a concept is useful to reduce the head losses thereby increasing the output power
and thermal efficiency of the engine.
 The combustion chamber is designed hemispherical shape with inlet and exhaust valves
placed on the sides of the head.
 Valves are operated in inclined position.

Fig. 7.13.5 : Combustion chamber to Jaguar engine

 Hemispherical shape used not only reduces the heat transfer losses by virtue of low
surface to volume ratio, it also permits to use the larger diameter valves, therefore, has higher
volumetric efficiency.
  The crown of piston is so shaped to produce required turbulence, therefore, the flame
speeds are increased, hence, reduces the tendency to detonate.
 Spark plug is located centrally which reduces the flame travel and again it helps in
preventing detonation.

Section II : Combustion in C.I. Engines

7.14 Combustion Stages in C.I. Engines : (GTU - May 2011, May 2013, May 2014)
 In case of compression ignition engines the air alone is compressed and raised to high
pressure and temperatures in the compression stroke by using high compression ratios in the
range of (12-20).
 The temperature of air attained is far above the self ignition temperature of the diesel
fuel used.

Fig. 7.14.1 : Combustion stages in C.I. Engines

 The fuel is injected by a fuel pump into the combustion chamber by one or more jets
under very high pressures of about 120-210 bar pressures at about (20 – 35)
before TDC. The point A represents the time at which the fuel injection starts on (p – )
diagram shown in Fig. 7.14.1. Combustion takes place in four stages which are as
follows :
1.First stage (Ignition delay period) :

 The fuel leaves the nozzles initially in the form of a jet, and later on, it
disintegrates into a core of fuel surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel particles
due to atomization, vaporization and mixing with hot air.
 During vaporization process of fuel it receives its latent heat from surrounding
air and this causes a slight drop in pressure in the cylinder as shown by curve AB.
 As soon as the vaporization is over, the preflame reactions of the mixture start.
During such chemical reactions the energy is released at slow rate and the pressure
starts building up.
 Therefore, the preflame reactions first start slowly and then accelerates until the
ignition of fuel takes place. It corresponds to point C on diagram.
 The time interval between the start of fuel injection and commencement of
combustion is called the delay period.
The delay period can be divided into two parts as follows :
(a)Physical delay :

This represents the time interval from the time of injection of fuel to its attainment of self
ignition temperature during which the fuel is atomized, vaporized and mixed with air.
(b)Chemical delay :

o After physical delay period is over, the time interval upto the time the
fuel auto-ignites and flame appears is called chemical delay.
o During this period preflame reactions take place. This period
corresponds to ignition lag of S.I. engines.
o In practice, it is very difficult to separate exactly these two delay periods
since the processes involved are very complex.

2.Second stage (Period of uncontrolled combustion) :

 Once the delay period is over the mixture of fuel and air will auto-ignite since
it is above the self ignition temperature.
 The flame appears at one or more locations where concentration of fuel and air
mixture is optimum. This is due to the fact that the mixture present in the combustion
chamber at the time of ignition is extremely heterogeneous unlike the homogeneous
mixture of S.I. engines.
 Once the flame appears the mixture in other regions will either be burnt by
propagating flames or it will auto-ignite because of the heat transfer from the burnt
mixture and high temperatures existing in the combustion chamber.
  The fuel which is accumulated during the delay period is now ready for
combustion and it would burn at an extremely rapid rate causing a steep rise in cylinder
pressure and temperature.
 The rate of pressure rise depends upon the fuel injected and accumulated, which
is directly proportional to the time of injection and the engine speed.
 Higher the delay period, higher would be the rate of pressure rise. During this
period it is difficult to control the amount of fuel burning, for this reason, this period
of rapid combustion is called the period of uncontrolled combustion as represented by
curve CD in Fig. 7.14.1.

3.Third stage (Period of controlled combustion) :

 Once the fuel accumulated during the delay period is burnt in the period of
uncontrolled combustion, the temperature and pressures in the cylinder will be so high
that the further quantity of fuel injected will burn as soon as it leaves the nozzle
provided sufficient oxygen is present in the cylinder.
 Therefore the rate of pressure rise can now be controlled by controlling the rate
of fuel injection. This period of combustion is known as period of controlled
combustionrepresented by curve DE.

4.Fourth state (After burning) :

 Theoretically the combustion is completed at the point the maximum pressure

is attained during the cycle corresponding to point E few degree after TDC.
 However, the burning of fuel continues during its expansion stroke due to
reassociation of dissociated gases and any unburned fuel due to heterogeneous
condition of mixture. This phase of combustion is called after burning.
7.15 Effect of Engine Variables on Delay Period : (GTU - May 2015)

1.Compression ratio :

Increased compression ratio increases the density, pressure and temperature of the charge. Increased
temperatures and pressure reduces the delay period.

