Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

Steelmaking

STUDY OF THE BULGING

OF CONTINUOUSLY CAST SLABS

Report
EUR 8963/111 EN

Blow-up from microfiche original

 Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

Steelmaking

STUDY OF THE BULGING

OF CONTINUOUSLY CAST SLABS

J.Y. LAMANT<1>, M. LARRECOJ1', Z. SMARZYNSKM1», J.L HENSGEN<1>,

C. ROSSARD·2», J.D. WEBER <3>, J.C. DHUYVETTER <4>
(D IRS1D - Station d'Essais, F-57210 Maizières-les-Metz
• (2) IRSID - F-78105 St-Germain-en-Laye
(3) Université de Metz, Laboratoire de Mécanique, F-57000 Metz
(4) USINOR - F-59 Dunkerque

IRSID
185, rue du Président Roosevelt
F-78105 SAINT-GERMAIN-EN-LAYE

Contract No 7210-CA/306
(1.5.1979-30.4.1982)

FINAL REPORT

Directorate-General
Science, Research and Development

1985 EUR 8963/III EN

 Published by the
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-General
Information Market and Innovation

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 1-

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a theoretical and experimental study of

slab bulging in a continuous caster.

Two m ι fhawititoii1 models of the visco-plastic behaviour of

the solidified shell under the action of ferrostatic pressure have been
developed, in the static and cinematic case. We have determinated visco-
plastic behaviour laws described by <J- λίτ) £ n έ with tensile tests
at low deformation rafte -and high temperature for different steel grades·.

*.* With'the results of the Cinematic model, we have established,

in the case of steel for heavy plates (0.18 % C ) , the relation summarizing
the influence of different parameters (roll pitch (1 in mm), metallurgical
height (H in m ) , casting speed (v in m/min), solidified thickness (h in
mm) and surface -temperature (Τ in °40) on the bulging deflection ( % in
mm) as follows :

. '" -Ι? M2"25 I6*10

ò = 7.86 10 exp (0.0046 T)
,,0.57 .5.26
N h

Another application of this model shows that, in the case

of large width (above 1.5 m) slab casting on a curved machine (R = 12.2 m ) ,
the bulging deflection is always below 1.5 mm on the whole metallurgical
length if the guide rolls are chosen non divided and with diameters varying
from 260 to 420 mm.

* The experimental part is composed of the conception of a

physical modelization with a small scale model using modelling clay (plasti-
cine) as simulation material and the measurement of bulging on the slab
continuous caster No. 12 at USIN0R Dunkerque.

. The results of the measurements made on the plasticine model

agree with the results given by the mathematical models and show that
the boundary conditions at the slab-roll contact position are identical.

. The measurements on the industrial machine show that :

the bulging deflection is periodic due to the geometry of the support

structure and depends on the deformations in the upstream part of the
machine. Its mean value is almost equal to the roll eccentricity, i.e.
about 1 mm ;
- the measurements agree with the results of the cinematic model ;
- the axial segregation increases with the bulging deflection, and bulging
intensity does not depend on the solidification structure.
 - 3-

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 7

1. BIBLIOGRAPHIC STUDY 9

1.1 Defects created by bulging 9

1 Internal cracks 9
1.1 Different types of internal cracks 10
1.2 Influence of operating parameters on the proportion
of internal cracks in the broad faces 11
1.3 Mechanism of formation of internal cracks 13

1.4 Criteria for the occurrence of internal cracks 14

2 Centre segregation 15

2.1 Experimental results 16

2.2 Mathematical modelling of the formation of centre
segregation 17

1.2 On-site measurement of bulging 19

1.3 Mechanical modelling of bulging 21

1.3.1 Elastic models 21

1.3.2 Elasto-plastic models 22
1.3.3 Viscous models 23

2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF BULGING, DEVELOPED AT IRSID 27

2.1 Mechanical behaviour of steel at high temperature 27

2.2 Mathematical models, developed by IRSID, of the bulging of

continuously cast steel slabs 30

2.2.1 Method of calculation 31

2.2.2 Static model 35
2.2.3 Kinetic model 35
 4 -

Page

2.3 Results of the calculations of bulging 37

2.3.1 Results obtained with the kinetic model 37

2.3.1.1 Influence of the boundary conditions on steel 18M5 38

2.3.1.2 Comparison of the calculations with the available
measurements 39
2.3.1.3 Comparison of the calculations with some other
results taken from the literature 40
2.3.1.4 Profile of bulging on machine no.12 at USINOR
Dunkerque 41

2.3.2 Results obtained with the static model 44

2.3.3 Overall model of the bulging of slabs 45
2.3.4 Discussion of the results 49

3. PHYSICAL MODELLING OF BULGING 51

3.1 Definition of the mock-up of bulging 51

3.1.1 Choice of a material for simulating the behaviour

of steel 51
3.1.2 Dimensioning of the mock-up 52
3.1.3 Description of the mock-up 53
3.1.4 Similitude study 54
3.2 Realisation of trials on the mock-up 54

3.2.1 Experimental method 55

3.2.1.1 Uniformity of the base-plate thickness 55
3.2.1.2 Influence of the width of the vessel 55
3.2.1.3 Influence of aging of the Plasticine 56
3.2.1.4 Waiting time between tests made with the same vessel 56
3.2.2 The progress of a static test 56
3.2.3 The progress of a kinetic test 56

3.3 Method of analysing the tests 57

3.3.1 Influence of the true weight of the Plasticine 57

3.3.2 Influence of the elasticity of the Plasticine 57
 Page
3.3.3 Influence of the quality of the Plasticine 59
3.3.4 Determination of the laws of mechanical behaviour

of Plasticine 59

3.4 Results of the tests using the mock-up 60

3.4.1 Bulging profiles obtained on the mock-up 60

3.4.2 Determination of the boundary conditions 62
3.4.3 Influence of various test parameters on the bulging
deflection 62
3.4.4 Comparison of measurements and values calculated
using the mathematical model 65

3.5 Discussion of the results 66

4. MEASUREMENT OF THE BULGING OF SLABS IN A STEELWORKS 69

4.1 Principle and realisation of the measurement of bulging 69

4.1.1 Principle of the measurement 70

4.1.2 Choice of measuring technology 70
4.1.3 Making the measurement 71

4.2 Method of analysis of the bulging deflection 73

4.2.1 Example of the direct recording of data 73
4.2.2 Calculation of the instantaneous bulging deflection 73
4.2.3 Observations made concerning the bulging deflection 74

4.3 Programme of tests carried out 76

4.4 Results of the measurements made 77

4.4.1 Behaviour of rolls 76 and 78 during the period of the

tests 77
4.4.2 Influence of various parameters on the bulging deflection 80
4.4.3 Comparison of measured and calculated bulging deflections 82
4.5 Study of the behaviour of the slab during the casting process 82

4.5.1 Measurement of slab thickness at the exit from the machine 82

4.5.2 Monitoring of a casting carried out with roll 78 out of
alignment 83

4.6 Relation between the bulging deflection, the solidification

structure, and centre segregation 84
 - 6

Page
4.6.1 Relationship between centre segregation and
solidification structure 85
4.6.2 Relation between solidification structure and the
bulging deflection 85
4.6.3 Relation between the bulging deflection and the centre
segregation 86
4.7 Synthesis of the results obtained 87

5. CRITICAL STUDY OF THE VARIOUS TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS TO THE PROB-

LEM OF BULGING 89
5.1 Technical solutions to the problem of bulging 89
5.2 The calculations made : 90
5.2.1 Assumptions made for the bulging calculations 91
5.2.2 The model of deformation of the rolls 92
5.2.3 Bulging profiles obtained on an industrial machine 93
5.2.4 Choice of criteria for the threshold of harmfulness
of bulging 93
5.2.5 Choice of mechanical criterion 94
5.3 Presentation of the results obtained 95
5.3.1 Influence of the mechanical criterion on the profile
of roll diameters 95
5.3.2 Influence of the bulging criteria on the profile of
the roll spacings 95
5.3.3 Influence of casting speed 97
5.3.4 Influence of surface temperature 98
5.4 Tentative definition of optimal geometry of the machine 98
5.5 The role of deformation not connected with bulging 100
5.5.1 Strains imposed by misalignment 100
5.5.2 Strains due to straightening or bending 101
5.5.3 Influence of these strains on the profile of roll 0 102
5.6 Synthesis of the results 104
6. CONCLUSION 106

REFERENCES

FIGURES

APPENDICES
 7 -

INTRODUCTION

The quality of the products from a continuous casting plant is largely

dependent on the intensity of the deformations suffered by the steel in the
course of solidification during its passage through the machine.

These deformations result from the various thermal or mechanical stresses

imposed on the slab according to the machine operating conditions (secondary
cooling, casting speed) and its geometric characteristics (misalignment of
the rolls, bending or straightening points, eccentricity of the rolls).

In the continuous casting of slabs, one of the principal mechanisms of pro-

duct deformation is the action of the pressure exerted by the liquid steel,
present in the core of the slab, on the shell which is bearing against the
supporting rolls (Fig.1 and 2).

This deformation, called "bulging", is the origin of some internal defects

of the slabs, such as segregated internal cracks and marked centre segre-
gation (Fig.3 and 4).
mechanical
When the cast slabs are destined for a use that requires only a little/working
(heavy plates for tubes, steel for gas cylinders ...),the internal defects
brought about by bulging are usually prohibitive and lead to downgrading or
rejection of the slabs.

With the object of evaluating the relative effects of various casting para-
meters on the intensity of bulging during continuous casting of slabs, IRSID,
in collaboration with the University of Metz, has made a study of the math-
ematical and physical modelling of the mechanical behaviour of the shell
during bulging. Parallel to this study, IRSID has carried out several cam-
paigns of measurement of bulging on continuous casting machine no. 12 in
USINOR Steelworks I at Dunkerque (Dunkirk).
This paper presents the different results obtained by the two approaches,
theoretical and experimental.

The first part of the report is devoted to a bibliographic study, chiefly

concerning the defects created by the bulging of slabs, the various attempts
at mathematical modelling reported in the literature, and also studies of
the influence of steel temperature on its mechanical behaviour.

In a second part, after giving an account of the work done at IRSID to deter-
mine the laws of steel behaviour at high temperature, we describe the math-
ematical models of bulging that we have developed as well as the principal
results derived from their application to the case of the casting of slabs
on USINOR machine no. 12 at Dunkerque.

The third part of this report describes the various experiments carried out
on the model that physically simulates bulging, as well as the principal
results that have been obtained.

After a description of the principle and the method of measuring bulging that
we used on USINOR machine no. 12 at Dunkerque, in the fourth part of this
report the experimental results obtained are presented and in particular, the
relation found between bulging deflection, axial segregation, and solidifi-
cation structure.

On the basis of all the results obtained, in the last part of this paper we
present the elements of our thinking that allow definition of the optimal
profile of the roll diameters for a continuous slab casting machine.
 - 9

1. BIBLIOGRAPHIC STUDY

In this chapter, we present the various results reported in the litera-

ture dealing with the defects brought about by the bulging of slabs, as well
as tentative models of the phenomenon.

1.1 Defects created by bulging

Along a continuous casting machine, before complete solidification the

slab undergoes a succession of bulgings followed by "rerollings". These
deformations induce stresses in the shell (Fig.5).

Between two adjacent rolls, the shell is the seat of tensile stresses in the
surface and of compressive stresses at the solidification front. The direc-
tion of the stresses is reversed to the right of the axis of the supporting
rolls. The solidification front is then under tension, the surface under
compression. In addition, the bulging of the slab induces tensile stresses
at the liquid/solid interface at the level of the narrow face of the slab
(Fig.6). The longitudinal or transverse tensile stresses are manifested by the
presence of internal cracks, when the cracking threshold at the solidification
(1)
front is exceeded.

The bulging, that in the course of the slab's passage through the continuous
casting machine creates alternating stresses at the solidification front, like-
wise induces movements in the still liquid metal. These movements, when they
develop near to the closing zone of the liquid core, are the origin of certain
defects of continuously cast slabs: linear axial segregation, for example.

1.1.1 ïnternal_çracks

With the enlargement of the field of use of continuous casting, the

quality levels aimed at are much more severe. Besides good surface quality,
excellent internal cleanness is likewise required, especially in the case of
slabs for heavy plates.
 10 -

By reason of the deformations of the shell, fissures may appear at the solidi-
(2 3)
fication front, which is very brittle. ' These fissures induce greater
segregation in their axes and form a defect commonly called internal cracking
or segregated thread. According to their importance, these defects are still
present even after subsequent transformation of the semi-finished product.

1.1.1.1 Different_types_of_internal_cracks

The formation of internal cracks in slabs is due to tensile defor-

mations at the solidification front. Bulging is one of the originating phenom-
ena in the appearance of internal fissures. Internal cracks may likewise be
due to the presence of stresses of thermal origin, to the forces of withdrawal,
of bending and of straightening, to friction against the mould, to the adjust-
ment of the withdrawing rolls, or to eccentricity and to misalignment of the
rolls.

Internal fissures linked to bulging are of three types:

- cracks perpendicular to the narrow faces of the slab (Fig.8),

- sub-cutaneous cracks near to the corners of the slab (Fig.8),

- cracks perpendicular to the broad faces of the slab (Fig. 7b).

• Triple-point cracks.

If one examines a cross-section of slab, it is apparent that triple-point

cracks are located just below the surface in the zone where the three solidi-
fication fronts meet. These defects may be present in the form of rather
long cracks, or in the form of small cracks oriented toward the triple-point
but disposed along many portions of concentric rings (Fig.8).

The mechanism of formation of these cracks is the tension caused at the

solidification front along the narrow faces of the slab as an effect of
bulging of the broad faces (Fig.6).
 - 11 -

These triple-point cracks are particularly injurious in the case of longi-

tudinal slitting of the slabs.

Sub-cutaneous corner cracks.

These cracks are usually visible in sulphur prints of cross-sections of

the slab, at about 25 mm from the surface. These cracks, perpendicular
to the broad faces, are explicable as arising from the tension caused
at the solidification front, in the vicinity of the corner, in a trans-
verse direction (relative to the direction of casting of the slab) during
the bulging of the broad faces.

These cracks are especially injurious if surface scarfing causes them to

appear at the surface of the product.

Cracks perpendicular to the broad faces.

These defects, the most numerous and most injurious to slab quality, will
be specially discussed below. To simplify the presentation, we call them
"internal cracks in the broad faces" or more simply, "internal cracks".
We present the published results without making any distinction according
to origin of the cracks, whether due to bulging or to other phenomena.

1.1.1.2 Influence of operating parameters on the proportion of internal

cracks_in_the broad faces.

These cracks are, in general, perpendicular to the direction of

casting of the slab and appear over a part of the slab width at practically
constant spacing (4'5) (Fig.7).

If deformations due to defective alignment are excluded, the proportion of

internal cracks is chiefly dependent on casting speed and the intensity of
secondary cooling, for a given grade of steel and slab format.
 - 12

a) Influence of casting speed.

Fig.9 shows the influence of rate of withdrawal and rate of secondary

cooling by water-spray on the proportion of internal cracks in the case
of Al-Si killed steels cast in 250 mm thick slabs, 1900 - 2000 mm wide,
(4)
on the machine (R = 10.5 m) at the Hirohata works of Nippon Steel.
The higher the casting speed and the less the water-spray, the more
numerous are the internal cracks.

b) Influence of the grade of steel.

Fig.10 shows the frequency of appearance of internal cracks in different,

grades of steel.

(4)
These results, reported by Fujii et al, show that internal cracks are
the more numerous, the higher the carbon and sulphur contents of the steel
+. (4,6)
cast.

The influence of manganese and silicon contents on the proportion of

internal cracks appears to be negligible.

c) Influence of the solidification structure.

For Al- or Si-killed steels with C ^ 0.10 - 0.2 % and Mn ^ 1.5 % cast on
a bow-type continuous casting machine, the equiaxial zone is more developed
in the outer radius zone than in the inner radius.

This finding can be related to the results observed on the machine at

(4)
Hirohata showing that the proportion of cracks is greater in the inner
radius than in the outer radius (Fig.11)

This hypothesis is confirmed by the observation made on Al-killed, low

(4)
carbon content steels for which the columnar solidification structure
is substantially identical in the inner radius and outer radius faces, that
there are equal numbers of cracks in both faces.
 - 13 -

d) Influence of slab width.

Yamauchi et al have clearly shown that on machine no. 2 at Oita (bow

radius R = 10.5 m), the proportion of internal cracks increases with
slab width (Fig.12).

e) Influence of straightening (skin-pass rolling) under stress.

This same figure shows clearly that casting under compression on machine
no. 2 at Oita allows a decrease of the internal cracks index, defined by
the ratio of their length to their displacement, especially so far as the
cracks due to bulging are concerned.

1.1.1.3 Mechanism_of_formation_of internal cracks.

Internal crack formation occurs in two phases:initiation and propa-

(4)
gation. To study the initiation of internal cracks, Fujii et al marked
the liquid steel present in front of the solidification front by means of
radioactive gold (Au ).

Autoradiographs and sulphur prints made on a longitudinal section of slab

have allowed the shell to be distinguished from liquid steel at the moment
of formation of cracks (Fig.3).

This figure shows autoradiographs in which the internal cracks are clearly
revealed. The white part has not been marked by the radioactive element
198
(Au ) , which indicates that when it was added, this part was already solidi-
198
fiad. In contrast, the dark part which contains Au corresponds to a zone
in which there was still liquid steel. The cracks correspond to black threads
and their form is not rectilinear. An extremity of these cracks penetrates
into the solidified phase. This observation indicates that the internal cracks
form near to the solidification interface. These authors (4) have established
that the cracks form, not in a single stage, but progressively (Fig.13).
 14 -

Measurements of the thickness of the shell during trials with the radio-isotope
and the distance between the extremity of the cracks and the slab surface show
clearly the progress of cracking at the solidification front (Fig.3).