2.Inlet pressure (supercharging) :

Increased inlet pressures increases the pressures in the compression stroke and reduces the delay
period.

3.Intake temperature :

Higher intake temperatures will result into high temperatures at the time of fuel injection, therefore,
it will reduce the delay period.

4.Engine speed :
Increased speed will increase the delay period in terms of degrees of crank rotation, since the fuel
pump is driven by the engine through gears. Therefore, during the delay period more fuel will
be accumulated in the cylinder with increased speed and burning of this fuel during the period
of uncontrolled combustion will result into high rate of pressure rise and high temperatures. It
also results into better mixing of fuel and air due to increased turbulence.

5.Jacket water temperature :

Increased jacket water temperature increases the air temperature in the cylinder, hence, reduces the
delay period.

6.Load on engine :

Increased loads on the engine reduces delay period. Since the air-fuel ratio decreases with the
increase in operating temperatures.

7.Injection pressure :

Increased injection pressures will give better atomization of fuel. It generally tends to reduce the
delay period slightly.

8.Injection timing :

If fuel is injected much before TDC the delay period is larger since the pressure and temperatures in
the cylinder are low. It will give extremely high rate of pressure rise during the period of
uncontrolled combustion.
Too late injection will reduce delay period but it would result in poor efficiency of the engine and
the engine will not run smoothly.

9.Engine size :

It has no effect on delay period in terms of time. However, large engines operate at lesser speed,
therefore, delay period in terms of crank angle is smaller. Hence, less fuel enters the cylinder
and the engine will run smooth.

10.Fuels :

Higher the self ignition temperature of the fuel, higher will be the delay period.
7.16 Knock in C.I. Engines (Abnormal Combustion) : (GTU - Dec. 2012, Dec. 2013)
 In case of S.I. engines it was the end part of the gas which was responsible to produce
detonation if delay period and flame speeds are low.
 While in case of C.I. engine it is the first part of the charge which is responsible to
produce knock and rough running of the engine.
 In case of C.I. engines the fuel is injected and its combustion is by way of auto-ignition.
If the delay period of the fuel is long, a large amount of fuel will be injected and accumulated
in the combustion chamber during the delay period.
  During the period of uncontrolled combustion, the fuel accumulated in the combustion
chamber will suddenly be exploded which shall give very high rate of pressure rise with very
high pressures.
 A high rate of pressure rise is equivalent to a sudden increase in load on the engine
structure.
 Instantaneous increased pressure of gases will give a direct blow on engine structure
during the pressure equalisation process.
 A thudding sound will be heard from this impact. This noise is called knock.
 Therefore, it is seen that the knock in C.I. engines occurs if the delay period is longer.
The knocking in C.I. engines may have the same damaging effect as discussed in case of S.I.
engines.

7.16.1 Review of Knocking and Detonation in S.I. and C.I. Engines : (GTU - May 2011, Dec.
2012, May 2014, May 2016)
(a)In S.I. engines, the detonation occurs near the end of combustion, whereas, in the C.I. engines,
knock occurs in the beginning of combustion.
(b)To reduce knocking and detonation, for S.I. engines the delay period should be large, whereas, for
C.I. engine the delay period should be as small as possible.
(c)The engine variables which promote detonation in S.I. engine will reduce knock in C.I. engines.
(d)When the engine is overloaded, the S.I. engine have rough running while C.I. engines run
smoothly.
(e)Detonation to pre-ignition is only possible in S.I. engines since mixture of fuel and air are
compressed. Knocking due to pre-ignition in C.I. engines is not possible since only air is
compressed.
 Table 7.16.1 gives the factors which reduce the detonation and knocking tendency in S.I.
and C.I. engines.
Table 7.16.1 : Factors tending to reduce detonation and knocking in S.I. and C.I. engines

7.17 Objectives of Combustion Chamber Design for C.I. Engines : (GTU - Dec. 2013, May
2014, May 2016)
 The problem of designing the C.I. combustion chambers is of equal importance as
already discussed for the case of S.I. engines, though the requirements of design of chamber
for these two types of engine differ considerably.
 The essential difference of S.I. and C.I. engines is in supply and mixing of air. As we
have seen, in case of S.I. engine the homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is supplied by
carburettor during its suction stroke, then it is compressed and ignited by a spark received
from spark plug.
 The homogeneous mixture is prepared by carburettor. Whereas, in case of C.I. engines
only air is compressed in the cylinder and the fuel is injected under pressure few degrees
before TDC during its compression stroke for an injection period of 20 – 35 of crank
rotation depending upon the speed and power requirements.
 For efficient combustion, it is necessary that the fuel is atomised, vaporized and
properly mixed with air in a very short period to control the rate of pressure rise in second
stage of combustion to avoid knocking problems of the engine.
 Therefore the mixing of fuel and air is of great importance in case of C.I. engine to
obtain the required power, efficiency and short delay period for smooth and noiseless
operation of the engine.
To accomplish this, the main objectives of combustion chamber design are :
1. Fine atomisation of fuel.
2. Proper mixing of fuel and air.
3. Requisite turbulence.
4. Complete burning of fuel so as to obtain peak pressures.
5. Low surface to volume ratio to reduce heat losses and to achieve high thermal efficiency.
6. Short delay period for smooth operation of the engine.
7.18 Air Swirl :
For proper mixing of fuel and air in the combustion chamber the various methods of air
movement are employed called air swirl. Various types of air swirl are being discussed
below :
7.18.1 Induction Swirl : (GTU - Dec. 2011, Dec. 2013)
 In this method the flow of air is directed in desired direction through a port tangential
to the piston or by masking or shrouding the intake valve head or by squish during the
compression stroke. This method is generally employed in case of open or direct type
combustion chambers.
 Fig. 7.18.1(a) illustrates a tangential port method of induction swirl.
 Fig. 7.18.1(b) illustrates the method of producing air swirl by masking or
shrouding one side of the inlet valve, permitting the air flow only around the part of
periphery of the valve.
 The angle of mask used usually varies 90 to 140. The best tangential direction of air
movement can be obtained by turning the valve around its axis.
 Since such a method imposes a restriction on area of flow, it reduces the volumetric
efficiency.
 Fig. 7.18.1(c) illustrates the method of producing air swirl by casting a lip on one side
of the inlet valve.
 Fig. 7.18.1 : Methods of induction swirl

 Though it has been established that the air motion induced by the above method during
suction stroke persist even during the compression stroke but these air movements are not
enough for proper mixing of fuel and air.
 Therefore, it is further augmented by squish method illustrated in Fig. 7.18.1(d).
Squish is the flow of air from periphery to the centre of the cylinder into the combustion
recess by squeezing it out from between the piston and cylinder head towards the end of
compression stroke.
7.18.2 Compression Swirl :
 In this method the air is forced through a tangential passage into a separate swirl
chamber during compression stroke.
 The method is used in swirl combustion chambers.
 The compression swirl method is illustrated in Fig. 7.18.2 During the compression
stroke the air is forced into the chamber and during the expansion or power stroke the burnt
gases pass out to the main combustion chamber through the throat of swirl chamber resulting
into excessive turbulence and better combustion.
 Fig. 7.18.2 : Compression swirl

7.18.3 Combustion Induced Swirl : (GTU - Dec. 2012, Dec. 2013, Dec. 2015)
In this method a small pressure rise is obtained by combustion of fuel and air in a separate
cell and then it is forced through a small hole at high velocity to create swirl turbulence. This
method is employed inprecombustion and air cell combustion chamber designs. These will be
discussed later.
7.19 Classification of Combustion Chambers for C.I. Engines : (GTU - May 2011)
The combustion chambers for C.I. engines are basically two types which are as follows
:
(A) Non-Turbulent or open or Direct injection (D.I.) Combustion Chambers :

This type of combustion chambers utilize the induction air swirl method e.g. all open or
direct injection combustion chambers.
(B) Turbulent or Indirect injection (IDI) combustion chambers :

These types are further classified based on method used for creating air swirl.
(i) Swirl combustion chambers : In this combustion chamber the compression swirl is
employed e.g. Recardo swirl combustion chamber.
(ii) Precombustion chamber : It employs combustion induced swirl.
(iii) Air cell chamber : It also employs the combustion induced swirl e.g. Lanova air cell
chamber.
7.20 Non-Turbulent or Open or Direct Injection (DI) Combustion Chambers : (GTU - Dec.
2011)
 In case of non-turbulent, also called as open or direct injection combustion chambers,
the mixing of fuel and air depends on the induction swirl provided by directing the flow of
air in desired direction through ports or by shrouding the valve head or by squish.
 These chambers are usually formed in the piston. Since the mixing is feeble, the actual
mixing of fuel and air is achieved by injecting fuel in the chamber through a multiorifice
type of nozzle under pressures more than 200 bar.
  At these pressures the fuel in atomised spray form at very high velocities penetrates
into chamber. Spray is so directed that it is evenly distributed over the entire combustion
chamber, therefore, the contact between fuel and air is maintained.
 Various shapes of some open type combustion chambers are shown in Fig. 7.20.1(a) to
(e).
 In case of hemispherical chamber (a), it provides a small squish. However, depth to
diameter ratio can be varied for better performance. But in case of shallow depth
(b) and rectangular type (e) chambers the squish is comparatively lower due to larger
diameter of cavity of the chamber.