The conditions for initiation of internal cracking have been demonstrated by

an experiment during which the slab in the course of solidifying has been
stopped in the Oita continuous casting machine no. 2 for about 15 minutes,
after steady state casting at 1.6 m/min. Fig.14 shows the cracks which
formed after the slab was stopped: this having bulged between the supporting
rolls, the tensile stresses thus generated at the solidification front have
initiated the cracks. The outline of the solidus front at the moment of stop-
ping indicates that the cracks are formed in the vicinity of the solidifica-
tion front.

In addition, during the stoppage the slab has been slowly moved about 10 cm.
The appearance of the cracks (in Fig.14) and their position relative to the
supporting rolls and to the solidus isotherm at the moment of arrest, confirm
that the internal cracks come into being at the solidification front and in
a zone located to the right of the rolls, where the tensile stresses at the
solidification front are at a maximum.

1.1.1.4 ǣiteria_for_the_occurrence_of_internal cracks

The criteria of cracking at the solidification front offered in the

literature have been established either in the laboratory, by bending of ingots,
or by means of tests on industrial machines.

Analysis of the (freshly cast) ingot bending tests allows plotting, on a graph
of deformation as a function of rate of deformation at the solidification front,
of a limiting curve above which cracks form and below which there is no
(12-19) (17)
cracking. An example of a curve of this kind is shown in Fig.16.

-3 -1
For a rate of deformation of the order of 10 s the work reported by Sumitomo
(17)
Metals demonstrates the existence of a critical deformation of the order
of 0.9 % in the case of S 45 C steels.
 15 -

f i o \
Trials made by Kobe Steel on the other hand show that when the sulphur
content of the steel rises from 0.014 % to 0.028 %, the critical factor is
-3 -1
halved (from 1.2 to 0.6 %) for a rate of deformation of 210 s . Fujii
(19)
et al point out that the critical deformations for inducing internal
cracking depend on the grade of steel and its value varies from 0.60 % for
medium carbon steel to 0.74 % for extra-soft steel.

Fig.17 shows the results of an analysis of works trials, run on the Mizushima
machine no. 5 and Chiba machine no. 2 of Kawasaki Steel, in the form of
a curve giving the critical deformation for the occurrence of internal cracks
as a function of the square root of the solidification time.

This figure shows that the critical deformation e c decreases as a function

of the metallurgical length L, from a value of 0.8 % for L = 8 m to 0.4 % at
L = 18 m. This curve, however, does not include any influence of the rate
of secondary cooling by water-spray.

In Fig.18, Kawasaki Steel show that before the rebuilding of the Chiba no. 2
machine to provide it with intense secondary cooling, an increase of the
carbon content of the steel (from 0.14 % to 0.2 %) made it necessary to reduce
the casting speed from 1.6 m/min to 1.2 m/min in order to avoid the formation
of internal cracks.

Finally, it may be noted that, on the basis of findings from the continuous
(12)
casting of billets, Brimacombe estimates 0.2 % to be the critical defor-
mation at which internal cracks form.

In short, it should be noted that the values of critical deformation at the

solidification front, proposed by various authors, range from 0.2 % to 3 %
(laboratory trials) and more usually from 0.2 to 1 % (works trials).

1.1.2 Centre segregation

Continuously cast slabs may sometimes display internal defects in the

form of segregated threads located in the axis of the cast product. After
 - 16

rolling, these defects can have an effect prejudicial to the quality of the
final plate. Certain mechanical properties measured in the short transverse
(2i:
direction are clearly weakened in the presence of internal macrosegregatron.

Thus the presence in slabs of pronounced centre segregation clearly decreases

(22 23)
the resistance to lamellar tearing of plates for welded structures.

We give successively the experimental and theoretical results showing the

influence of bulging on axial (centre) segregation.

1.1.2.1 Experimental results

This type of segregation is revealed by the presence of a continu-

ously visible axial line on sulphur prints. This defect is made manifest
either by the presence of a segregated thread positively giving a black line
on the sulphur print, or by the presence of a negative segregation made
manifest by a white (pale) line on the sulphur print.

Fig.4 shows an example corresponding to positive segregation. The results

(24)
obtained by Nippon Steel (Fig.19) at the Hirohata works show that bulging
brings about a peak of centre segregation of sulphur that is more pronounced
than when bulging is negligible.

To each side of this central peak there are two zones with slightly decreased
sulphur contents. The central concentration peak is usually accompanied by
a peak of carbon and manganese concentration which is however less pronounced.

Two authors have shown the influence of the bulging deflection on the intensity
(14 ?5)
of centre segregation '~ (Fig.20 and 21).

(14)
Trials run on Mizushima machine no. 5 (Kawasaki Steel ) have shown that
the index of centre segregation increases with the bulging deflection. This
result, shown in Fig.20, is especially clear in the case of a roll spacing
corresponding to withdrawal rolls 280 mm in diameter. The bulging deflection
is a calculated deflection for the corresponding casting conditions.
 - 17 -

(25)
A result of the same type has been obtained by Asano et al by measuring
the thickness of the cold slab at the exit from the machine (Fig.21). These
authors considered that the difference between the desired and actual thick-
nesses of the slab represents the bulging of the slab at the end of solidi-
fication. In this case also, it is found that the intensity of centre segre-
gation increases with the bulging deflection.

The influence of various casting parameters on centre segregation may be

summarised as follows:

The extra-soft steels display centre segregation lines that are more
pronounced than those in medium carbon steels (C > 0.12 % ) . '

Substantial superheat (extent to which the temperature exceeds the

liquidus) favours the formation of pronounced centre segregation.

In contrast, a fully developed (by electromagnetic stirring, for example)

equiaxial solidification structure appreciably limits the centre segre-
(24,28)
gation.

In the case of not very intense secondary cooling, the centre segregation
increases with the casting speed.

(34)
1.1.2.2 Mathematical_modelling of_the_formation_of centre_segregation

(34) (32)
Miyazawa and Schwerdtfeger have developed a mathematical model
describing the movements of the liquid steel in the pasty zone at the centre
of the product, during the bulging of the broad faces of a slab and the forma-
tion of centre segregation. The bulging occurs between two perfectly aligned
consecutive rolls, as is shown in the diagram in Fig.28. The maximal deflection
of the external surface of the slab is designated by 6.

At the end of solidification, the central space, not completely solidified,

is formed by the pasty zone consisting of crystals in the course of growth.
In the absence of bulging, the central pasty zone is characterised by the
following facts:

The temperature decreases from the centre towards the edges.

The fraction solidified varies within the thickness of the slab in

accordance with the previous heat profile: this fraction increases
from the centre towards the edges, where it attains the value 1 at the
solidus front.

The composition of the interdendritic liquid varies in conformity with

the liquidus/solidus equilibrium of the metal cast.

The pasty zone is a porous medium which is the site of a circulation of

interdendritic liquid due to two factors: the contraction of metal as it
solidifies and the bulging.

Bulging varies the thickness of the slab in the course of time. In Fig.29,
two domains can be distinguished:

Domain A in which the slab expands. A suction of liquid toward the centre
is then produced, to refill the space thus created.

Domain Β corresponds to the slab recompression phase. The excess central

liquid is forced toward other regions.

Fig.29a shows the influence of this bulging phenomenon on the circulation

of fluid in isolation, by neglecting the shrinkage of the metal when it
solidifies.

Fig.29b shows the map of interdendritic liquid movements obtained on super­

imposing the two effects. By numerical resolution, one may likewise obtain
the profile of concentrations of alloying elements after complete solidifi­
cation. Such profiles are shown in Fig.30 for carbon and manganese, as a
function of the bulging deflection 6.
 - 19

This overall result, which reproduces the experimental results rather

correctly, arises from the simultaneous action of the various physical
phenomena that have been introduced into the hypotheses of the model and
therefore has not a directly evidential character. Schwerdtfeger has taken
into account, on the one hand, the flows produced in the pasty zone by the
bulging and by the shrinkage on solidification, and on the other, the evo­
lution of the composition of the liquid in motion (equations of the macro-
( 67 )
segregation) . If one refers to the theory
segregation). theoi of macrosegregation and in
particular to the value of the criterion

(V'grad Τ)/ε

where
V = the liquid velocity

grad Τ = the local heat gradient

έ = M?/ít

one understands qualitatively that the map of velocity in Fig.29b leads to

positive segregation in the axis of the slab and to negative segregation in
its immediate neighbourhood.

The examples presented here allow the following facts to be concluded:

bulging occurring between the rolls leads to positive centre segregation,

due to the movements of the liquid steel that it engenders,

this segregation is the more intense, the larger the deflection,

it is the more perceptible, the smaller the partition coefficient of the

alloying element under consideration.

1.2 On-site measurement of bulging

Several attempts to measure bulging have been reported in the litera-

(29 30 31) (29)
ture. ' ' We present in detail the results of K. Wunnenberg who
 20 -

made his measurements of bulging on a continuous casting machine, by varying

a large number of parameters.

These results are the only ones available in the literature and this explains
why they have served as a reference to support the majority of the published
models of bulging. It is to be regretted that this unique study has not been
confirmed by other researchers.

These measurements have been made on a continuous slab casting machine, with
a bow radius of 3.9 m, on which various grades of steel, ranging from St 37
to X 60 , have been cast in slabs 150 to 200 mm thick and 550 to 1800 mm wide,
at withdrawal speeds from 0.8 to 2.0 m/min.

The measuring device (Fig.22) has been designed to detect the displacements
at three measuring points relative to the supporting rolls. The chief para-
meters that control bulging have been studied.

The spacing (pitch) of the supporting rolls has a great influence on the
deformation of the shell. For a low ferrostatic pressure (2.8 bars) with
the rolls 860 mm apart, the bulging of the shell is of the order of 6 mm,
increasing to 37 mm when the roll spacing is increased to 1290 mm (Fig.23).

A decrease of surface temperature without modification of the shell thickness

(supplementary cooling) clearly decreases the bulging (Fig.24).

Measurements have also shown that an increase of casting speed is accompanied

by an appreciable increase of bulging (Fig.25 and 26). This may be explained
by the decreased thickness of the shell and the increase of surface tempera-
ture following increases of casting speed, when the slab residence time bet-
ween two successive rolls is decreased (which tends to decrease the bulging).
Wunnenberg showed that the deformation profile of the shell between two rolls
is not symmetrical, but passes through a maximum at about 70 % of the distance
between the rolls. This result shows that bulging is linked to the creep of
the steel (Fig.27).
 21

The measured bulgings are less than 3 mm when the roll pitch is less than
550 mm (a frequent situation on industrial machines).

Essentially, the influence of casting parameters on the bulging deflection

has been established under exceptional casting conditions, where one or two
rolls had been removed. There are as yet no reports in the literature of
accurate measurements made under normal casting conditions.

1.3 Mechanical modelling of bulging

In order to accurately quantify the influence of the various casting

parameters (withdrawal speed, intensity of cooling) and technical parameters
(pitch of supporting rolls, misalignment of these rolls ...) on the extent
of bulging, it is necessary to develop a mathematical model of the deformation
of the shell of the slab due to the action of ferrostatic pressure.

A number of authors have proposed mathematical models of bulging. These

models can be divided into three principal categories (Fig.31):

. . . , . (5,35)
- elastic models
, *. , «.. Λ , (32,36,37,38)
- elasto-plastic models
, . (19,32,39,40,41)
- viscous models

1.3.1 Elastic models

To model the slab passing between rolls, the authors treat it as a

plate or a beam enclosed on four or two sides.

Elastic calculations show that in the case where the ratio of slab width and
the spacing between two successive supporting rolls is more than 2, the treat­
ment of the slab as a beam gives results close to its treatment as a plate.

If the slab is assumed to rest on these supports, its deformation is symmetri­

cal, with the maximum deflection being at the midpoint between the rolls.
 22

The maximum deflection in the case of an elastic beam is expressed by:

f max = pl4/32 E h 3
(1¡
where
ρ = ferrostatic pressure
E = Young's modulus
1 = distance between the rolls
h = thickness of the beam
f = bulging deflection

for the case of a plate:

f = (4 q L 4 A 5 D)<J>(1, L) (2)

D = E h 3 /12(l ­ > 2 )
where
^ = Poisson's ratio
(¡>(1,L) = function of the width and the length of the plate

The majority of elastic calculations have been made assuming uniform tempera­
ture of the slab, and it is only with difficulty that the value obtained can
be made to give an acceptable representation of bulging.

Numerous values of Young's modulus for steel at high temperature are proposed
(19 31 32 38)
in the literature. ' ' ' However, the existence of a domain of elastic
deformation of steel at these temperatures has not been definitely established.
The models of bulging based on a law of purely elastic behaviour do not allow
description of all the observed phenomena.

1.3.2 Elasto­plastic_models

The relationships between stress and strain used in the elasto­plastic

models are of the form:
 23 -

ε = ε + ε = (σ/Ε) + κ (3)
t e p
where
ε = total strain
ε = elastic deformation
e
ε = plastic deformation
Ρ
σ = stress
E = Young's modulus
η = hardening coefficient
Κ = constant

Elasto-plastic calculations have as a rule been made by the finite elements

.. , (31,37,40)
method.

(31)
Fig.32 shows the results obtained by Kobe Steel. The agreement with
measurements made by the authors seems rather good. It may on the other hand
be noted that the elastic calculation for the same conditions gives bulging
values that are clearly inferior.

All these calculations (elastic and elasto-plastic) have the disadvantage of

not taking into account the slab residence time between the supporting rolls,
and of ignoring the viscous behaviour of steel at high temperature.

1.3.3 Viscous_models

At high temperature, there is no unique relationship between stress

and strain of steel. In fact, for a given strain, the stresses induced in
the steel are also dependent on the rate of strain. This phenomenon is made
obvious by creep tests (Fig.34).

Fig.33 shows the definition of the various domains characterising a creep

curve.

(32)
In the table in Fig.35 (taken from Schwerdtfeger et al are listed the laws
obtained by various authors for the two chief types of creep behaviour:
 - 24 -

ii τ> ■ 4- · 4- (19,46)
1) Primary or transient creep
(46 47 48)
2) Secondary or steady creep " ' ' charac
t erised by rate of
strain έ = constant

Some other tests (49) have made use of compression.

But the experiments shown in Fig.34 show that there is no instantaneous de­
formation, nor steady creep in the period that is of concern to the bulging
phenomenon (around 1 minute). The deformation ε thus arises chiefly from
primary or transient creep.

By using a creep law of the type:

ε = a0 σ tn (4)
(n *v< 0.5 for low-carbon content steels)

A a exp(-Q/RT) with m ^ 3 (5)

where
a Q is determined from creep tests, with σ = constant

(19)
Fujii et al have derived an expression for the maximum bulging deflection
δ , resulting from a calculation of the bending of plates at uniform tem­
perature
δ = (3 t n )/h 3 (6)
max

β = 12(1 - > 2 )α a q a4 (7)

where
^ = Poisson's ratio
a0 = creep constant
h = thickness of the shell
q = metallurgical height
a = the roll pitch
t = the creep time (half the residence time between two adjacent rolls)
η = constant = φ(Τ, grade) η ^ 0.5 for low-carbon steels
 25 -

In the case of a beam restrained at both ends with a temperature gradient,

t h e maximum
the maxiii bulging deflection established by Palmaers et al has as its
equation:

f = K(T){(q2-0L5-8t°-26)/h4·8} (8)

(32)
and that established by Miyazawa and Schwerdtfeger :

f = α(T, t, q, h)L N (9)

where
K (T) = constant, that depends on the temperature gradient
over the thickness

a(T,t,q,h) = constant, dependent on the temperature gradient,

the residence time on the rolls, the ferrostatic
pressure, and the thickness of the shell

Ν = constant, dependent on the mechanical properties of the

steel (N = 5:14)

The boundary conditions used in these models ' assume that on the two
supporting rolls, the deflection, the derivative of the deflection, and the
curvature are zero.

Fig.36 allows comparison of the results obtained with different laws of

(32)
viscous behaviour and of these results with those obtained using elasto-
-plastic or elastic models. The curves plotted represent the evolution of
maximum bulging deflection as a function of roll pitch, using Wunnenberg's
experimental conditions. It can be seen that curves 1 and 2 (corresponding
to conditions 1 and 2 in Fig.35) characterising primary creep are in good
agreement with Wunnenberg's experimental results, but that curves 3, 4, and 6,
(32)
using a secondary creep law, and curve 7, using an elasto-plastic law give
results that are clearly too small.

In addition, the profiles of bulging between two rolls calculated using primary
(25)
creep data 1 ai
and 2 from Fig.36, reproduce Wunnenberg's measurements rather
well (Fig.37).
 - 26 -

We therefore see that the results of these calculations are very sensitive
to the laws of steel behaviour that are used. The problem then arises of
determining the law of stress-strain-rate of strain for the steel under
conditions close to those under which the shell is stressed during continu-
ous casting, that is, by slow deformations (strains) of small amplitude, at
high temperature (between 800 and 1500 C) .

In short, the development of a visco-plastic model of bulging (taking simul-

teneous account of the plastic and the viscous behaviour of steel at high
temperature) ought to allow a good description of the bulging phenomenon to
be obtained.
 27

2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF BULGING, DEVELOPED AT IRSID

2.1 Mechanical behaviour of steel at high temperature

At high temperature (over 800 C) the behaviour of steel is visco-

-plastic, as can be shown by various mechanical tests: tensile, torsion,
creep, relaxation ....

For modelling the bulging of continuously cast slabs, from all the laws of
visco-plastic behaviour described in the literature, we chose a
Norton-Hoff type of law, that can be expressed as:

σ = λ (Τ) · ε η ( Τ ) - εω(Τ) (10)

where
σ = stress
ε = strain
ε = rate of strain
Τ = temperature
η = hardening coefficient
m = viscosity coefficient

Torsion tests of steel 18 M 5 (Afnor standard) under conditions of stress

close to those of hot rolling have allowed the following law of behaviour
to be determined:

σ = 0.344 e x p ^ l ^ f (Ο.ΟΙε) 0 ' 2 3 · (0.00216ε) ^ ^ - (11)

where
ε is in %
• . . -1
ε is in % s
θ is in °C
σ is in daN/mm2

for stress conditions defined by:

2 % < ε < 50 %
4 % s -11 << εε << <400 % s
500 °C < θ < 1200 °C
 28

This law of behaviour has been used in some calculations of bulging, in

order to carry out a comparison with some other laws.

In the framework of the present study, the laws of steel behaviour at high
temperature have been established by slow tensile tests carried out on a
modified creep-testing machine (Appendix 1) under conditions of stress near
to those of the bulging of continuously cast slabs.

Table 1: Conditions of slow tensile tests at high temperature

Test temperature 900 900 1000 1100 1200

(°C)
Rate of strain
• ,· o - 1 » 3
ε (in % s ) 0.83-10 0.208-10-2 0.417·10~2 0.83·10~2
(kept constant)

Level of strain
at which the
From 0.5 to 4
results are
analysed: ε (in %)

Before the tensile test begins, the test-pieces are austenised by heating
to 1300 °C, holding for 5 minutes, and cooling naturally to the tensile-test
temperature.

Two steels for heavy plate have been studied; their chemical compositions by
weight % are given in the following table:

Table 2: Chemical composition of the two steels studied

Steel Mn Si Al Nb

18 M 5 0.18 1.37 0.42 0.036 0.009 0.018 0

18 M 5 Nb 0.18 1.37 0.42 0.036 0.009 0.018 0.04

 ­ 29

For steel 18 M 5 and the similar steel with an added 0.4 % of niobium, the
respective laws obtained are as follows:

144 5 599.3
¿
n o^ , 3521, (0.355 ­ **!,) (0.686 ­ aJ.nJ M0 ,
σ = 0.246 exp( ) ε θ+273 ε θ+273 (12.1
σ+ζ / J

π rnoo , 2576, (­0.300 + β β β ) · (0.790 ­ — ξ ? ) Μ,,

σ = 0.5082 exp( Q „„_) ε θ+273 ε θ+273 (13)
σ+ζ ιό

with

σ in daN/mm2

θ in °C

ε in %

ε• ■
in o
% s-1

In Fig.38 are plotted the evolutions of the coefficients m and η as functions

of the test temperature. In addition, an example of the tensile-test curves
obtained with steel 18 M 5 is shown in Fig.39.

During the mathematical modelling, in certain cases we had to assume that

the coefficients of viscosity and of hardening of the steel were independent
of the temperature.

We have therefore re-analysed the slow tensile tests (54) into the form of a
law of Norton-Hoff type with coefficients η and m as constants. The results
obtained are:

For steel 18 M 5:

. 01rn , 6971, 0.22 -0.21

σ = 0.0159 exp( e + 2 7 3 ) ε ε (14)

For steel 18 M 5 with Nb:

η nnan . 7678, 0.18 -0.14 .,_.

σ = 0.0087 exp( Q + 2 7 3 ) ε ε (15)
 30 ­

with

σ in daN/mm2

θ in °C

ε in %
1
• · c
ε in % s­

The majority of the calculations of bulging presented in this report were

made using these last four laws of behaviour, and especially the last two.

2.2 Mathematical models, developed by IRSID, of the bulging of continuously

cast steel slabs

Using the previously determined laws of visco­plastic behaviour of the

steel, in collaboration with the Laboratoire de Mécanique of Metz Uni­
(42 54 57)
versity we have developed several mathematical models of bulging.
We will deal here with only two main models, the special features of which
are described below (the static model and the kinetic model with a law of
visco­plastic behaviour). Only these two models will be used to determine
the influence of various thermal and technical parameters of continuous
casting on bulging, because these are the best for taking into account the
various observations concerning the deformation of the shell of a slab bet­
ween two supporting rolls.

We will present, successively, two cases studied. The first case involves
a static model of the bulging of slabs, that allows simulation of the defor­
mation of the shell during a stoppage of the slab in the machine when casting
is in progress. The second case described concerns a kinetic model in which
we take into account the speed of sagging of the slab on the supporting
rolls, in order to simulate the deformation of the slab during steady state
casting.
 31

2.2.1 Method of calculation

In this section we state the hypotheses and the method of resolution

common to both the static and kinetic models. In elasticity, the defor­
mation of a plate on two supports may be assimilated to that of a beam if
the width of the plate is more than twice the distance between supports.
We have assumed that this result can be generalised to the case of a plate
having visco-plastic behaviour.

We therefore assimilate the shell of the steel slab to a beam of small thick­
ness compared to its length and its width (Fig.40, drawings 1 and 2 ) .

The basic hypotheses common to both models are the following:

- The shell of the slab is simulated by a beam restrained at both ends, to

take into account the continuity of the slab in the machine.

- The ferrostatic pressure of the liquid steel acts as a uniformly distri­

buted load on the internal surface of the slab.

- The intrinsic weight of the beam is negligible compared to the ferrostatic

pressure.

- The mechanical properties of the steel are isotropic.

- Temperature varies linearly in the thickness of the slab.

- The law of behaviour of the steel is visco-plastic and expressed by:

σ = λ (Τ) ε11 km for Τ < 1300 °C (16)

σ2 = σ.(Τ = 1300 °C) · (1500 - Τ)/200 for 1300 °C < Τ < 1500 °C (17)

Equation (17) allows extrapolation of the results of mechanical tests to

the solidification temperature.
 - 32 -

- The deformations are assumed to be planar, that is, the curvature C at

a point in the interval between rolls is independent of the distance to
the surface.

(58)
- The.temperature field in the thickness of the slab is assumed to be known.

The symbols we have used are the following. They are used throughout this
report (Fig.40):

1 = length of the beam or distance between rolls

h = height of the beam or shell of the slab
ε = deformation (linear dilation in the direction Ox)
έ = rate of deformation = αε/dt
Τ = temperature ( K)
t = period during which the ferrostatic pressure acts
f(χ) = deformation of the mean axis, or bulging deflection on the χ abscissa
(df/dx)(x ) = gradient of the mean axis at the χ abscissa
2 2
C(χ) = (d f/dx ) (x0) = curvature of the mean axis
y0 = ordinate of the neutral axis
σ = stress in the direction Ox
η = hardening coefficient
m = viscosity coefficient
M(x) = deflecting moment at the χ abscissa
MQ = restraining moment
F0 = restraining force
ρ = ferrostatic pressure
Η = metallurgical height (along the vertical)
L = metallurgical length
ν = casting speed
θ = temperature ( C)
Ν = force perpendicular to a section of slab of thickness dx

During the static or kinetic modelling, the different stages of calculation

are those explained below.
 33 -

1) Determination of the moment-curvature relationship:

- the linear deformation at the point of co-ordinates (x,y) is expressed

as a function of y and of the curvature c(χ) of the neutral axis by the
relationship :

ε(χ) = -C(y - y ) (18)

o

y being the ordinate of the neutral axis (y = 0 in the case of

uniform temperature)

- the deflecting moment at the point on abscissa "x" has as its

expression:

(19)

- there is likewise a relationship:

M(x) = φ(χ) (20)

where M(x) is a polynomial in χ

- by replacing ε and ε by values obtained from equation (18), the

relationships σ = f(ε, ε) (14) and (15) transform to

σ = g (c, c, y) (21)

- by injecting the relationship σ = g(c,c,y) into equation (19),

we obtain a moment-curvature relationship at the point on
abscissa x:

C(x) = FCM(X)] (22)

 34

2) Determination of the neutral axis:

The ordinate of the neutral axis y is determined by the relationship:

(23)

which expresses that the perpendicular force on the neutral axis is

zero. In the static case, y is calculated by means of relationship
(24):

(24)

3) Determination of the parameters characterising the relationship

M(x) = φ(χ)

These parameters are the restraining moment M alone in the static case,
or both the restraining moment M and the restraining force F in the
kinetic case. They are determined by the choice of one or both boundary
conditions at the perpendiculars to the rolls, according to whether we
are concerned with the static or kinetic case. The calculation of M and
o
of F in the kinetic case is done by dichotomy in such a way as to satis­
fy the imposed boundary conditions.

4) Calculation of the maximum deflection f max:

M(x) being known, C(χ) is completely determined by means of the three

initial conditions C(o), (df/dx)(o), and f(o) that it is necessary to fix.

The deflection is obtained by double integration of the relationship:

C(x) = (d2 f(x))/dx2 (25)

 35 -

2.2.2 Static model

In the static state, the shell of the slab is assimilated to a beam

restrained at both ends and subject to a uniform pressure (Fig.40, drawing 1).

Firstly, we set up a model assuming the beam temperature to be uniform. This

model may be used, for example, to simulate deformation using plasticine to
make the model of bulging (see part 3 ) .

Secondly, the model of bulging on a continuous slab casting machine was

established by introducing, on the basis of the previous model, a temperature
gradient in the thickness of the beam studied.

The details of the mathematical formulation, as well as the assumptions

pertaining to the static model, are given in full in Appendix 2.

In this case, the restraining moment M is determined by dichotomy in such

a way as to satisfy the equation:

(24)

The initial conditions retained for this model are:

(26)

(27)

(28)

2.2.3 Kinetic model

In the case of casting at constant speed, we have determined the

deformation of the shell by assimilating it to a beam sagging on simple
equidistant supports at spacing 1. The beam is subject to a uniformly
 36 -

distributed pressure, exerted by the liquid steel. The beam is displaced

at velocity ν on the supporting rolls. Note that in this case, the origin
of the datum-point is the perpendicular to the roll situated upstream of
the portion for which the calculation is made (Fig.40, drawing 2 ) .

Note also that in order to generalise the laws of behaviour established

experimentally for the case of application of tension and of compression
to the steel, we have admitted that they can be written in the form:

in • ι m-1 ·
σ = λ (Τ) ε ε (29)

The sign of the stress is then that of the rate of deformation.

Conditions at the imposed boundary conditions

To resolve the system of equations presented in Appendix 3, it is necessary

to impose 5 boundary conditions, describing the conditions of support of
the slab on two successive rolls.

In the absence of accurate knowledge of this subject, we have chosen to

study three distinct groups of boundary conditions. These are given in
the following table:

Table 3: Three groups of boundary conditions imposed on the kinetic model

Group of boundary conditions Boundary conditions (5 equations)

No. 1 C (o) = C (1) = 0

f' (o) = 0
f (o) = f (1)
No. 2 C (o) = 0
f'(o) = f' (1)
f (o) = f (1)
No. 3 f (o) = f (1) = 0
M (o) = M (1)
C (o) = C (1)
f' (o) = f (1)
 37 -

It will be noted that boundary conditions no. 3 describe a situation in

which the conditions of slab-roll contact are identical on the two rolls.

A simplified flowchart of the method of numerical resolution used in the

kinetic model is shown in Appendix 4.

2.3 Results of the calculations of bulging

Computer programes have been written for the kinetic and static models
relating to a beam with a heat gradient in its thickness. Below we will
present and discuss the various results obtained using these models.

Some calculations relate to continuous casting machine no. 12 in Steelworks 1

of USINOR at Dunkerque; Fig.41 is a diagram of this machine, that produces
slabs 210, 250, or 300 mm thick, a large proportion (80 %) of which are
destined to be rolled to heavy plate. The machine is a bow-type, of 12 m
radius, and the width of the slabs cast varies from 1040 to 2090 mm.

2.3.1 Results obtained_with_the_kinetic_model

The calculations made with the kinetic model of bulging have been
carried out in 3 stages :

- Firstly, we studied the influence of the various imposed boundary conditions

on the bulging deformation.

- Secondly, we applied the model to the casting conditions for which Wünnen-
berg made the only measurements made in works trials that are reported in
the literature, and compared our results with those obtained by other authors
using various models.

- Thirdly, we calculated the bulging profile along machine no. 12 at USINOR

Dunkerque for various casting conditions.
 38 -

2.3.1.1 J;nf lue^œ_of_the_bo^ndary_conditions_on_steel_ 18_M_5_ (14)^

In order to compare with each other the different groups of imposed

boundary conditions, we applied our kinetic model to the casting conditions
used by Wünnenberg when measuring bulging on a continuous casting machine:

Solid thickness 79 mm
Roll pitch 860 mm
Metallurgical height 4 m
Surface temperature 1030 °C
Casting speed 0.85 m/min
Steel grade X 60

The results obtained are shown in Fig.42.

In the case of boundary conditions no. 1, a maximum deflection of 12.86 mm

is obtained for a point located at 64 % of the interval between the rolls.
At all points over this interval, the calculated deflection is negative,
that is, the surface of the slab is located on the outer side of the line
linking the two points of slab-roll contact. It may however be noted that
the gradient of the deformation is not identical toward the two supports.

Using boundary conditions no. 2, the negative bulging deflection is about

half the absolute value of that obtained with conditions no. 1. The point
at which the calculated deflection is maximum is located at 60 % of the
interval between the rolls. For these boundary conditions, the curvature
of the slab on the two supports is not the same.

The deformation calculated using boundary conditions no. 3, assuming the

bearing conditions on the supporting rolls to be symmetrical, displays a
quasi asymmetric profile.

In the first portion of the interval between rolls, the deflection of the
slab is positive, and then becomes negative.
 39 -

The maximum deflection defined as the dimensional difference between the

maximum and minimum of the curve, has a value practically corresponding
to the mean of the maximum deflections obtained with boundary conditions
nos. 1 and 2. This result is verified for the majority of the calculations
made.

In addition, the value of the maximum deflection obtained with conditions

no. 3 is about 70 % of that obtained with conditions no. 1.

Moreover, only boundary conditions group no. 3 allows the taking into account
of a non-zero deformation at right angles to the rolls, and of a maximum
tensile stress located in the vicinity of these rolls, phenomena revealed
by the experiments of Yamauchi et al (Fig.4).

2.3.1.2 Comparison_of_the_calculations_with_the_avai^

In order to verify the validity of our model, we compared the results

of calculations made for different boundary conditions and different grades
(29)
of steel with the measurements made by Wünnenberg.

Fig.43 shows the results obtained when using boundary conditions no. 1 for
steels 18 M 5 and 18 M 5 Nb. The calculations were made for the casting
conditions reported by Wünnenberg, assuming constant coefficients m and n
of the behaviour laws.

Fig.43 shows the following results:

- The calculated maximum deflection is located at about 65 % of the pitch of

the rolls, which is in good agreement with the measurements made by
Wünnenberg.

- At all points on the distance between the supporting rolls, the order of
magnitude of the calculated deflections is the same as that of the measure-
ments .
 - 40

- The calculated values are greater than the measured values, the maximum
difference between measured and calculated being 2.5 mm for steel 18 M 5 Nb
and about 5 mm for steel 18 M 5.

- The deflections calculated for steel 18 M 5 are at all points greater

than those calculated for steel 18 M 5 Nb.

The results obtained, using the same assumptions and boundary conditions
no. 3, are shown in Fig.44.

It can be seen that the general form of the curves is independent of the
law of behaviour of the steel and differs considerably from that derived
from Wünnenberg's measurements.

In contrast, the maximum deflection calculated with the law of behaviour

of steel 18 M 5 Nb corresponds to the values measured by Wünnenberg.

The results presented show that it is for boundary conditions no. 1 that
the calculations best describe the measurements available in the literature,
from a qualitative point of view. The differences between calculated and
measured deflections are, in this case, relatively small.

On the other hand, the various calculations made show that the bulging
deflection is not very dependent on the type of boundary conditions inserted
in the model.

Therefore, in order to simplify the presentation, we decided hereafter to

carry out all the calculations of bulging with boundary conditions group
no. 1 and the law of behaviour of steel 18 M 5.

2.3.1.3 Comparison of the calculations with some other results taken from
the literature_

(39)
In Fig.45 are shown the results obtained by Palmaers and Etienne,
calculated for conditions identical to those retained in the previous para-
graph, for a solid thickness of 83 mm.
 - 41 -

(39)
The deformation obtained by these authors, using a creep law, has a
profile near to that we obtain with our kinetic model. The derivatives
of deflection are likewise different over the two rolls.

The results obtained are qualitatively and quantitatively identical to

those obtained using our model.

Fig.46 compares the results obtained using our model with those derived,
(32)
for different types of steel, by Schwerdtfeger, using a model that
incorporates the creep laws. As this figure shows the evolution of the
calculated deflection with the spacing of the rolls, we have superimposed
the results of measurements made by Wünnenberg.

It can be seen that the calculations made with our kinetic model using
boundary conditions no. 3 are located in the upper range of Wunnenberg's
measurements, whereas the results using a creep law correspond more closely
to the lower range of these measurements and are even inferior (case of
curve 5).

2.3.1.4 P£ofile_of_bulging_on_machine_no_,_ 12_at_USIN0R Dunkerque

We have made kinetic calculations of bulging over the whole length

of machine 12 at USINOR Dunkerque.

The characteristic values of the machine that were used for the calculations
are as follows:

- Radius of curvature of the machine = 12 m

- Pitch of the rolls varies from 220 mm up to 540 mm over the length of
the machine
- Casting speed =0.8 m/min
- Slab size = 250 mm thick by 1200 mm wide

*
At each level in the machine, the shell thickness and the shell temperature
have been determined in accordance with heat calculations made using existing
/ COI
models at IRSID.
 42 -

We successively studied the influence on the bulging profile along the

machine of the following two casting parameters:

- the grade of steel cast,

- the profile of secondary cooling used.

a) Influence of the law of behaviour of the steel on the deformation of

the slab

VJe compared the evolution of bulging along machine 12 for the two previously
mentioned laws, equations (14) and (15), of visco-plastic behaviour of hot
steel, in which we have assumed the coefficients m and n to be independent
of temperature.