Fig. 7.20.1 : Open or Direct Injection (DI) combustion chambers

 The cylindrical chamber (d) provides better squish and the desired level of squish can
be varied by changing the depth to diameter ratio of the cavity. Swirl is produced by
shrouding the inlet valve.
 The truncated cone design (c) of chamber is used by Leyland motors. In such a design
the air swirl is obtained by shrouding the inlet valves and produces powerful squish with air
movement.
Advantages and disadvantages of non-turbulent type of combustion chambers are as
follows :
 Advantages :

1.The heat loss to cylinder walls is small due to presence of less turbulence in the chamber, it
gives ease of starting.
2.It is simple in construction.
3.In case of slow speed engines where injection period is spread over long period of time, ignition
delay assumes less importance. Consequently, less costly fuels with longer delay can be used.
4.Turbulence being less in such chambers they need to be supplied excess air for better utilisation of
fuel, the thermal efficiency is highand approaches air standard efficiency.

Disadvantages :

1.Supply of excess air results into lower maximum temperatures, therefore, power output suffers.
2.Such engines require large engine bore (more than 200 mm) to stroke ratio compared to high speed
engines resulting into higher weight to power ratio.
3.Because of small openings for injecting the fuel, it gives frequentclogging of orifice by
accumulated carbon particles and higher maintenance costs.
4.High injection pressures are needed.
7.21 Turbulent or Indirect Injection (IDI) Combustion Chambers :
 In such combustion chambers the mixing of fuel and air depends on the turbulence
created in the combustion rather than on very high injection pressures.
 Therefore such engines use pintle type of nozzles and fuel injection pressure
requirements are much lower.
 Because of high turbulence created, the heat transfer losses to cylinder walls are
relatively higher and starting of such engines is difficult.
 Such chambers do not require much of excess air as in case of non-turbulent chambers
since the mixing of fuel and air is due to high turbulence of air.
 Less amount of air leads to lower thermal efficiency but higher mean effective pressure
i.e. higher output.
 These chambers are found suitable for variable speed operation because of their
inherent turbulence which readily response for mixing of increased rate of fuel injection.
 Such chambers produce smooth operation of engine because anti-chambers absorb the
shock of peak pressures.
 In turbulent type of combustion chambers, the space is divided into two or more distinct
compartments between which there are restrictions or throats small enough to create pressure
difference between the spaces during combustion process. For this reason these are also
called as “Divided Combustion Chambers�?.
 Some of the turbulent type chambers based on the method of turbulence employed are
discussed below :
 7.21.1 Swirl Combustion Chamber : (GTU - Dec. 2012, Dec. 2015)
 Such type of combustion chambers employ compression swirl as explained in section
7.21.2. One type of swirl combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 7.21.1.
 During compression stroke, practically 50% of the air is forced into swirl chamber
through the throat in tangential direction to give high rotational air movement as shown in
Fig. 7.21.1.
 The fuel is injected into swirl chamber few degrees before TDC and the autoignition is
initiated. It results into development of high pressures in the swirl chamber.

Fig. 7.21.1 : Swirl combustion chamber

 The partially burnt mixture from swirl chamber moves out into the main combustion
chamber of cylinder and it again returns into swirl chamber.
 A thick insulation is provided to swirl chamber so that it runs hot.
 The motion of mixture in and out to swirl chamber sets the whirling motion and reduces
the delay period resulting into controlled rate of pressure rise in second stage of combustion
and the engine runs smoothly.
 Excessive swirl created helps in rapid mixing of fuel and air in the third stage of
combustion also. It should be noted that the air swirl will increase with increase in speed of
the engine.