For the calculation, the following assumptions are made:

- the secondary cooling of the machine is so adjusted as to keep the surface

temperature of the slab close to 1050 C

- the boundary conditions of the model are conditions group no.l.

In Fig.47 we have plotted, as a function of the distance to the top of the

mould, the evolution of the maximum deflection between successive rolls,
calculated by means of the kinetic model of bulging, for each of the laws
of behaviour mentioned above.

In the upper part of Fig.47, the diameter and the spacing of the supporting
rolls at each point are indicated.

For the two steels studied, it can be seen that the slab deflection increases
suddenly on passing from one zone of rolls to another zone with rolls of
different diameter. Then, in this zone of rolls of the same diameter, the
deflection decreases progressively, in proportion to the increasing thick-
ness of the shell, until the slab enters the next zone.
 - 43 -

The maximum values of the deflection are rather small, less than 0.5 mm
at the top of the machine and over a distance of about 7 m from the meniscus,
for roll spacings less than 370 mm.

The maximum bulging deflection is much larger further down the machine and
with each change of roll spacing. It is at a maximum between rolls 76 and
78, that is, where the ferrostatic pressure and the variation of roll spacing
is greatest.

At constant roll spacing (pitch), the decrease of the maximum bulging de-
flection in proportion to descent in the machine shows that an increase of
shell thickness is a very important factor in the limitation of bulging,
and takes precedence over the increase of ferrostatic pressure toward the
base of the machine.

These results show the fundamental part played by roll pitch and the thick-
ness of the shell in the phenomenon of bulging. The smallest deflections
are obtained for steel 18 M 5 Nb (15), which is the more heat-resistant steel.

b) Influence of the cooling profile of the slab

One of the methods that can be used to limit the bulging of the shell of a
continuously cast slab is control of its cooling. Measurements made by
Wünnenberg ' show that for a slab surface temperature of 1050 C, the
bulging of the shell between the supporting rolls is 7 mm, and when the
temperature is decreased to 900 C, the bulging is only 3 mm (Fig.48).

Using our kinetic model, we have compared the evolution of the bulging, along
machine 12 at USINOR Dunkerque, for two cooling profiles:

- a hot profile (surface temperature ^ 1050 C ) ,

- a cold profile (surface temperature at the lower end of the machine
•v 680 °C) .
 - 44 -

In Fig.48 are shown the results obtained for these two settings of the
cooling system in the case of steel 18 M 5. The hot profile curve is
that shown for steel 18 M 5 in Fig.47.

Case of the hot profile

With a slab surface temperature that is constant at 1050 C over about 9 m

of the machine, between levels 3.5 m and 12 m from the meniscus, the maximum
deflection obtained is 1.5 mm in the case of steel 18 M 5. This is obtained
at the last change of roll pitch, at a distance of about 9 m from the
meniscus. The deflection obtained at the last roll pitch change before
the end of the liquid core, that is, at a distance of 15 m from the meniscus,
is 2.5 mm (Fig.47).

Case of the cold profile

In the case of the cold profile, it is apparent that the bulging deflections
between rolls are less than 0.1 mm over the whole length óf the machine.
The bulging is thus practically suppressed.

This influence of secondary cooling on the degree of bulging between con-

secutive rolls is explained by its effect on two physical parameters that
control the deformation of the slab at a given level in the machine: at
constant casting speed, more intense secondary cooling causes the thickness
of the slab shell to increase and, above all, lowers the surface temperature
of the slab.

2.3.2 5ësults_obJ;aine^_with_ tøe_s^ati^_mod^l

With the object of establishing the effect of a casting stoppage on

the intensity of bulging over a continuous slab casting machine, we compared
Wunnenberg's measurements with the results of calculations made using the
static model.
 - 45 -

For this purpose, we introduced as calculation data the casting conditions

indicated in 2.3.1.4, corresponding to those of the measurements made. We
have arbitrarily defined the half-space (1/2) residence time t of the slab
between two rolls by the relationship:

t = l/2v (30)
where
1 = the roll pitch (= space between rolls)
v = the casting speed

We made these calculations with the laws of behaviour established by slow

tensile testing, equation (14) for steel 18 M 5 and equation (15) for steel
18 M 5 Nb.

Fig.49 shows the evolution of the deflection between two supporting rolls,
calculated by using the static model with each of these two laws of behaviour.

The figure shows that during a casting stoppage:

- the maximum deflection of the slab is symmetrical between the two rolls
and its maximum is located at the middle of the interval between the two
supports.

- Allowing for the assumptions made, the calculated maximum deflection of

steel 18 M 5 plus niobium is close to that measured by Wünnenberg.

2.3.3 O ve rail model of the bulging_of s l ^ s

The six thermal and technical parameters intervening in our models

of bulging are the following:

- the ferrostatic pressure ρ

- the space between rolls 1
- the thickness of the shell h
- the casting speed ν
- the temperature of the shell Τ
- the law of behaviour of the steel σ(ε,ε)
 - 46 -

It therefore ought to be possible to express the slab deflection by a

relationship of the form:

f = F(p, 1, h, ν, Τ, σ(ε,έ)) (31)

We have established a relationship between the maximum deflection of the

slab between two successive rolls and the values of the active parameters
cited.

For this, two methods have been used:

- The first consists of a statistical analysis of the results of numerous

calculations made by means of the static and kinetic models described
above.

- The second is based on dimensional analysis of the moment-curvature

relationship established in the visco-plastic kinetic model of bulging
for symmetrical boundary conditions on two consecutive rolls (Appendix 5
and Appendix 4 - visco-plastic model).

a) Static case

In the static case, we have chosen to express the calculated maximum deflection
as a function of the technical parameters of a continuous casting machine
by means of the relationship:

f = K(T){(p~ (32)
max
with
Τ in °K
σ in daN/mm2
1 in mm
h in mm
f in mm
t creep time in s
 - 47 -

We have determined the coefficients K(T), a, b, c, and d by means of a

statistical treatment of the results of about a hundred calculations of
static bulging after having linearised equation (32).

We present below the results obtained using two laws of behaviour (Table 4)
The high value of the correlation coefficients obtained shows that the
relationship accounts perfectly for all the results obtained.

Table 4: Regression coefficients of equation (32)

^Regression Correi,
Vcoefficient coef. a b c d K (T)

Behaviour^v
law ^v
-9
Equation (14) 4.32·10 · exp
steel 18 M 5 0.998 2.00 6.64 0.36 5.23
slow tension (6.655Ί0 - 3 · T)

Equation (15) 3.29· 10~ 1 0 · exp

steel 18M5Nb 0.999 2.87 8.23 0.49 6.93
slow tension (7.58-10-3 · T)

b) Kinetic case

The calculations in the kinetic case have been made by using the same method
as in the static case, but we chose the following formula for the maximum
bulging deflection:

f = K(T){(Ha l b )/(v C h d )} (33)

max
where
H : metallurgical height in m
1 : h and f in mm
t : in s
v : casting speed in m/min

The results obtained, by statistical analysis, for steel 18 M 5 are shown

in Table 5 below:
 - 48 -

Table 5: Regression coefficients of equation (33)

Regression K (T) Correlation

coef. of (33) a b c d T (°K) coefficient

-12
Steel 18 M 5 7.867 10
boundary conditions 2.25 6.10 0.57 5.26 exp 0.997
group no. 1 (0.00466 T)

For the two laws of behaviour, equation (14) and (15), we have determined
the regression coefficients of equation (33) by a dimensional analysis method.

The regression coefficients are then explicitly defined as functions of n and

m, but this method does not allow a general equation for K(T) to be obtained.
Nevertheless, with certain simplifying assumptions K can be found for a given
value of T, using as reference a calculated value of the bulging deflection.

In Table 6 are given the regression coefficients obtained by dimensional

analysis for boundary conditions group no. 1.

Table 6: Regression coefficients of equation (33) in a kinetic case

obtained by dimensional analysis

Regression coefficient a b c d

Law 18 M 5 eqn. (14) 2.32 7.4 0.487 5.64

Law 18 M 5 Nb eqn. (15) 3.09 8.62 0.436 7.21

slow tension

These results show the essential parts played in bulging by the spacing
(pitch) of the rolls and the thickness of the slab shell.
 - 49 -

For steel 18 M 5, we confirm that the regression coefficients a, b, c, and d

of equation (33), obtained by the dimensional analysis method (for a mean
shell temperature of 1200 C) are very close to those obtained by using the
mathematical model.

The dimensional analysis carried out shows that the different regression
coefficients depend solely upon the values of the hardening coefficient n
and viscosity coefficient m in the law of behaviour of the steel.

2.3.4 Discussion 2f_the_££sults

The results presented allow quantification of the influence of the

various parameters studied on the intensity of bulging.

Thus the pitch of the supporting rolls appears to be the essential parameter
controlling the intensity of bulging; but, with conventional engineering
of the rolls of a continuous casting machine, the diameter of the rolls (and
therefore their spacing) at a given level in the machine cannot be less than
a limiting value, below which the roll deflection, due to the action on it
of the ferrostatic pressure, will be prohibitive. In order to use rolls of
smaller diameter than this minimum value, it is necessary to have recourse
to special techniques, such for example as rolls with intermediate bearingso

The second parameter influencing the intensity of bulging is the thickness

of the shell (h). At a given level in the continuous casting machine, the
shell thickness may be increased, especially by decreasing the casting speed
(v), at constant surface temperature (T) and to a lesser degree, by increasing
the intensity of secondary cooling (thus, by decreasing the surface tempera-
ture of the slab) at a given casting speed. In this last assumption, the
influence of shell thickness on bulging is added to that of the surface tem-
perature of the slab.

The ferrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid steel present in the core of
the product has a substantial influence on the intensity of bulging of the
 - 50 -

slab. On a continuous casting machine of given geometry, the pressure

exerted by the liquid steel at all points in the installation is fixed.
With the object of minimising the maximum pressure exerted by the liquid
steel, some designers propose a novel geometry of continuous casting machines
called "ultra-low machines", characterised by a radius of curvature increasing
as a function of the distance to the mould and by a maximum ferrostatic height
of the order of 5 m.

Equation (33) however shows that, other things being equal, the bulging
deflection decreases when casting speed increases. But an increase of casting
speed is accompanied on a continuous casting machine by a decrease of shell
thickness, and an increase of surface temperature. If all these parameters
are taken into account, it becomes apparent that bulging increases slightly
with the casting speed. Appendix 6 illustrates this phenomenon by means of
simple calculations.

In fact, control of surface temperature of the slab allows bulging to be

limited, either directly, by increasing the mechanical strength of the steel,
or indirectly, by increasing the thickness of the shell at all points in
the machine, at a given casting speed.
 51 ­

3. PHYSICAL MODELLING OF BULGING

In order to verify simultaneously the basic assumptions and the results

of calculations using mathematical models of bulging, we have developed a
physical model based on the use of modelling paste (plasticine).

After describing the physical model developed and the experimental method
used, we will present and then discuss the results obtained.

3.1 Definition of the mock­up of bulging

The physical model of bulging that we have developed consists of a

mock­up representing, on a reduced scale, part of a continuous casting
machine in which the slab will be simulated by means of a material conforming
at ambient temperature to a law of mechanical behaviour similar to that of
steel at high temperature.

3.1.1 9î}2iSË_°Î_5 material for simulating the behaviour of steel

IRSID, at its experimental station at Maizières­les­Metz, has a labor­

atory in which rolling phenomena are simulated by means of plasticine, so
we decided to use this material for simulating the bulging phenomenon on
the mock­up.

Plasticine consists chiefly of calcium carbonate (whiting) dispersed in

petroleum jelly, is inexpensive, and easily worked when cold, which allows
the use of low­power machines for its shaping.

In addition, in the ranges of strain and rate of strain currently used in

rolling, plasticine conforms to a visco­plastic law of behaviour.

In the case of rolling, for rates of strain of the order of 10 s and

for strains ranging from 0.03 to 0.75, two laws of visco­plastic behaviour
* n t. · ■ ^ ­, ­x. (59,60)
of plasticine are proposed in the literature.
 - 52 -

6
σ = 0.38-10 exp(4620/T) ε 0 ' 2 έ 0 - 0 8 (34)

σ = 1.5·ΙΟ"6 exp(293Û/T) r ° ' 2 r ° ' 2 (sic) (35)

with
(2//3) In(1/(1 ­ r)) (36)
and
σ in kg/mm2
­1
ε in s
ε is dimensionless

The coefficients of hardening η and of viscosity m in these two behaviour

laws are of the same order of magnitude as those determined at IRSID for
structural steels of the 18 M 5 type : η = 0.24; m = 0.215.

3.1.2 Dimensioning of the_mock­up

The mock­up has been designed to simulate the bulging of a slab

900 χ 210 mm7 in a corset of four pairs of rolls in different parts of one
of the machines in USINOR steelworks II at. Dunkerque. The shell (of solidi­
fied steel) is simulated by a thickness of plasticine that forms the base­
­plate of a vessel filled with v/ater representing the ferrostatic pressure.

In steelworks II, the casting machines have rolls of seven different dia­
meters . We have therefore divided the machine into seven zones, each zone
corresponding to rolls of uniform diameter. For each zone we have deter­
mined the mean shell thickness as well as the maximum and minimum ferro­
static pressures.

In order to be able to simulate these seven zones with only one mock­up,
we altered the geometric scale for each of the zones studied, by fixing
the roll diameter at 100 mm. The geometric scale therefore varied from
0.227 to 0.555.
 53 -

De
3.1.3 scription_of_rhe_mock-up

The mock-up has been designed to verify experimentally the boundary

conditions perpendicular to tne rolls and to establish the influence on the
bulging deflection of various trial parameters, namely:

- the size and spacing of the rolls

- the value of the ferrostatic pressure
- the position of the slab in the machine
- the thickness of the shell
- the casting speed
- the residence time of the slab between two consecutive pairs of rolls.

This mock-up is made up of four freely rotating rolls, aligned in a hori-

zontal plane. A minimum of four rolls was necessary to ensure that the
deformation of the plasticine between the central rolls is not influenced
by edge effects.

Fig.50 shows the principle of the systems of support of the plasticine

and of adjusting the rolls. The position of rolls 1, 2, and 4 can be
adjusted horizontally, roll 3 being fixed in the horizontal plane but
adjustable vertically.

The various roll spacings (1) range from 107.5 mm to 125 mm. Each roll can
be adjusted + 2 mm around its reference point.

The shell of the slab is simulated by a thick plate of plasticine that

serves as the base-plate of a vessel made of the same material but with
the walls supported by a metal jacket. The pressure on the base-plate is
adjusted by regulating the water level in the vessel.

On both sides of the mock-up, and in the interval between each pair of rolls,
are provided supporting plates so shaped thar. retraction is rapid and easy.
By this means, parasitic deformations of the base-plate,that would introduce
errors into the deflection measurements, are avoided.
 - 54

The bulging deflections are measured by displacement sensors that follow

the evolution of the deflection by maintaining contact with a point on
the base-plate.

A motor-driven haulage system ensures the travel of the vessel at constant

speed on the supporting rolls.

3.1.4 Sicilituäe^study

In order to be able to relate the results of the trials run on the

mock-up to the values of bulging on the industrial continuous casting
machine, we made a detailed calculation of the conditions of similitude
(Appendix 7), taking into account the laws of behaviour of plasticine,
determined in the laboratory, for small strains and low rates of strain.

The results of this study show that the dimensioning of the mock-up does
not allow perfect simulation of the phenomenon of bulging on an industrial
continuous casting machine.

But, as with all tests on a mock-up, the simulation of a real phenomenon

can be only partial and necessitates the making of assumptions describing
the model adopted. In our case, taking into account the true weight of
the plasticine in the analysis of our measurements allows neglect of the
mass forces acting on the mock-up. The calculations presented in Appendix 7
show that under these conditions, it is possible to choose trial parameters
such that the similitude ratios of the strains and rates of strain are 1.

(42)
3.2 Realisation of trials on the mock-up

We made two series of measurements. The first was concerned with

simulating a casting stoppage, by leaving the plasticine vessel at rest
on the supporting rolls. We then recorded the value of the deflection of
the base-plate of the vessel, as a function of the stoppage time and thus
of the creep time of the simulation material.
 - 55

During these "static" tests we installed two contact displacement sensors

moving along the two perpendicular axes and a stationary contactless dis­
placement sensor (using compressed air), located at the centre of the
mock-up (Fig.51).

The second series of trials run was concerned with simulation of the travel
of the slab at a speed ν over the supporting rolls. The vessel is, as re­
marked, equipped with a system that draws it along at constant speed.

For these kinetic trials we installed a displacement sensor integral with

one of the sides of the plasticine vessel, allowing measurement of the
deformations with time of the zone enclosing the central point of the
base of the vessel during its travel over the supporting rolls (Fig.52).

3.2.1 Experimental method

Before carrying out trials under significant and reproducible con­

ditions, we had to establish the experimental method that was to be used.
Below, we will briefly review the experimental parameters for which numerous
precautions had to be taken.

3.2.1.1 Oniformity_of_the_base-plate_thickness

The plates that constitute the plasticine vessels used for the
thials are shaped with a plasticine roller available at IRSID. This roller
(rolling mill) allows an accuracy of the order of 1 micron to be obtained.

3.2.1.2 Inf luence_of _the_width_of _the_vessel

Many vessels have been prepared and some trials showed that with
vessels more than 280 mm wide the deflection is practically independent of
the width. We therefore decided to use a vessel 280 mm wide. The vessel
length chosen is 400 mm, representing the distance between the outermost
rolls, and 140 mm was the chosen height of the walls.
 56 -

3.2.1.3 Inf luence_of_ag^ng_of_the_pla^ticine

The base-plate, rolled once to the desired thickness, is baked

at 30 C. We measured the effect of waiting time, between being taken
from the oven and beginning of the test. If the waiting time is longer
than 24 h, the measured deflection is not dependent on the time.

3.2.1.4 Waiting time between tests made with the same vessel

A study of the evolution of the deflection under the same con-

ditions of stress, in the course of two successive loadings, showed us
that the relaxation time to be allowed between two tests using the same
vessel was a function of the imposed deformation. If the deformation de-
flection does not exceed 1 mm, a 60 minute relaxation period allows correct
reproducibility of the results obtained with the same vessel.

3.3.2 The progress of a static test (Fig.51)

Before each static test, the plasticine vessel is positioned on the

rolls and the supporting plates. These last are then lowered (time t = 0)
and the displacement sensor located above the mock-up, dipping into the
water, traces the profile of the deformation of the plate, moving perpen-
dicular to the axis of the rolls at different times of creep (Fig.51, sensor 1)
The evolution of the deformation profiles and the maximum deflection can then
be plotted as a function of creep time and the conditions of the test.

3.2.3 The grogress of a kinetic test (Fig.52)

During the kinetic tests, the vessel is initially positioned on the

supporting plate located at the edge of the mock-up. A displacement sensor
is placed in the centre of the vessel and made integral with it. The sup-
porting plates between the rolls having been lowered, the vessel is drawn
over the rolls at constant speed. The sensor then records the profile of
deformation between the rolls. The bulging deflection in the steady state
may be considered as attained between the central pair of rolls.
 - 57

3.3 Method of analysing the tests

The first tests carried out using the mock-up have revealed a certain
number of "parasitic" phenomena that we had to take into account when
analysing the tests.

3.3.1 Influençe_of_the_true_weight_of_the_plasticine

Some measurements have been made to determine the influence of the

true weight of the plasticine on the deformation of the base-plate between
two consecutive rolls. Under its own weight, a 10 mm plate deforms with
time. The deflection attained after about cne hour has doubled, relative
to the initial deflection (0.06 mm) measured immediately after the sup-
porting plates are lowered.

For plates 15 mm and 20 mm thick, the increase of deflection after a creep

time of one hour is smaller, of the order of 0.02 mm.

In order to take into account the intrinsic weight of the plasticine during
the static tests, we have considered that the pressure acting on the plasti-
cine vessel is equal to the height of water increased by twice the thickness
of the vessel. The density of the plasticine is in fact 2.

This phenomenon is practically negligible during the kinetic tests where

the residence times between two consecutive rolls are less than 60 s.

3.3.2 Influençe_of_the_flasticitY_of_the_Dlasticine

Once the supporting plates are lowered, at the start of each static
test, the base-plate of the vessel deforms instantaneously. This is due
to the partly elastic behaviour of plasticine, as has been reported by
( 61 )
several authors.

We therefore come up against a serious problem, because plasticine has been

chosen as the material to simulate the behaviour of steel at high temperature,
 58 -

the mechanical behaviour of which is generally agreed to be of the visco-

-plastic type.

The elastic component of the deflection measured on the mock-up has been
determined by carrying out the following test (Fig.53). We filled a vessel
25 mm thick with 100 mm of water in a period of about 900 s, then we quickly
emptied the water from the vessel and observed the evolution of the deflection.

In Fig.53, it can be seen that during loading the deflection takes a quasi-
-instantaneous value of f = 8 0 μπι, then increases with time, following a
curve characteristic of the phenomenon of creep. When the load is removed,
the deflection decreases quasi-instantaneously, then continues to decrease
until it attains an apparently constant value of 67 am. This residual
deflection may reasonably be assigned to the plastic component of the defor­
mation.

The elastic deflection f. corresponds to the difference between the total

deflection attained under the load and the instantaneous deflection measured
immediately after the removal of the load of water. Fig.53 shows that
despite the non-instantaneous unloading, the elastic deflection thus defined
is equal to the instantaneous deflection at time t = 0.

Below, we will retain this instantaneous deformation as the value of the

elastic deflection.

In all the tests, static or kinetic, we have assumed that the visco-plastic
deflection (fvp) measured on the mock-up is equal to the measured total
deflection (f ) from which we deduct the initial deformation (fe). In the
case of kinetic tests, we have likewise assumed that the elastic deflection
was equal to the instantaneous deflection measured under the same conditions
during the static tests.
 59 ­

3.3.3 Influence_of_the_2uality of_the_plasticine

To make a comparison of the measurements and the values calculated

using the mathematical model, it is necessary to ensure that the law of
behaviour of plasticine used in the model correctly characterises the plasti­
cine on which the measurements were made. B ut the quality and chemical com­
position vary from one lot of plasticine to another, and for a given lot of
plasticine, the evaporation of the petroleum jelly, amongst other reasons,
changes the properties of the plasticine with time.

During our tests, spread over several months, we used two different lots of
plasticine, for which we determined two laws of mechanical behaviour.

The first lot of plasticine (A) was used mostly for static tests, whereas
the second lot (B ) was used for kinetic tests.

3.3.4 Determination_of_the_la.ws_of_5echanical_behaviour_of_glasticine

For the two samples of plasticine used, we determined (Appendix 9)

a law of visco­plastic behaviour of the type:

, , , n «m ,__.
σ = λ (Τ) ε ε (37)
νρ νρ
where
εΛ^ = ε ­ (σ/Ε) (38)
νρ

¿ = ­σ/Ε (39)
νρ

Ε = Young's modulus

The method of determining Young"s modulus by tests in a parallel plate

*
plastometer (? essais de bipoinconnement ) , together with the results ob­
tained, are detailed in Appendix 8.

*
cf. Dukes, W.A., "Rheological measurements of lutings", in Rheology of
Disperse Systems, ed. C.C. Mill, Pergamon, London, 1959. Includes
measurements on Plasticine.
 60

The visco­plastic behaviour of plasticine Β is governed by the relationship:

7
σ = 1.12­10 exp(4066/T) ε 0 ­ 2 8 1 ¿ ° · 1 0 7 (40)
r
vp vp
with
σ in kg/mm2
Τ in °K
ε is dimensionless
­^ . ­1
ε in s
vp

At a temperature of 20 C and using the same units, this law becomes:

. .„ 0.281 ­0.107 ....

σ = 0.12 ε ε (41)
vp vp

Expressed in the same units, the law of visco­plastic behaviour of

plasticine (A) at Τ = 20 °C, becomes:

_. ,. 0.32 .0.20 ....

σ = 0.38 ε ε (42)
vp vp

These two laws, determined for Τ = 20 C, show that the quality of

plasticine and the evolution of its physical and mechanical properties
with time are parameters that have a perceptible influence on the re­
producibility of the measurements.

3.4 Results of the tests using the mock­up

On the basis of static and kinetic tests, we determined the influence

of technical parameters of the mock­up on the maximum bulging deflection
and compared the measured deformation profiles with those obtained with the
mathematical models, using the experimental conditions.

3.4.1 B ^SÏB S.PiSÉ­'­iêf _2Ë5^2SÉ_°2_£î}5_î?2SlSzliE

 61

a) Static tests

Fig.55 shows the evolution of the profile of deformation between the rolls
as a function of creep time during static tests.

It can be seen that the profile is symmetrical, in good agreement with the
results from the mathematical model.

In addition, the maximum deflections measured at the middle of each interval

between the rolls are of the same order of magnitude. However, this has
not been the case in all the tests carried out, the edges of the vessel
sometimes disturbing the values of the deflections measured near to the
outermost rolls.

The upper curve represents the profile of the plasticine plate before the
supporting plates are lowered. In this particular case, the profile is
near to a horizontal line, and thus very satisfactory.

The curve obtained at time t = 0 indicates the instantaneous deformation

of the base-plate, confirming the importance of the elasticity of plasticine.

b) Kinetic tests

The kinetic tests have Deen carried out for different speeds of travel of
the vessel, different pressures (loads) of water, and plates of different
thickness. Fig.56 shows the deformation profiles obtained during a kinetic
test with different levels of water. It can be seen that the maximum de-
flection is displaced toward the downstream roll by about 60 % of the dis-
tance between two consecutive rolls. This confirms the result that was
also obtained with the mathematical model in the case of steel (see 2.3.1.1),

The vertical of the upper generatrix of the rolls is also shown in Fig.56,
and it can be seen that the point of contact between roll and plasticine
plate is located upstream of the upper generatrix of the roll, relative to
the direction of travel.
 - 62 -

The plasticine plate thus presents, very locally, a positive side, relative
to the horizontal plane tangential to the upper generatrices of the rolls.
Nevertheless, the kinetic tests carried out using the mock-up have never
produced the asymmetric profile of deformation obtained by calculation with
identical boundary conditions on consecutive rolls.

Finally, it may be noted (Fig.56) that the profile of deformation in general

shows larger deflections between the two pairs of outermost rolls than the
deflection measured between the central pair of rolls.

3.4.2 Determination of_the boundary_conditions

Great experimental difficulties have been encountered in accurately

determining the boundary conditions and we have had to abandon this.

Nevertheless, we tried to superimpose the measured deformations between two

pairs of consecutive rolls, for different values of travelling speed. We
consider that in general the two profiles superimpose rather well. In such
a case, it may be concluded that there is a periodicity of deformation under
a given uniformly distributed load during the travel of a plate over the
rolls at constant speed.

In addition, the kinetic tests show that the tangent to the deformation
at the point of intersection with the vertical plane containing the upper
generatrix of the rolls is not horizontal. Amongst the boundary conditions
retained until then in the modelling, we will retain, for comparison with
the values measured on the mock-up, the symmetrical boundary conditions on
the two adjacent rolls, condition group no. 3. These represent both the
periodicity of the deformation and the fact that the deformation is not
tangentially horizontal to the rolls.

3.4.3 íníiuÊíiS£_2Í_Y^£í:2BE_£2f ί_ΕΒΞ2ΐ2Ϊ2Ξ5 _οη_^^θ_^^ΐ2±η2_άβ£ lection

 63

3.4.3.1 Method of„analysis

We have studied experimentally the influence of the following

five parameters:

­ the roll pitch 1

­ the water pressure ρ
­ the plate thickness h
­ the time t
­ the temperature of the
exterior surface of
the plate T

on the maximum bulging deflection between two consecutive rolls.

We attempted to express the measured maximum bulging deflection, as a func­

tion of the parameters studied, by an equation of the type:

f = K (T){(pa l b tC)/hd} (43)

max
with
Κ (Τ) = α exp(ßT)
where
α, β, a, b, c, d, are constants ,

In the case of static tests, t corresponds to the residence time of the

vessel on its supports, whilst during the kinetic tests t was taken as equal
to half the travelling time of the vessel between the rolls: t = 1/2V.

The coefficients α, β, a, b, c, and d have been determined from successive

tests, in which one of the parameters studied was varied, the other four
being kept constant.

In order to vary the surface temperature of the base­plate the water in the
Y
vessel was heated by a pump thermostatted to 5 above the aimed­for surface
temperature.
 ­ 64 ­

3.4.3.2 Ças^_of_static_tests

The results obtained indicate that the visco­plastic deflection

of plasticine A between two rolls can be expressed, in the static case,
by:

r, 1­3 .,8.6 ,.0.35, ..5.8, ....

f = K 2 0 O c {(p 1 t )/h } (44)
with
f in mm
Ρ in mm
1 in mm
t in s
h in mm

In this case, the correlation coefficient is very high (> 0.95).

This confirms that the two parameters with the greatest influence on the
bulging deflection are the roll pitch (space between the rolls) and the
thickness of the plasticine plate.

3.4.3.3 ǧf2_2í_lSÍ22y2_Í2EÍs

The analysis of the kinetic tests, carried out with plasticine B,

has yielded the following equation for the visco­plastic deflection:

f = 2.67­10 ­24 exp(0.0617 1){{ρ2Λ I6'01 t°­ 2 3 )/h 2 ' 3 8 } (45)

with
Τ in °K
h in mm
f in mm

Ρ in mm
1 in mm
t in seconds

The experimental results are grouped in Fig.57 to 60 as functions of the

test parameters.
 65 -

In the kinetic, as in the static, tests, the spacing of the supporting

rolls has a substantial influence on the bulging deflection. In contrast,
the exponent of the plate thickness is smaller than in the static case.
It is practically equal to that of the pressure of water.

3.4.4 Comparison of measurements and values calculated using the math-

ematical_model_

3.4.4.1 Cas f_2É_the_Ët:at;ic_ tests

We propose to compare the measurements made during the static

tests with the values calculated using the static mathematical model for
the same experimental conditions, incorporating the law of behaviour of
plasticine A used in these trials.

Fig.61 shows the evolution of the measured and calculated total deflections
as a function of the creep time. In all cases, the calculated total de-
flection has been obtained by adding the measured instantaneous deflection
(assigned to the elastic component of the deformation) to the visco-plastic
deflection calculated using the model.

Fig.61 shows a good agreement between measured and calculated values, even
though the calculated values appear, in the majority of cases, to be greater
than the measured values.

The static mathematical model may therefore be considered as giving a good

description of the phenomenon of bulging that occurs during a stoppage of
the slab in the machine whilst casting is in progress.

3.4.4.2 Çsse_of_the_kinetic_tests

The exponents of equation (43) obtained by kinetic mathematical

modelling have been compared with those obtained by means of the mock-up.
 66 -

Table 7 confirms the good agreement of the coefficients obtained by dimen-

sional analysis with those determined by calculation using the kinetic
mathematical model.

In addition, the agreement of the coefficients determined from the measure-

ments made on the mock-up with those obtained by calculation is good, except
for regression coefficient "d" of the base-plate thickness. Coefficient "d"
obtained by dimensional analysis, and by calculation, is about 2.5 times
greater than that derived from the measurements. This difference has not
yet been explained and remains to be elucidated.

Table 7: Coefficients entering into the calculation of the

visco-plastic deflection

f = K(T){(p a i b t c )/h d } (43)

(Results obtained from the kinetic tests on the

mock-up made with plasticine B)

Calculations Calculations
Coefficients Measure- (Dimensional (Statistical analysis of the
ments analysis) results of the mathematical
model)

a 2.1 2.57 2.57

b 6.07 7.16 7.2

c 0.23 0.27 0.28

d 2.38 6.15 6.16

3.5 Discussion of the results

In Tables 8 and 9 are assembled the principal values obtained for the
regression coefficients of the equation expressing the bulging deflection
as a function of the casting parameters :
 67

f = K(T){(pa l b tC)/hd} (43)

where
ρ = pressure exerted
1 = spacing of the supporting rolls
h = thickness of the plate
t = residence time (static case), or portion of the residence
time of the plate between two consecutive rolls (kinetic
case)

The tables group together the results obtained for steel 18 M 5 and those
relating to the 2 lots of plasticine used in the mock-ups.

Table 8 relates to the collection of results obtained for the static case,
whereas Table 9 relates to the kinetic results.

These results show that the static and kinetic mathematical models allow
the influence of casting parameters on the bulging deflection of steel
slabs to be taken into account very well. In fact, the measurements made
on the mock-up, using plasticine with coefficients m and n very close to
those of hot steel 18 M 5 (the case of plasticine B) lead to values of the
regression coefficients of equation (43), iri the case of static and kinetic
tests, that are close to those obtained by calculation with mathematical
models using the law of behaviour of steel 18 M 5.

The fact that the orders of magnitude of the coefficients found from measure­
ments on the plasticine mock-up and by the calculations for steel are the
same, seems to confirm that these exponents depend essentially on the coef­
ficients of work-hardening n and of viscosity m of the law of behaviour of
the material.
 - 68 -

Table 8: Static case

-^__^ Material Steel 18 M 5 Plasticine A

Method of -
Calculations Measurements
determination

Coefficient

a 2 1.3

b 6.64 8.6

c 0.36 0.35

d 5.23 5.8

Table 9: Kinetic case

Steel 18 M 5 Plasticine B Plasticine A

Coefficient Calculations Measurements Calculations Calculations

a 2.32 2.1 2.57 1.92

b 7.4 6.07 7.16 5.82

c 0.49 0.23 0.27 0.38

d 5.64 2.38 6.15 4.84

 - 69

4. MEASUREMENT OF THE BULGING OF SLABS IN A STEELWORKS

Some measurements of the bulging of slabs on continuous casting machine

no. 12 in Steelworks I at USINOR Dunkerque have been made as part of this
study. In making them there were two objectives:

- Establishment of the validity of the mathematical and physical models

developed, by comparison with measurements made in a steelworks.

- Demonstration and quantification of the relation between the bulging

deflection, the solidification structure at the centre of the product,
and the extent of centre segregation.

After describing the principle adopted for the measurements, their execution,
and the method of analysis used, we successively present the results obtained,
namely :

- the behaviour, whilst casting is in progress, of the supporting rolls

- the influence of various casting parameters on the bulging deflection

- the relation between bulging and internal cleanness of the slab

- observations relating to the thickness of the cast slab at exit from the
' machine and the influence of a substantial misalignment of the supporting
rolls on the bulging of the slab.

4.1 Principle and realisation of the measurement of bulging

The drawing of continuous casting machine no. 12 at USINOR Dunkerque

and its supporting system, shown in Fig.41, indicates the positions in the
machine where the measurements have been made during this study.

The slabs cast on this machine have a maximum width of 2090 mm and a thick-
ness between 210 and 300 mm. Various grades of steel are cast, but a large
proportion (80 %) of them are destined to be converted to heavy plates,
especially for welded pipes.
 70

All the trials were run on strand 1 of machine no. 12, which is equipped
(28)
with IRSID-CEM "mixing" rolls a technique that allows accurate control
of the solidification structure at the centre of the slabs by the action
of electromagnetic forces.

It should likewise be noted that on the two strands of this machine, as far
as roll 88 located in a zone downstream of the chosen bulging measuring-point,
the spacing of the outer radius and inner radius rolls is fixed by means of
wedges placed between their bearings.