Advantages :

1.The fuel injection pressures needed are low (125-150 bar) since the mixing of fuel and air mainly
depends on the air swirl and not on the injection pressures and fuel spray characteristics.
2.Better utilization of air results into high m.e.p. and power output.
3. Exhaust is comparatively clean.
4.Suitable for high speed engines.
5. Controlled rate of pressure rise gives smooth running of engine.
6.Pintle type of nozzles can be used due to low injection pressure requirements. Such nozzles have
self-cleaning properties, therefore, maintenance problem is reduced.

Disadvantages :

1.Cold starting is difficult since air looses heat to cylinder walls.

2.Work of compression is higher and work of expansion is lower, it results into lower mechanical
efficiency.
3.High turbulence increases heat losses it results into low thermal efficiency.
4.Specific fuel consumption is high.
7.21.2 Pre-Combustion Chamber : (GTU - Dec. 2012)
 Such a design is represented in Fig. 7.21.2. It consists of a pre-combustion chamber
also called as anti-chamber.
 It communicates with main combustion chamber through number of small passages.
 Fuel is injected to pre-combustion chamber and air is forced into it during the
compression stroke.
 It initiates the combustion in the pre-combustion chamber, it results into high pressure
rise.

Fig. 7.21.2 : Precombustion chamber

 The rate of pressure rise in pre-combustion chamber being higher than main combustion
chamber, the pressure differential forces the mixture of burnt and burning fuel from pre-
combustion chamber into main chamber at very high velocities due to flow past the small
passages.
 It causes rapid mixing and burning of fuel in the main chamber.
 The rate of pressure rise in third stage of combustion is also controlled due to negligible
delay period.

Advantages :
1.Delay period is reduced since the pre-combustion chamber is designed to run hot. It results into
smooth running of engine.
2.Combustion in third stage is rapid, it gives high m.e.p.
3.High injection pressures are not needed.
4.Pintle type of nozzles with single orifice can be used.

Disadvantages :

1.Due to high rate of burning and turbulence the heat losses are high.
2.Thermal efficiency is low.
3. Cold starting is difficult.
7.21.3 Air-Cell Combustion Chamber : (GTU - Dec. 2015)
 Air-cell combustion chamber design used for Lanova engine is represented in Fig.
7.21.3. In this case a separate air-cell through a small neck communicates with the main
combustion chamber.
 The fuel is injected across the main chamber into the neck of air-cell which is designed
to run hot.

Fig. 7.21.3 : Air cell combustion chamber for Lanova engine (plan view)
 The combustion is initiated in the air cell and due to high pressure rise it flows back
into main chamber.
 The main combustion chamber is so designed that the gas stream from air-cell splits
into two vertices to create high swirl.
 High turbulence and high temperature of gases reduce the delay period and it controls
the rate of pressure rise and the engine runs smooth.
 This design differs from pre-combustion chamber in respect of fuel injection.
 In case of air cell the fuel is injected in the main chamber while in the other case into
pre-combustion chamber.
 Advantages :

1.Smooth running of engine.

2.Easy cold starting can be obtained by cutting off the air cell by a valve so that its compression ratio
increases.
3.System can be used for high speed engines.

Disadvantages :

1. Low thermal efficiency.

2. High specific fuel consumption.
7.22 M.A.N. Combustion Chamber :
 Dr. Meurer of Maschimenfabric Augsburg Nurnberg (M.A.N.) of Germany in 1954
developed a special type of open combustion chamber, also called as ‘M’ combustion
chamber.
 It is suitable for small, high speed engines. In this design, the combustion chamber has
a spherical cavity in the piston as shown in Fig. 7.22.1.
 The fuel spray impinges tangentially on the cavity and it spreads over the entire
chamber. Such type fuel spray impingement was believed to be undesirable in earlier designs
of open combustion chambers.

Fig. 7.22.1 : M.A.N. combustion chamber

 But according to the theory used in this design it is suggested that the air borne fuel
spray in the cavity makes homogeneous mixture and it autoignites before impingement with
normal delay period, while the remainder fuel impinging on the cavity walls have to
evaporate from the cavity prior to combustion.
 It controls the rate of pressure rise in the second stage of combustion and gives smooth
running of engine.
 However, it is further possible to control the air borne fuel spray by varying the distance
between the nozzle tip and the combustion chamber walls.
 Advantages :

1. Smooth running or engine.

2. High thermal efficiency.
3. Can use poor ignition quality fuels.
4. Easy cold starting.
5. Low smoke levels in exhaust.
6. Weight to power ratio is low.
7. High volumetric efficiency.

Disadvantages :

Engine at no load and low loads may give diesel odour, smoke and high hydrocarbon
emissions.
Summary

Section - I : Combustion in S.I. Engines

 A flame is defined as gas rendered luminous by liberation of chemical energy.