4.1.1 Principle of the measurement

For these tests we have defined the instantaneous bulging deflection

between two supporting rolls as the distance between the external line of
the slab and the arc of a 12 m radius circle tangent to two rolls at their
generatrix in contact with the slab.

Measurement of the bulging deflection at a given point in the interval bet-

ween two consecutive rolls requires the simultaneous determination of the
positions relative to a fixed reference point of the two rolls and the
external line of the slab.

4.1.2 Choice_of_measuring_technology

To make the measurements of bulging, we designed three contact-position

followers consisting of an elongated arm carrying a roller providing a flex-
ible, faultless contact with the slab or the rolls and integral with a dis-
placement sensor incorporating a hybrid coil (balance transformer).

The roll followers are positioned in contact with the exterior generatrix of
the roll diametrically opposite the generatrix in contact with the slab, and
providing a continuous measurement of the displacement of the exterior genera-
trix. The third follower is located at the middle of the space between the
rolls (Fig.63), continuously recording the displacement of the slab. The
follower is provided with a system that allows it to be withdrawn so that the
 71 -

roller will not be heated too much. In addition, the three sensors are
water-cooled. During the last campaign, we have been able to put a fourth
follower in an analogous position to the two roll followers. The follower
has been installed above roll 75.

Ma
4.1.3 JSÌn2 *^ e measurement

a) Experimental method

We made the majority of our measurements between rolls no. 76 and no. 78
on the outer radius face of the slab.

We chose this position for two reasons :

1) This is where there is an increase of the spacing of the rolls. The

spacing is 445 mm upstream and 540 mm at the level of the measuring
point, which, according to our calculations, corresponds to the largest
bulging deflection on the machine.

2) Rolls 76 and 78 are located in the zone where the liquid core closes,
under the usual casting conditions, which allows the base of the liquid
core to be brought down to the level of the measuring point by slightly
altering the rate of withdrawal.

The three sensors on the outer radius are fixed on a rigid beam that is
built into the framework of the machine (Fig.63). We assumed that this
beam could serve as the fixed reference-point for our measurements, which
amounts to neglecting the deformation of the framework of the machine when
casting is in progress.

The principle of the measurements is shown diagrammatically in Fig.64. In

practice, to establish a reference point for our measurements, when the
machine contained no product we had to determine the position of the followers
corresponding to zero bulging deflection (f = 0, slab follower positioned in
the middle of the axis of radius 12 m, position F'2). The positions of the
 - 72

roll followers were then referred to this (f'l and f'3). These three values,
f'l, f'2, f'3 together constitute the values called the calibration of the
followers. Calibration is carried out, rather frequently, between the trial
castings, in order to follow the evolution with time of the calibration con-
stant E = f'2 - ^(f'l + f'3) (eqn. 46). For this purpose we used a gauge
1500 mm long and of 12 m radius fixed to rolls 76 and 78. A geometric model
shows that the determination of this constant is not dependent on the relative
angular position of the two adjacent rolls.

The measurement signals from the position sensors are recorded on a chart and,
after digitalisation, in an H.P. 1000 computer. At the same time as bulging
was measured, we continuously recorded the casting speed and the surface tem-
perature of the product at the level of the measuring point by means of a
monochromatic optical pyrometer aimed at the inner radius of the slab. In
the course of our trials, we have been able to improve the accuracy of the
measurement to 0.05 mm.

b) Difficulties encountered in making the measurements

Making these measurements of bulging encountered a number of difficulties,

of which the principal ones were the following:

The aggressiveness of the surroundings (humidity, heat, dripping water ...)

necessitates special care to protect the measuring system in the course
of the tests. Likewise, the care given to the installation and dismantling
of the followers between two periods of tests, influences the quality of
the measurements made.

The determination of the calibration constant E has been a difficult problem

throughout the campaigns of tests, because the conditions in which cali-
bration was carried out were not strictly reproducible: temperature of the
rolls, positioning and tightening of the gauge on the rolls, etc. ...
Hence appreciable errors in the calibration value have been made.
 73 -

4.2 Method of analysis of the bulging deflection

4.2.1 Examole_of_the_direct_recording_of_data

In Fig.65 is shown an example of the recording of the signals from

the three outer-radius sensors collected during the first trial campaigns.

The speed of withdrawal has likewise been recorded in this figure, which
shows steady state casting followed by a decrease of speed due to casting
coming to an end. We noted that the three position signals have a periodicity
that corresponds to the time taken for a complete rotation of the rolls.

Their mean value, whilst the speed is steady, tends to decrease regularly.
The slab signal amplitude is about 1 mm whereas those of rolls 76 and 78
are respectively 0.25 mm and 0.5 mm. The decrease of speed and the momentary
stoppage of casting bring about a decrease of the deflections of the two
rolls, followed by heating of the generatrix in contact with the slab. The
slab signal likewise decreases by an amount equal to that of the deflection
of the rolls.

4.2.2 Çai2HÍ2Íi22_2Í_íí}2_inEÍ25í2D22HE_21íi2iri9_2^2Íi2c£i0íí

The instantaneous bulging deflection has been determined from the

signals emitted by the sensors during casting, taking into account the cali-
bration constant and the estimated values of the expansion of the rolls.

The measurements made during calibration serving as the zero reference, the
instantaneous bulging deflection "f" has been derived using the following
formula:

f = f2 - M f l + f3) - E + d (47)
where
f = bulging deflection in mm
fl, f2, f3 = instantaneous values of measurements from the
three sensors
d = expansion of the rolls over their diameter
E = calibration constant
 74 -

The value of d has been determined by simple calculation of the heat expansion
of a roll, and estimated to be 0.4 mm.

4.2.3 Obse£Yations_made_concerning_the_bulging deflection

a) Periodic character of the bulging deflection

The treated signal of the instantaneous bulging deflection "f" is a periodic

signal, as is shown by the curve at the bottom of Fig.66, for the case of a
steel for heavy plate, steadily cast at a speed of 0.66 m/min (slab thickness
250 mm). Fig.66 also shows the signals from the followers of the rolls and
the slab, illustrating the method of analysis used.

In order to relate the observed oscillations of the instantaneous bulging

deflection to the geometric characteristics of the casting machine, a spectrum
analysis has been made of the results relating to the periods of steady
casting.

Two examples of the results obtained are shown in Fig.67. The curves in the
upper part of the figure (Fig.67a and 67c), after filtering at 0.028 Hz,
show the evolution with time of the bulging deflection, measured under the
following casting conditions:

Casting no. 1: extra-soft steel; casting speed 1 m/min

Casting no. 2: steel for heavy plate, micro alloyed with Nb; casting
speed 0.86 m/min.

The two cases shown relate to the casting of slabs 210 mm thick. In the lower
part of the figure are shown plots of the energy spectra relating to measure-
ments made in the course of these two casts of steel. These spectra were
obtained by numerical treatment, by a computer, after digitalisation of the
bulging deflection signals filtered at 0.028 Hz.

In these two cases, four significant frequencies can be seen in these

spectra:
 75 -

The frequency Ί , with the greatest energy, corresponds to the frequency

of rotation of a roll 400 mm in diameter, located upstream of the measuring
point. The 400 mm diameter roll closest to the measuring point is about
1 m away.

The frequency φ corresponds to the frequency of rotation of one of the

480 mm diameter rolls located on both sides of the slab follower/sensor.

- The other two significant frequencies detected, ^ and v., displaying

s
smaller energies than v\ and V , have not been able to be related in a
simple way to the geometric characteristics of the machine. We have
however noted that respectively they correspond to the time taken by the
slab to travel four roll spacings at the level of the measuring point
(V^) and to two rotations of 480 mm diameter rolls (^),

These results show that the measurement of the bulging deflection between
rolls 76 and 78 of the casting machine is substantially influenced by the
deformations of the slab during its passage over the rolls upstream and on
both sides of the measuring point.

This phenomenon, linked to the permanent set of the rolls (called "eccentricity")
is not taken into account in the various mathematical models for the calcu­
lation of bulging that have been developed during this study.

b) Influence of the positions of rolls 76 and 78

During the analysis of our measurements, we have adjusted the angular position
of rolls 76 and 78 according to their eccentricity. We have designated as
maximum (or minimum) position of each of these rolls, the angular position
such that the exterior generatrix is the most distant (respectively, the
closest) to the inner radius face of the machine.

Three cases have been revealed by our measurements :

 - 76 -

Case 1 :

Rolls 76 and 78 are in the maximum position at the same instant (i.e. they
are in phase). At each rotation of the roll, the bulging deflection then
displays a maximum value before the rolls are in the maximum position.
The angular displacement between these two phenomena corresponds to the
time taken by the rolls to make a quarter-rotation.

Case 2:

Rolls 76 and 78 are in opposite phase: in this case, the bulging deflection
displays two maxima during one rotation of the rolls. One of them is a
quarter-rotation of the roll in advance, relative to the maximum position
of the roll presenting the greatest eccentricity.

Case 3:

Rolls 76 and 78 are in any position: the maximum of the bulging deflection
then appears when the roll displaying the greatest eccentricity is in the
maximum position.

In order to simplify the presentation of the results, in what follows we

will call "bulging deflection" the maximum value of the deflection measured
during one complete rotation of rolls 76 and 78.

Likewise, we will call "amplitude of the bulging deflection" the difference

between the minimum and maximum values measured during a complete rotation
of these rolls.

4.3 Programme of tests carried out

We have carried out six campaigns of measurement of bulging in the

course of this study. About a hundred castings have been monitored during
these tests.
 - 77 -

All our measurements were made with constant machine geomerty, that is,
the roll spacings and the roll diameters have not been modified. However,
for one test, a 4 mm misalignment of roll 78 towards the outer radius was
arranged. Likewise, the adjustment of the secondary cooling has always
been kept at its various settings according to the casting speed and the
grade of steel being cast.

The parameters whose influence on the bulging deflection have been studied
by us are:

the grade of steel cast (the whole range of steels cast at USINOR
Dunkerque)

the casting speed (from 0.60 to 1.0 m/min)

the use of electromagnetic agitation in the secondary cooling zone

states of variable speed casting (casting stoppage, slowing ...)

the thickness of the slab cast: 210, 250, and 300 mm.

The tests proper have consisted of recording, during the castings, the
signals from the various installed sensors, and of taking samples (cross-
sections) for sulphur prints, during each run of casting at a steady speed
of a length greater than 20 m.

4.4 Results of the measurements made

Before describing the results obtained concerning the bulging deflection,

and the observations made about the behaviour of the slab in the machine,
in this section we present some observations concerning the behaviour of the
rolls whilst casting is in progress, and the influence of casting conditions
on the eccentricity and the deflection of these rolls.

4.4.1 Behaviour of rolls 76 and 78 during the period of the tests

 - 78 -

4.4.1.1 Eccentricity_of the rolls

The rolls of a continuous casting machine usually have a permanent

eccentricity (set), demonstrating the fact that the roll is not a true
cylinder of revolution around its geometric axis. This eccentricity may
be due either to a machining fault or to permanent sets imposed on the
roll during its operation by major mechanical stresses or thermal stresses.

The eccentricity of a roll may be characterised by the maximum amplitude

of displacement of its generatrices during a complete rotation.

The signals emitted by the sensors of roll displacement show that during
steady state casting, rolls 76 and 78 oscillate in the direction normal to
the broad face of the slab with an amplitude when under load varying from
0.5 mm to 1 mm (see Fig.66). The eccentricity when not under load is usu-
ally slightly different to the eccentricity when under load, but no precise
correlation has been found between these two values. The following comments
can be made on the subject of the eccentricity of rolls:

The amplitude of the eccentricity varies according to the roll cooling

conditions (water-spray on the product, water-cooling of the roll). In
the extreme case of defective cooling of a roll, we have verified an
eccentricity amplitude of about 4 mm.

The point corresponding to a maximum position of the roll may be displaced

during a momentary interruption of casting, due to a modification of the
thermal state of the roll.

4.4.1.2 Bfhaviour_of a_roll_whilst_casting_is_in_progress

Fig.65 shows that the eccentricity of the supporting rolls is con-

stant at a given casting speed, whereas the mean deflection of the roll has
a tendency to decrease slightly in the course of casting.
 - 79 -

Fig.68 shows the evolution over time of the signals emitted by the sensors
relating to rolls 76 and 78. The curve shows that when they are put under
load, that is, when the foot of the slab passes, the action of the ferro-
static pressure causes these rolls to suddenly develop a deflection of 1.2 mm
for roll 76 and 1.0 mm for roll 78. After the head of the slab passes, at
the end of casting, the deflection of the rolls disappears.

The observed difference, on comparison of the measurements made on roll 76

(which is motor-driven), before it is put under load and after the end of
casting, indicates two superimposed phenomena: the thermal deflection of
the roll and the expansion over its radius.

Be
4.4.1.3 haviour_of_the_rolls_during_a_casting_stoDgage

Fig.65 shows the effect of a slow-down on the deflection of rolls

76 and 78. In the case of a slab 250 mm thick, we see that the deflection
of the rolls decreases with the casting speed. The same phenomenon is ob-
served during a stoppage of casting and is explained by the expansion of
the roll generatrix in contact with the slab. This brings about a deflection
of the roll (heat deflection) in the direction of the slab. If the casting
stoppage is sufficiently long (about 2 minutes), the heat deflection becomes
larger than the deflection induced by the ferrostatic pressure.

The behaviour of the rolls thus described shows that the slab suffers defor-
mations that are not negligible, arising from the roll movements during the
casting.

4.4.1.4 Relation between the deflection of the rolls and the width of
the_slab_

We have attempted to establish a relationship between the deflection

of the rolls, due to the action of ferrostatic pressure, measured at the
moment when the load is applied, and the width of the slab.
 80

The experimental points are plotted in Fig.69 and compared with the results
of a calculation of deflection in which the roll was treated as an elastic
beam resting on two simple supports (see paragraph 5.2.2). It is apparent
that for a distance between bearings of 2800 mm, and slab widths close to
1800 mm, the mean measured deflection of the rolls is between 1.05 and 1.7 mm,
whereas the calculated deflection is only 0.85 mm. However, it appears that
the values calculated in this way are in all cases in relatively good agree-
ment with the minimum measured values.

4.4.2 Influ2nÇe_of_various„Parameters_2£_the_bulging_deflection

4.4.2.1 Influence_of_casting_soeed

Fig.70 and 71 show that in the case of the casting of extra-soft

steels and of steels for heavy plates, the bulging deflection has a tendency
to increase with casting speed.

In the case of extra-soft steels, the bulging deflection varies from 0,75 mm
to 1.25 mm with casting speeds varying from 0.6 m/min to 0.9 m/min.

So far as steels for heavy plate are concerned, the measurements show the
great influence of the thickness of the slab being cast. However, for each
thickness, the bulging deflection increases with the casting speed.

The mean values of the deflection, measured during the casting of steels
for heavy plate, are classified in the following table:

Table 10: Mean bulging deflections (steels for heavy plate)

Casting speed Slab thickness Mean bulging

(m/min) (mm) deflection (mm)

0.85 210 2
0.65 250 0.9
0.65 300 1.6
 81 -

When comparing the measurements made of the two types of steel studied,
it is apparent that:

The bulging deflection is, to a first approximation, independent of

the grade cast, at a given casting speed and slab thickness.

During the casting of an Nb alloyed steel for heavy plate, the amplitude
of the measured deflection is greater than that recorded during the
casting of extra-soft steel for sheet. At a thickness of 210 mm, and a
set casting speed, either 0.8 m/min for slabs for heavy plate, or 1.0 m/min
for slabs for sheet, the respective measured amplitudes are 0.8 and 0.4 mm.

4.4.2.2 5¡}f l ue DS2_2í_5 n . H}í:®££BEÍ:i2íL.0£_2aEíi!}2

Fig.72 shows the evolution of the bulging deflection during a

period of steady casting, followed by slowing down and a standstill of the
slab. This figure relates to the casting of 210 mm thick slabs for sheet.
We have superimposed on the bulging measurements, the evolution of the signal
emitted by the sensor monitoring roll 76, and of the depth of the liquid core
calculated by means of a model simulation of the heat in a continuous
casting, taking into account the variation of the casting speed imposed
on the slab during its passage through the machine. It was observed that
during a stoppage lasting 2 minutes, the bulging deflection attained 4 mm.
S

However, in several repetitions, during the casting of 250 mm thick slabs,

without any accurate explanation being able to be given, there has been
observed an inverse phenomenon, characterised by a decrease of the bulging
deflection during a stoppage.

4.4.2.3 Influence of roll eccentricity on the amplitude of the bulging

deflection_

Fig.73 shows the evolution of the amplitude of the bulging deflection

measured as a function of the magnitude of the largest eccentricity of rolls
76 and 78.
 82

The plotted experimental points correspond to both the casting of steels

for heavy plate and the casting of steels for sheet, with no differentiation
according to casting speed or slab thickness. It can be seen that the ampli-
tude of the bulging deflection increases with the amplitude of the eccentricity
of the rolls, especially in the case of steels for sheet. This result con-
firms the observation according to which the measurement of the bulging
deflection is greatly influenced by the deformations of the slab, imposed
by the geometry of the supporting system.

4.4.3 Çomparison_of_measured_and_calculated_bulging_deflecti

The measured bulging deflections have been compared with the values
calculated, for the same conditions, by means of the kinetic visco-plastic
model of bulging.

The comparison has been made for the two steady states of casting (casting
no. 1 and casting no. 2) defined in 4.2.3.

Fig.74 shows the measurements made during periods of steady casting speeds
of these two castings, together with the bulging deflection calculated using
the symmetrical boundary conditions over the rolls (condition group no. 3)
with the law of behaviour of steel 18 M 5. For the casting conditions employed,
the model allows calculation of a deflection of 1.04 mm for casting no. 2
and of 1.07 mm for casting no. 1. In both cases, the calculated values are
in good agreement with the mean values of the measured bulging deflection.
These results establish the validity of the model with boundary conditions
group no. 3.

4.5 Study of the behaviour of the slab during the casting process

4.5.1 Measurement of_slab thickness_at the exit from the machine

Besides the measurements of bulging made as part of this study, we

have been able to use the results of the measurement of the thickness of the
hot slab at exit from the machine, at the level of roll 112. The sensors
 - 83 -

have been developed by the metrology department of USINOR Dunkerque. The

system used consists of two pneumatic sensors, responsive to the nearness
or remoteness of the monitored surface from the set distance, located one
on each side of the slab, in the middle of the broad face. The absolute
error of the thickness measurement made in this way is estimated to be 0.1 mm.

Fig.75 shows, for the case of a steel micro alloyed with niobium for rolling
to heavy plate, the evolution of the slab thickness measured at the exit
from the machine. Also shown in Fig.75 is the bulging deflection of the
slab during its passage between rolls 76 and 78. In order to make the
bulging deflection correspond to the measured thickness of the same portion
of slab, we have displaced the recordings by the time that the slab takes
to travel the distance separating the two measuring points.

It can be seen that slab thickness varies periodically, with a period corre-
sponding to the time per rotation of the supporting rolls in the zone of
the machine in which the slab solidifies. The amplitude of slab thickness
is 1 mm on average, the order of magnitude of the corresponding bulging
deflection.

4.5.2 Monitoring of a casting carried out with roll 78 out of alignment

i£ì2.iZ§2._,

During our tests, we made measurements in the course of a casting of

210 mm thick slabs of steel for heavy plate, during which we caused roll 78
to be misaligned by + 4 mm toward the outer radius. The first part of the
casting was made at a speed of 0.8 m/min in order to cause the bottom of
the liquid core to be downstream of roll 78. The rate of withdrawal was
then decreased so as to obtain a length of the liquid core less than 13.75 m.

During the transitional stage, the passage of the liquid core past roll 78
was clearly detected. At that precise moment, the deflection of roll 78
suddenly decreased, the solid slab thereafter being in contact with the roll
only intermittently (a phenomenon due to the expansion of the rolls as a
result of the radiation from the slab) (Fig.76, shaded zones).
 - 84 -

A thermal simulation of the casting by means of a mathematical model

fern
developed at IRSID enabled us to show that at the moment when the
deflection of roll 78 decreased, the theoretically calculated base of
the liquid core was about 1.2m downstream of this roll.

This result may be interpreted as follows :

If the results obtained by means of the thermal model are accurate, we can
put forward the hypothesis that there exists a zone in the base of the liquid
core that is sufficiently compact, even though partly liquid, as not to
transmit the ferrostatic pressure.

However, this hypothesis remains to be verified by further experiments.

4.6 Relation between the bulging deflection, the solidification structure,

and centre segregation

In parallel with the measurements of bulging, from the majority of the

experimental castings we have taken samples consisting essentially of cross-
-sections of slab about 40 mm thick, on which sulphur prints have been made.

From these sulphur prints we have rated the centre segregation according to
a chart drawn up by IRSID that uses an index of segregation ranging from 1,
for very slight segregation, to 10, for the most pronounced segregation
(Fig. 77).

In addition, in the framework of this study, the solidification structure

has been characterised only in terms of whether or not electromagnetic
agitation was used in the secondary cooling zone whilst casting was in progress.

(28)
In fact, the use of electromagnetic agitation ensures that even with high
superheats of the steel in the tundish, a large equiaxial zone is present
at the centre of the product.
 - 85

4.6.1 52 la !r^2DE^iP_^ e ^ e 2í}_22íí^2_f 22í2Saíi2B_H}É_E2iiÉiÊi2aíi22_ÊÍE132ÍHr2

Fig.78 shows the evolution of the index of centre segregation as a

function of the superheat in the tundish according to whether or not the
"roll-mixers" installed on the machine are used. The experimental points
plotted relate both to the measurements made during the present study and
(28)
those made during the development of the IRSID-CEM "roll-mixers".

It can be seen that the use of agitation, and the consequent presence of a
large equiaxial zone at the centre of the product, allows the index of segre-
gation observed in the slabs to be limited to 6, whereas in the absence of
agitation, and therefore usually with a columnar structure in the centre of
the product, the segregation index attains 10, the maximum value. Likewise,
the mean index of segregation, 7 in the absence of agitation, is only 4 for
the agitated castings.

4.6.2 Ç e l a ti2D_22íí e 2?} 50ii^É^2aÍi2E}_EÍEi?cíy£e_aí}§_t^ie_2HÍ2í:D2_É2:^-l22t:'-on

In order to make evident a relationship between the solidification

structure and the degree of bulging, in the course of certain experimental
casts of steel we have kept the rate of withdrawal constant for long periods
(more than 30 minutes). For only a half of each of these steady states, the
electromagnetic agitation has been used, then it has been switched off for
the other half.

The results obtained with and without agitation are shown in Fig.79, in the
form of an experimental relationship between the bulging deflection and the
casting speed.

Fig.79 shows that electromagnetic agitation and the consequent alteration

of the solidification structure do not allow a perceptible modification of
the value of the measured bulging deflection: the difference between the
values measured during periods with and without agitation is positive in some
cases, and negative in others. This finding appears to be independent of
the casting speed.
 86

4.6.3 52i5íi22_22í^22D_!E}2_2HÍ9Í22_§2íi22Íi2í?_aí}2^_í^e_22í}t£2_Ee2£e2at­'­on

The establishment by an entirely experimental method of the relation

between centre segregation and the bulging deflection has not been able to
be achieved in the various campaigns of measurement undertaken, by reason
of, amongst other things, the production programme of Steelworks I at USINOR
Dunkerque that includes numerous casts of steel containing less than 0.010 %
of sulphur, from which it is impossible to make sulphur prints.

In order to overcome these experimental difficulties, from all the casts

made in the course of one month we have listed those for which sulphur
prints of samples of slabs cast at steady speeds have been prepared. For
each of these casts, we calculated the bulging deflection 2 m upstream of
the end of the liquid core, by applying successively a thermal simulation
(58)
model and the developed kinetic visco­plastic model. The model of
bulging has been used in all cases with symmetrical boundary conditions on
both rolls (conditions group no. 3) and the law of behaviour of steel 18 M 5.

Fig.80 contains, for 210 and 250 mm thick slabs, as a function of the calcu­
lated bulging deflection, histograms indicating the severity of the centre
segregations seen on sulphur prints, in the absence of electromagnetic
agitation during casting. To simplify the presentation of the results,
these have been grouped in three classes: bad (i > 6), medium (3 < i =ζ 6),
and good (i ^ 3).

It is apparent that for the 210 mm thickness, the majority of sulphur prints
made for casting conditions such that the calculated bulging deflection is
within the range 1 to 1.5 mm have segregation indices below 6. In addition,
for bulging deflections greater than 1.5 mm, 80 % of the sulphur prints have
been rated higher than 6. In this case, we consider that the segregation
index is the greater, the more the bulging deflection. The maximum permiss­
ible bulging deflection seems to be less than or equal to 1.5 mm.
 - 87 -

At 250 mm thickness, the calculated bulging deflections are all less than
1 mm, for the casting conditions used on machine no. 12. In this case,
less than 25 % of the sulphur prints have a segregation index higher than 6.

4.7 Synthesis of the results obtained

Two types of results have been obtained during the measurements made
at USINOR Dunkerque: those of the first type describe the mechanical behav-
iour of the slab during its passage through the machine whereas those of the
second allow an analysis of the interdependencies between centre segregation,
solidification structure, and bulging of the slabs.

Besides bulging, over the length of the machine the slab in the course of
solidifying is subjected to a certain number of deformations related to
faults in the geometry of the supporting system: in particular, eccentricity
and misalignment of the rolls. The order of magnitude of the resultant
deformations of the slabs is sometimes equal and even greater than the defor-
mation by bulging. Between two rolls, the shape of the slab at each instant
depends simultaneously on the position of each of these rolls, but likewise
on the deformations imposed on the slab upstream.

Despite these phenomena, the analysis of which we have merely outlined in

the course of this study, the agreement between measurements of the bulging
deflection and calculations made by means of developed visco-plastic models
has been established.

Numerous authors, especially at IRSID, have made evident a relationship

between the solidification structure and the degree of centre segregation
in slabs. The measurements made at USINOR Dunkerque show that the solidi-
fication structure at the centre of slabs has practically no influence on
the magnitude of the bulging deflection. This result shows that the mechanism,
according to which an equiaxial solidification structure decreases the degree
of centre segregation, does not limit bulging.
 88

An analysis of operating results at Steelworks I over a period of one month

shows that, for bulging deflections less than 1.5 mm at the end of the
liquid core, the observed centre segregation of the slab is acceptable,
even in the absence of electromagnetic agitation. This value (1.5 mm) seems
to be the allowable upper limit of bulging deflection implying acceptable
centre segregation.
 - 89 -

5. CRITICAL STUDY OF THE VARIOUS TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

OF BULGING

On the basis of the results presented in the first four parts of this
report, a critical study has been made of the chief solutions to the prob-
lem of bulging proposed in the literature. For this, we have used the
developed kinetic visco-plastic model of bulging, as well as a model of
roll deformation due to ferrostatic pressure developed on this occasion.

5.1 Technical solutions to the problem of bulging

The various existing technical solutions to the problem of bulging

can be classified into five main categories:

1) The adoption of divided rolls of small diameter, allowing the spacing

between rolls to be decreased.

2) The use of casting conditions intended to increase the thickness of the

shell at a given level in the continuous casting machine by decreasing
the speed of withdrawal or by increasing the intensity of secondary
cooling. In the latter case, the surface temperature of the slab at a
given speed is decreased as well.

3) Limitation of the radius of curvature of the continuous casting machine

has as its effect a decrease both of the height of the mould above the
ground, and the ferrostatic pressure. This idea is characterised by
the construction of what are called "ultra-low machines" such as the
(65)
continuous slab casting machine belonging to Sumitomo Metals at Kashima.

4) One of the best means of supporting the shell during its descent in the
continuous casting machine, and of minimising its bulging, is to ensure
support over the largest possible surface of the slab faces. A solution
(66)
adopted by Kobe Steel, and used over a limited length below the mould,
consists of using "marching bars" consisting schematically of two groups
of shoes that are alternately applied to the slab. This is then perma-
nently supported over its length.
 90

5) Under this heading we group together all the techniques which, sometimes
without limiting bulging itself, limit its metallurgical and mechanical
consequences. An example of this is the technique of electromagnetic
/ oft)
agitation, which perceptibly limits the streaks of centre segregation.

5.2 The calculations made

In our critical study of the solutions to the problem of bulging, we

restrict ourselves to the technology of the systems of support most often
used in the continuous casting of slabs, namely the use of rolls, divided
or not.

For this, we have defined the criteria of allowable bulging of the slab and
of maximum deformation of the rolls.

We then studied, by using mathematical models, the optimal geometry of the

machine allowing these criteria to be met, that is, the profile of the roll
spacing along the installation.

However, first of all, in order to estimate the order of magnitude of the

parameters characterising the bulging in a practical example, we made calcu-
lations, using a mathematical simulation of bulging on machine no. 1, for
which we have chosen characteristics close to those of an existing continuous
slab casting machine. The evolutions, along the machine, of various para-
meters that characterise the bulging (deflection and deformation at the
solidification front), as well as the geometry of this machine (roll spacing,
roll deflection) are shown in Fig.81.

These results and those available in the literature allowed definition of a

collection of criteria of allowable bulging (metallurgical criteria) and
criteria of allowable maximum deflection of the rolls (mechanical criteria).
In order to define the optimal geometry of the machines, the following steps
have been taken:
 91

Firstly, for given casting conditions, we used the model of bulging so as

to define, at each point in the machine, the spacing of the supporting rolls
allowing the imposed metallurgical criteria to be met.

Secondly, we applied to the undivided rolls, defined during the preceding

calculations, the developed model of deformation of the rolls.

By comparing the results of these two calculations, we could choose the

optimal profile of the machine.

5.2.1 Assumptions_made_f2£_the_bulging_calculations

All the calculations of bulging have been made using the following
conditions:

1) The grade of steel is 18 M 5, for which the law of visco-plastic behaviour

used is given by equation (14).

2) The profile of slab surface temperature has been assumed to be constant

at 1000 C over the whole length of the machine, except beneath the mould
where it decreases linearly from 1100 C to 1000 C. Fig.82 shows this
temperature profile as well as the profiles of shell thickness for three
casting speeds (1.6, 1.3, and 1.0 m/min).

3) The continuous casting machine is assumed to have a bow with a constant

radius of curvature of 12.2 m. The slabs cast are assumed to be 220 mm
thick and 1600 mm wide.

4) The boundary conditions used for the calculations are the boundary con-
ditions group no. 1 defined in 2.2.3.

5) The maximum casting speed used in these calculations is 1.6 m/min. This
speed will be used for the dimensioning calculations of the continuous
casting machine, whereas a mean speed of 1.3 m/min will be used to define
the usual casting conditions.
 - 92 -

6) The bulging deformation ε, retained for comparison with the imposed

metallurgical criteria, is the maximum of the absolute values of calcu­
lated deformation at the solidification front.

5.2.2 The_model_of_deformation_of_the_rolls

The deflections of the supporting rolls have been calculated using

a model of elastic deformation, by treating the roll as a beam of length L
on two simple supports (double swivel bearing or simple bearing), subject
to a load ρ uniformly distributed, and symmetrical relative to the middle
of the beam, over a width 1 (width of the slab).
o

Given these assumptions, the roll deflection is given by the relationship:

fr = (p/2EI){(5L4/192) - (h(L - 1 )) 2 (L 2 /8) + (1/12) Ca (L - 1 )) 4 } (48)

o o o o o
with
(π/64){D4 - (D - e) 4 } (49)

where
fr = roll deflection (mm)

ρ = linear ferrostatic pressure (kg/mm of slab width)

E = Young's modulus of elasticity of steel at ambient

temperature = 20 000 kg/mm2
4
I = moment of inertia of the roll (mm )

D = roll diameter (mm)

e = thickness of the jacket of a hollow roll (mm)

L = distance between the roll bearings (mm)

o
1 = slab width (mm)
o

For the majority of our calculations we have assumed that:

e = 60 mm , L = 2150 mm , 1 1600 mm
o o

whereas the influence of parameters L and 1 will be studied separately.

 93 -

In addition, all the calculations of roll deflection assume that their

diameter (0) i.s related to their spacing (1) in the following way:

if 1.4 < L < 2.2 1 = 0 + 30 in mm

2.2 < L < 5.5 1 = 0 + 35
5.5 < L < 15.8 1 = 0 + 40
15.8 < L < 20 1 = 0 + 45

with
L = metallurgical length (m)

5.2.3 B u l g i n g _ p r o f i l e s _oh2tainecl_on_aLn_inclus t £ i a l _ m a c h i n e

In Fig.81 we showed the profiles of bulging deflections and defor-

mations as well as the roll deflections measured on continuous casting
machine no.l, especially for a casting speed of 1.6 m/min and a constant
o
slab-surface temperature of 1000 C.

The roll spacings are likewise indicated in Fig.81. We can see that for
this casting speed, the maximum bulging deflection is obtained at the last
change of roll size and is 1.17 mm.

The maximum deformation of the solidification front is obtained at the same

point and is 0.53 % for a casting speed of 1.6 m/min.

The profile of roll deflections along the machine shows (contrary to obser-
vations concerning the bulging deflection) a decrease with each change of
roll diameters, then a regular increase with constant roll spacing.

For this profile of roll spacings, we find that the roll deflection is always
less than 1 mm.

5.2.4 Çhoice_of_criteria_for the_threshold of harmfulness of bulging

We have seen that bulging is the origin of two major types of defect:
internal cracks and centre segregation. The mechanism of formation of these
 94 -

defects, described in the same part of this report, allows the use of two
criteria that can characterise the intensity of bulging: the bulging de-
flection, connected with the formation of centre segregation, and deformation
at the solidification front, connected with the formation of internal cracks.

The study of the literature has allowed us to hold that the deformations at
the solidification front (generally considered responsible for the occurrence
of internal cracks) range from 0.2 % to 1 % according to the type of steel
being cast and the rates of strain encountered. In the majority of the
calculations, we will therefore retain an allowable deformation of 0.5 %.

With regard to the bulging deflection, the findings reported in the literature,
as well as our own results, show that if the deflection exceeds 1 mm, the
segregation index reaches values indicative of a very bad defect. The deflec-
tion value of 1 mm will be retained as a median criterion for the majority
of our calculations in which a criterion of bulging deflection is used. The
two values of the chosen criteria are in agreement with the results shown in
Fig.81.

5.2.5 Choice of mechanical criterion

The capability of a roll in a continuous casting machine to suffer

the various stresses imposed in the course of functioning may be character-
ised either by its state of strain, or by its state of stress. In this study,
we have retained a criterion expressed in terms of the allowable maximum
deflection of the rolls.

Taking into account the calculated values of roll deflections in the case
of machine no. 1 (Fig.81), the mean value of the mechanical criterion adopted
corresponds to a maximum allowable roll deflection of 1 mm. We will likewise
study the influence of the value of this criterion, as well as that of the
distance between bearings, and that of slab width, on the profile of optimal
roll spacing in a continuous casting machine.
 - 95

5.3 Presentation of the results obtained

5.3.1 Influence of the mechanical criterion on the profile_2É_E2ìì_§i2ì?2Ì2E5

Fig.83 shows, as a function of the distance to the meniscus, the evol-

ution of the diameters of rolls with a given deflection due to the action of
ferrostatic pressure. We have plotted these profiles for deflections of 0.5,
1, 1.5, and 2 mm of hollow rolls, whose other dimensional characteristics
are listed in Fig.83. The calculations for hollow rolls have been made using
equation (48).