 The temperature at which the fuel will ignite itself without flame is called self ignition
temperature (S.I.T.) and this process of combustion is called auto-ignition.
 Even if a mixture reaches to its S.I.T., there is a time lapse before the mixture burns due
to certain preflame reactions in which thechain carriers are formed.
 The crank angle before TDC where the spark is supplied is calledangle of spark
advance.
 In S.I. engines the combustion stages are :
(i)Period of ignition lag or ignition delay period.
(ii)Period of flame propagation.
(iii) Period of after burning.
 Effect of engine variables for reducing the ignition lag are :
(i) Higher pressure and temperatures
(ii) High C.R.
(iii) Slightly rich mixtures, about 10% rich.
(iv)Lesser residual gases.
(v)Speed has no effect but at high speeds the ignition advance should be increased.
(vi) Proper electrode gap of a spark plug (0.625 mm with C.R. = 7)
 Effect of engine variables for increasing speed of flame propagation are :
(i) Increased C.R. (ii) Increased intake p, T
(iii) Slightly rich mixtures (iv) Increased load
(v) Increased turbulence (vi) Increased engine speed
(vii) No effect of engine size.
 Detonation is the name given to pinging sound due to gas vibrations caused by
abnormal combustion of end charge of S.I. engine due to auto-ignition.
Whereas, knocking refers to thudding sound heard due to direct blow on engine parts caused
by sudden pressure rise due to combustion of initial part of the charge in C.I. engines.
 Knocking and detonation leads to local melting of piston and ring, mechanical failure
of engine parts, preignition, overbeating of spark plug with loss of power and efficiency.

Section - II : Combustion Chambers for S. I. Engines

 Stages of combustion in C.I. engines are :

(i) Delay period having physical and chemical delay.
(ii) Period of uncontrolled combustion.
(iii) Period of controlled combustion, and
(iv)After burning.
 Physical delay period is reduced by increasing the injection pressures.
 Delay period is reduced due to increased C.R. inlet pressure and temperature, decreased
engine speed, increased load and jacket water temperature.
 Factors which tend to increase the detonation tendency in S.I. engines, same will reduce
the knocking tendency in C.I. engines.
 The main objectives of combustion chamber design of a C.I. engine are :
(i) To provide proper mixing of fuel and air.
(ii) Required turbulence.
(iii) Burning of fuel to obtain peak pressures.
(iv) Low surface to volume ratio.
(v) Short delay period.
 Air swirl is provided in combustion chambers of C.I. engines for proper mixing of fuel
air. Methods are :
(i) Induction swirl
(ii) Compression swirl
(iii) Combustion induced swirl.
 Combustion chambers for C.I. engines are classified as :
1. Non turbulent or open or direct injection (DI) combustion chambers.
 2. Turbulent or Indirect injection (IDI) combustion chambers : These are classified
as :
(a) Swirl combustion chambers
(b) Precombustion chambers
(c) Air cell chambers
 MAN combustion chamber was developed in Germany which is suitable for small,
high speed engines. It has spherical cavity in the piston on which fuel spray impinges. It
ensures high performance, low smoke levels in exhaust with low weight to power ratio of the
engine.
Exercise
[ Note : For answers refer the section numbers indicated in bracket. ]

Section - I : Combustion in S.I. Engines

Theory :

Q. 1Define combustion, flame, flame front and auto-ignition. [Section 7.1]

Q. 2Define spatial, transformation and gas velocities. [Section 7.1]

Q. 3Give a brief account of chain theory of combustion. [Section 7.2]

Q. 4Explain with the help of (P - ) diagram the combustion in S.I. engines. Discuss how the detonation and
pre-ignition effect the combustion in S.I. engine. Discuss the factors which influence
detonation. [Sections 7.3, 7.8, 7.9(6) and 7.10]

Q. 5Explain main stages of combustion in S.I. engines. [Section 7.10]

Q. 6With the help of a neat sketch, explain the combustion process in an S.I. engine. Explain also the variables
affecting it. [Sections 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5]

Q. 7Write short note on ignition advance. [Section 7.3]

Q. 8Explain the auto-ignition theory of detonation. [Section 7.7]

Q. 9How detonating combustion can be recognized in S.I. engine ? [Section 7.8]

Q. 10Write short note on effects of engine variables on detonation of S.I. engines.

[Section 7.10]

Q. 11Explain abnormal combustion in S.I. engines with (p – ) diagram.[Sections 7.3 and 7.6]

Q. 12Define ignition lag and knocking. [Sections 7.3 and 7.7]

Q. 13What are harmful effects of knocking ? [Section 7.9]

Q. 14Pre-ignition is a cause as well as effect of detonation - Justify.[Sections 7.9(6) and 7.8]

Q. 15Explain the influence of following factors on the process of combustion in S.I. engines :

(i)Mixture composition(ii)C.R.

(iii)Load(iv)Speed
(v)Shape of combustion chambers. [Sections 7.4(iii), 7.4(ii), 7.5(v) and 7.4(vi)]

Q. 16Enumerate the requirement of an ideal combustion chamber for a S.I. engine stating the significance of
each requirement. Sketch any one combustion chamber of a S.I. engine. [Sections 7.11 and 7.12.3]

Q. 17Explain the requirements of combustion chambers for S.I. engines and any two types of combustion
chambers. [Sections 7.11, 7.12.1 and 7.12.2]

Q. 18State and explain any four types of combustion chambers used for S.I. engines.[Sections 7.12 and
7.13.4]

Q. 19With the help of a neat diagram explain Recardo's turbulent combustion chamber design. [Section 7.12.3]

Q. 20Explain the types of combustion chambers used in S.I. engine and compare them why maximum diameter
of S.I. engine combustion chamber is limited.[Sections 7.12, 7.13 and 7.12(10)]

Section - II : Combustion Chambers for S. I. Engines

Q. 21Explain stages of combustion in C.I. engines. [Section 7.14]

Q. 22With the help of pressure-crank diagram discuss the various stages of combustion in C.I. engines. What
are the factors affecting various stages of combustion ? [Sections 7.14 and 7.15]

Q. 23Factors which leads to increased possibility of detonation in S.I. engines, tend to reduce knocking in C.I.
engines - Discuss. [Sections 7.16 and 7.16.17]

Q. 24Explain with suitable sketch the combustion phenomenon in C.I. engine. Which phase of combustion in
C.I. engine needs more attention to be paid and why ? [Sections 7.14 and 7.16]

Q. 25What are the effects of following engine variables on diesel knock ?

(i) Injection timing [Section 7.15(8)]

(ii) Rate of fuel injection [Section 7.16]

(iii) Surface to volume ratio of combustion chamber [Section 7.17]

(iv) Turbulence in the combustion chamber. [Section 7.16]

Q. 26Describe the phenomenon of normal and abnormal combustion in C.I. engines. List the effects of
knocking. [Section 7.16]
Q. 27Discuss the effect of engine variables on the ignition delay period in diesel engines.
[Section 7.15]

Q. 28Explain various design considerations in the development of combustion chamber in

C.I. engines.

OR

What are requirements of a good combustion chamber for C.I. engines.[Section 7.17]

Q. 29Compare advantages and disadvantages of induction swirl with compression swirl.[Sections 7.18 and
7.19]

Q. 30What is swirl ? Why swirl is required for C.I. engine combustion chambers ? Explain methods of creating
swirl. [Sections 7.18, 7.18.3]

Q. 31Write short note on methods of turbulence in combustion chamber.[Section 7.18]

Q. 32What is the criteria for a good combustion chamber ? Explain with a neat sketch the precombustion
chamber used in C.I. engine. What are its advantages and disadvantages ? [Sections 7.17 and 7.21.2]

Q. 33Explain how the induction swirl is created ? What are the requirements of the injector with this type of
swirl ? [Sections 7.18.1 and 7.20]

Q. 34Enlist the types of combustion chambers used in C.I. engines. Explain in details any of them. [Sections
7.19 and 7.21.1]

Q. 35Write explanatory note on M-combustion chamber. [Section 7.22]

Q. 36Explain the air-cell chamber, stating clearly its merits and demerits.[Section 7.21.3]
7.23 University Questions and Answers :

May 2011

Q. 1Explain with neat sketch combustion stages in S.I. engine. Also define auto ignition
temperature. (Sections 7.3, 7.1)(7 Marks)

Q. 2Explain with neat sketch detonation in C.I. engine. Also mention the factor affecting the
detonation. (Section 7.16.1)(7 Marks)

Q. 3Explain with neat sketch Stages in Combustion of C.I. Engine. Also give classification of
Combustion chambers for C.I. Engine. (Sections 7.14 and 7.19)(7 Marks)

Dec. 2011
Q. 4State and explain engine design and operating modifications to be made in Spark ignition engine
to minimize pollution. (Section 7.11)(7 Marks)

Q. 5What do you understand by ignition timings ? Discuss the various factors which affect ignition
timing requirements. (Sections 7.3 and 7.4)(7 Marks)

Q. 6What are basic requirements of good spark ignition engine combustion chamber and
general principles of spark ignition combustion chamber.(Section 7.11)(7 Marks)

Q. 7Describe with suitable sketches the combustion phenomena in spark ignition engine and explain
the phases of combustion. (Section 7.3)(7 Marks)

Q. 8Explain how induction swirl is created ? What are requirements of injector with this type of swirl
? (Sections 7.18.1 and 7.20)(7 Marks)

May 2012

Q. 9Explain the phenomenon of knocking in SI engine. (Section 7.8)(7 Marks)

Dec. 2012

Q. 10What is ignition lag? Discuss the effect of engine variables on ignition lag in case of SI
engines. (Sections 7.3 and 7.4)(7 Marks)

Q. 11What are the basic requirements of a good SI engine combustion chamber?

(Section 7.11)(7 Marks)

Q. 12Explain the phenomenon of diesel knock. Compare it with the phenomenon of detonation in SI
engine. (Sections 7.16 and 7.16.1)(7 Marks)

Q. 13What is meant by combustion induced swirl? Show with sketches two important designs of CI
combustion chamber using this method of swirl. (Sections 7.18.3, 7.21.1 and 7.21.2)(7 Marks)

May 2013

Q. 14Define pre-ignition with respect to SI engines. (Section 7.9(6))(3 Marks)

Q. 15What is meant by abnormal combustion? Explain the phenomena of knock in SI engine. (Sections
7.6, 7.7 and 7.8)(7 Marks)

Q. 16Define delay period with respect to a CI engines. (Section 7.14)(4 Marks)

Dec 2013
Q. 17List basic requirements of a good combustion chamber of S.I. engine.
(Section 7.11) (7 Marks)

Q. 18Discuss the effects of following factors on knocking tendency of an engine

i. Compression ratioii. Spark timing

iii. Flame velocityiv.Pressure and temperature of mixture at inlet.(Sections 7.8 and 7.10) (7
Marks)

Q. 19What are the effects of following variables on diesel Knock.

i. Injection timing and rate of fuel infection

ii. Surface to volume ratio of combustion chamber

iii. Turbulence caused in combustion chamber. (Section 7.16)(7 Marks)

Q. 20Define squish, swirl, unidirectional movement and turbulence. Explain their importance in design
of C.I. combustion chambers. (Sections 7.17, 7.18.1 and 7.18.3)(7 Marks)

May 2014

Q. 21Explain the stages of Combustion in the S.I. Engine with the help of p  Diagram. (Section
7.3)(7 Marks)

Q. 22Explain the following terms related to surface ignition.

(I)Pre-ignition (II)Run-on

(III)Run-away (IV)Wild ping

(V)Rumble (Section 7.9(6), 7.9.1(ii)to (v))(7 Marks)

Q. 23What do you understand by knock in S.I. Engine ? Explain this phenomenon ? How does the
knock in S.I. Engines differ from the knock in C.I. Engines ?(Section 7.7 and 7.16.1)(7 Marks)

Dec. 2014

Q. 24What are the basic requirements of a good SI engine combustion chamber ?

(Section 7.11)(7 Marks)

Q. 25What is ignition lag? Discuss the effect of engine variables on ignition lag in case of SI
engines. (Sections 7.3 and 7.4)(7 Marks)

Q. 26Describe with suitable sketches the combustion phenomena in diesel engines and explain the
phases of combustion. (Section 7.14)(7 Marks)

May 2015
Q. 27Explain factors affecting on flame propagation in SI engines.
(Section 7.5)(7 Marks)

Q. 28Explain factors affecting on delay period on CI engines.

(Section 7.15)(7 Marks)

Dec. 2015

Q. 29Describe the phenomena of detonation or knocking in S.I engines. On what factors does
detonation depend? (Sections 7.8 and 7.10)(7 Marks)

Q. 30What is meant by combustion induced swirl? Show with sketches two important designs of C.I
combustion chamber using this method of swirl.(Sections 7.18.3, 7.21.1 and 7.21.3)(7 Marks)

Q. 31Discuss the effect of following engine variables on flame propagation :

i.Compression ratio

ii.Engine load

iii.Turbulence(Section 7.5)(7 Marks)

May 2016

Q. 32Enlist various factor by which diesel knock can be controlled.(Section 7.17)(7 Marks)

Q. 33Describe the factors to be considered to reduce the knocking ?(Section 7.16.1)(7 Marks)

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