The influence of slab width and also of the distance between bearings are
shown in Fig.83, for the case of a 1 mm criterion of roll deflection.

Each of these steadily increasing profiles corresponds to the minimum roll

diameters that can be used if one wishes to limit their deflection to the
specified value.

These curves show that the diameters of hollow rolls ought to be greater,
the wider the slab or larger the distance between bearings of the rolls,
and the smaller the value of the criterion of deflection.

In fact, a deflection criterion of 1 mm for the solid rolls, is expressed

as the minimum diameter of the rolls to be required, smaller, because they
bend less than the hollow rolls of the same external diameter.

Taking into account the assumptions made for the purpose of calculation, these
results are independent of the casting conditions practiced, especially the
casting speed.

5.3.2 inf l:H2!B22_2£_ÍÍ}2_2H-'-2ií}2_2rií2£ia_2í}_^2_P£2Íii2_2í_y}2_£2ii_EPa2ilí'?s

The majority of the calculations of which the results are presented

were made for the case of a casting speed of 1.6 m/min.
 - 96

5.3.2.1 Influence of the criterion_of_bulging_strain (ε)_

Fig.84 shows, in particular, the profiles of roll spacing giving

a bulging deformation at the solidification front that is constant over
the whole length of the continuous casting machine, for four degrees of
strain (ε = 0.03 %, 0.3 %, 0.5 %, 1.0 %) covering the range of critical
strain indicated in the literature.

The order of magnitude of the calculated roll spacings is in agreement with

the values currently found in continuous casting machines, particularly with
regard to the profile at 0.3 %, not far from the profile of the roll spacing
studied on machine no. 1.

The extreme criteria lead to roll spacings which differ by about 200 mm
over the whole length of the machine. All these profiles of roll spacing
are almost parallel, capable of being roughly derived from one another by
vertical translation. At a given metallurgical length, the roll spacings
are the greater, the higher the value of the criterion.

These curves therefore represent the profile of maximum allowable roll

s ~ings corresponding to constant deformation ε over the length of a con­
tinuous casting machine.

5.3.2.2 Influence_of_the_criterion_of hulging_deflection (δ)_

Also shown in Fig.84 are the profiles of roll spacing required by

a constant bulging deflection δ. We note that, as in the case of deformation
criterion ε, all the profiles of roll spacing corresponding to a criterion
of deflection δ are steadily increasing.

The roll diameters, taking into account the minimum distance necessary between
two rolls to allow passage of the water sprays for secondary cooling, are
deduced from these profiles by subtracting this distance from the spacings
of the corresponding rolls.
 97

Note that the increasing gradient of these profiles results from competition
between the increase of ferrostatic pressure and the increasing thickness
of the shell, a phenomenon of preponderant influence in the case of a machine
of 12.2 m radius.

Fig.84 also gives rise to the comment that the criteria ε = 0.5 % and δ = 1 mm,
on the one hand, and the criteria ε = 0.3 % and δ = 0.5 mm on the other, are
substantially equivalent, because they lead to profiles of roll spacing that
are very close together.

5.3.2.3 Reciprocal influence of the criteria of deflection and deformation

je¿_£).

In Fig.85 we have plotted the evolution of the bulging deflection δ

in the case of four profiles of roll spacing leading to a given bulging defor­
mation (bulging strain) ε. The four criteria of strain used are: ε = 0.03 %,
0.3 %, 0.5 %, 1 %.
\

We observed that in the upper part of the machine (L < 5 m ) the bulging
deflection is usually much greater than in the bottom of the machine, and
that the bulging deflection seems to pass through a minimum in a zone between
12 and 15 m, before again increasing slightly in the bottom of the machine.
The large values of deflection obtained at a small metallurgical length at
a given strain ε, indicate that the bulging in the upper part of the machine
ought to be controlled by a deformation (strain) criterion and, in contrast,
by a bulging deflection criterion in the lower part of the machine.

5.3.3 Influence of casting speed

The sensitivity of the results to the casting speed has been studied
for a criterion of bulging deformation (strain) ε = 0.3 % and a constant slab
surface temperature profile of 1000 C. Fig.86 shows the three profiles of
roll spacing corresponding to the same criterion of deformation ε = 0.3 %,
for the case of three different casting speeds, ν = 1.0 m/min; ν = 1.3 m/min;
ν = 1.6 m/min.
 98 -

We verified that the roll spacings are the smaller, the higher the casting
speed. From this we deduce that the dimensioning of the rolls of a con­
tinuous casting machine ought to be done for the conditions most favourable
to bulging and thus, in particular, the highest envisaged casting speed.

5.3.4 Influence_of_surface_temperature

The influence of the surface temperature of the slab has been made
evident in Fig.87, where we have plotted, for machine no.l, the profiles
of bulging deformation (ε) for two constant surface temperatures, one 1000 C,
and the other 900 C. It can be seen that on this machine the profile of
roll spacing leads to a bulging deformation that is always less than 0.25 %,
if the surface temperature is 900 C, whereas the deformation (strain) ε
reaches 0.4 % in the lower part of the machine for a constant surface tem­
perature of 1000 C.

In addition, we have plotted in Fig.87 the critical strain curve, established

(15)
by Kawasaki Steel and verified that the spacing profile of machine no.l
meets this criterion in the case of a constant temperature of 900 C. This
is not the case for a temperature of 1000 C. In addition, Fig.89 provides
o o
confirmation that a decrease of surface temperature of 100 C (from 1000 C
to 900 C) allows roll diameters to be obtained that are about 40 mm greater
than those obtained with a surface temperature of 1000 C when meeting the
same deformation criterion (strain ε = 0.5 % ) .

5.4 Tentative definition of optimal geometry of the machine

On the basis of the various results presented, we discuss as a function

of the values assigned to the metallurgical and mechanical criteria, the
choice of an optimal geometry for a continuous casting machine.

Taking into account the demonstrated equivalence of metallurgical criteria

expressed in terms of bulging deflection and in terms of deformations (strains)
at the solidification front, below we will use only the results obtained in
the second case.
 - 99 -

The results that we will present are however relative to a given machine
geometry, and greatly influenced by the assumptions made as a basis for
calculations. According to the assigned values used in our study of the
metallurgical and mechanical criteria, two situations may occur:

Situation 1 :

The curve giving the profile of roll diameters giving constant deformation
at the solidification front does not intersect and is located below that
of the roll diameters offering the maximum imposed deflection.

This is the case in Fig.88, where we have plotted the profile of roll dia­
meters corresponding to fr = 1 mm (L = 2150 mm and 1 = 1600 mm) with
o o
respect to the two profiles corresponding to ε = 0.5 % and ε = 0.3 %. For
these conditions, in the domain situated between these curves and the curve
fr = 1 mm, it is possible to envisage all the feasible combinations of roll
diameters according to their position in the machine. One such example is
given in Fig.88 for an allowable deformation (strain) at the solidification
front of 0.3 % and for a maximum allowable roll deflection of 1 mm.

Situation 2:

The curves corresponding to the metallurgical criterion on the one hand,

and to the mechanical criterion on the other, have one or two points of inter­
section, as is shown by the example in Fig.89. In this case, by choosing
1 mm as the criterion of maximum allowable roll deflection, it is possible
to select, as in situation 1, rolls satisfying the metallurgical and mech­
anical criteria, but only to a distance of 7.5 m from the meniscus. Further
on, there are two principal solutions to the problem:

1) To retain the use of undivided rolls, choosing roll diameters such that
their deflection remains below or equal to 1 mm, and decrease the slab
surface temperature sufficiently to limit its bulging to a solidification
front deformation (strain) of ε = 0.5 %.
 ­ 100 ­

2) To increase the rigidity of the roll by adopting a technique that makes

it possible to achieve an allowable roll deflection, despite the small
diameter of the roll. This can only be done by decreasing the distance
between bearings, and therefore by using divided rolls. These rolls,
consisting of two or three separate sections connected by intermediate
bearings, allow much smaller calculated roll diameters. However, exam­
ination of the relative positions of the curves corresponding to the
mechanical criterion reveals that in the majority of the cases studied,
especially in the case of the casting of slabs of medium width (1600 to
1800 m m ) , the use of divided rolls with intermediate bearings is not
absolutely necessary.

5.5 The role of deformations (strains) not connected with bulging

The criterion of slab deformation at the solidification front ought

to take into account all the deformations (strains) to which the product
is subject as it descends in the machine, especially in passing through
the separate zones that arise from the geometry of the machine:

­ straightening zone (? décintrage)

­ bending zone in the case of a vertical machine
­ junctions of trains of rolls of the same diameter
­ misalignment of the rolls.

5.5.1 Strains imposed by_mi5al^gnment

The strains of the solidification front attributable to roll mis­

alignment consist chiefly of:

1) strains arising from misalignment of a roll (ε )

2) strains at the junctions of roll trains (ε.) arising from the different
deflections under load of adjacent rolls of different diameters.

Additional to these strains are those due to eccentricity of adjacent rolls

that, according to their relative position, are able to produce a phenomenon
equivalent to misalignment.
 - 101 -

Fig.90 shows the contribution of ε, and ε. to the total strain. For our
d 3
calculations, we have assumed a constant misalignment of 0.5 mm between
all the adjacent rolls of the machine whose characteristics are given in
Fig.88 (machine no.l). We can consider that in these assumptions, the mis­
alignment strain includes the strain due to roll eccentricity.

It is apparent that the total strain corresponds, in this case, to the

bulging strain (deformation) increased by about 0.1 %.

The misalignment strain alone has been calculated using the following
equation:

εα = 4 6 h/12 (51)

where
δ = misalignment (mm)
h = solid thickness (mm)
1 = roll spacing (mm)

5.5.2 Strains_due to_straightening or bending

The strain due to bending or straightening of the slab (ε and ε )

c D
from a radius of curvature 1/R to a radius of curvature 1/R„ is expressed
by:
ε = 100 · h(E - 2h) (R1"1 - R 2 _ 1 ) (52)

where
ε = % strain
E = slab thickness (mm)
h = solidified thickness (mm)

The bending strain (ε ) calculations have been made by assuming that in a

vertical+curve machine no.2 with main radius 9.7m, there is a straight
portion 2.5 m long, in order to retain a total metallurgical height of 12.2 m.
The distance to the meniscus at the straightening point is then 17.75 m.
 ­ 102 ­

The straightening and bending strains have been calculated for two types
of machine, no.l and no.2, for two withdrawal speeds and a constant surface
temperature of 1000 C.

Table 11: B ending and straightening strain (Machines nos. 1 and 2)

Casting speed ε (%)

D (%)
E
c
m/min Machine 1 Machine 2 Machine 2

1.3 0.13 0.22 0.83

1.6 0.22 0.31 0.86

The table shows that if the allowable maximum strain at the solidification
front is set at 0.5 %, the bending of the slab ought not to be done at a
single point. Assuming that, because of the viscosity of the steel, the
successive strains imposed on the solidification front are not additive,
bending at many points may be envisaged. If bending is imposed at 4 or 2
points, the strain imposed on the solidification front can then be estimated
as 0.22 % or 0.42 % respectively at each bending point.

5.5.3 í n É ¿u2n22_2£_íí}252_f ££aiBE_2í}_ÍÍ}2_E£2£i¿2_2Í_£2ii_d:'­ameters

In all cases, taking into account the strains arising from the machine
geometry in the expression for the criterion of allowable strain ε , imposes,
at all points in the machine, an allowable roll diameter that is smaller than
those previously presented, that were calculated by taking only bulging into
account.

Fig.91 shows that taking into account a misalignment strain of 0.1 % over
the length of the machine requires the roll diameters to be 20 mm less than
those obtained in the case where misalignment is neglected.

The following tables show the roll diameters that, for a casting speed of
1.6 m/min, allow a criterion of total strain of 0.5 % to be met in the bending
and straightening zones.
 103 -

Table 12: Definition of the diameters of rolls in the bending zone

ε ε + ε
τ = £
d +
c

Misalignment strain (ε %) 0 0.1 0 0.1 0

Strain at each bending point

(ε %) 0 0 0.22 0.22 0.42
c
Allowable bulging strain (ε %) 0.5 0.4 0.28 0.18 0.08

Bending rolls 0 (mm) 312 300 265 240 185

Table 13: Definition of the diameters of rolls in the straightening zone

ε
τ = E
d + £
D + ε

Misalignment strain (ε %) 0 0.1 0 0.1

Straightening strain (ε %) 0 0 0.22 0.22

Allowable bulging strain (ε %) 0.5 0.4 0.28 0.18

Straightening rolls 0 (mm) 430 409 375 336

a) Straightening zone

Fig.91 and Table 15 (? 13) show that assuming a misalignment of 0.5 mm over
the whole length of the machine and straightening at a single point, the
rolls in the straightening zone can be of the undivided type if the allow­
able total strain is 0.5 %. In contrast, if the misalignment exceeds 0.5 mm,
it then becomes necessary to provide divided rolls with intermediate bearings
in the straightening zone, or else to carry out straightening at several points.

b) Bending zone

For a total strain of 0,5 %, Table 14 (? 12) shows that bending at four points,
assuming a misalignment strain of 0.5 mm, allows undivided 240 0 rolls to be
 104 -

used if, as the mechanical criterion, an allowable maximum roll deflection

of 1 mm is accepted. The limiting case consists of bending at two points,
which likewise allows the use of undivided rolls in the case where the mis-
alignment strain is neglected.

5.6 Synthesis of the results

This study clearly demonstrates the complexity of defining a novel

geometry of a continuous slab casting machine. The case of each figure needs
to be studied in depth, in order that the constraints imposed by the specifi-
cation can be analysed. Nevertheless, the calculations we made show that:

1) The roll spacing being the preponderant parameter that controls the
degree of bulging, it is expedient to optimise its profile over the
length of the continuous casting machine.

2) Although the use of divided rolls with intermediate bearings (though

very difficult and expensive to put into practice) is a very efficacious
way of countering bulging, the majority of the figures encountered in
industry allow the use of undivided rolls with judiciously chosen dia-
meters. The problems of centre segregation may be further decreased
by electromagnetic agitation if necessary, especially in the case of
slabs of great width.

3) In view of the values that have been assigned to the metallurgical and
mechanical criteria, the use of intense cooling of the slab will only
allow the retention of roll diameters and spacings sufficiently large
to avoid the use of divided rolls as a solution to the problem of bulging
if the slab surface temperature is kept below 900 C. A solution of this
last-mentioned type can give rise to metallurgical problems (surface
cracking on straightening of the slab) that demand complete mastery of
the procedure.
 - 105

4) Sumitomo solved the problem by constructing an ultra-low machine,

but because of its small principal radius of curvature, this necessitates
straightening the slab at several points, and gives rise to some metal-
lurgical problems, although it is a satisfactory solution at the economic
level.

In short, this study shows that the definition of criteria of break-out at

the solidification front ought to be an objective that has priority, allowing
makers and users of continuous casting machines to establish, in their turn,
the preferred criteria for the design and maintenance of continuous casting
machines.
 - 106 -

6. CONCLUSION

Bulging is one of the basic phenomena controlling the internal quality

of continuously cast slabs. The strains imposed on the shell and the
movements of liquid steel at the core, induced by bulging are the origin
of two types of internal defects: segregation lines (streamers) and centre
segregation that often bring about the downgrading of the cast products.

In order to quantify the various parameters that control the intensity of

bulging of slabs, mathematical and physical models have been set up.

The bulging deflection and the strain induced at the solidification front
depend chiefly on the geometry of the supporting system, on the thermal
state of the slab, and on the casting speed. In the case of a steel for
heavy plate, the form of the bulging deflection (δ) may be written as a
function of the roll spacing (1) in mm, the metallurgical height (H) in m,
the casting speed (v) in m/min, the solidified thickness (h) in mm, and the
surface temperature (T) in K:

δ = 7.86-10-12 exp(0.0046 Τ){(Η 2,25 Ι 6 ' 10 )/(ν°· 57 h 5 ' 26 )} in mm

Measurements made on machine 12 at USINOR Dunkerque have allowed the models

developed to be verified and it to be ascertained that: unlike the intensity
of centre segregation, the bulging deflection does not depend on the solidi­
fication structure, equiaxial or columnar.

This series of experiments has likewise revealed that the bulging deflection,
at a given point in the installation, depends on the history of strains sus­
tained upstream by the slab.

In addition, it appears that besides bulging, during its passage through the
machine the slab suffers substantial strains connected with defects in the
geometry of the system of support: eccentricity of the rolls, misalignment
of the rolls. The amplitude of these strains may, in some cases, be greater
than those due to bulging.
 - 107 -

The mathematical model of bulging developed has then been used to define
the geometry of continuous slab casters, allowing minimisation of the strains
suffered by the product. In the majority of the cases studied, it is evident
that the use of monobloc (undivided) supporting rolls of judiciously chosen
diameters allows an acceptable limitation of the bulging of the slab and the
deformation (strain) of the rolls.

However, the results obtained by such a theoretical approach are very depen-
dent on the assumptions made concerning the mechanical behaviour at high
temperature of the steel: the law of behaviour and criterion of rupture in
the vicinity of the solidus. In order to help the makers and users of con-
tinuous casting plants to define the technology and the maintenance policy
of the machines, improvement of knowledge in this field ought to be con-
sidered as an objective having priority.
 108

BIBLIOGRAPHIE
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[2] H. NAKAGAWA, K. SHIMA

Mesures préventives contre les criques lors de coulées à grande vitesse
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[3] G. BERNARD, J.P. BIRAT, B. CONSEIL, U.C. HUMBERT

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[5] N. YAMAUCHI, Y. UCHIDA, T. YAMAMOTO, H. MISUMI

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Influence de la teneur en soufre et en manganèse d'aciers faiblement
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Arch. Eisenhüttenwesen 51, 1980, n° 2, p.55-60
 109

[9] F. WEINB ERG

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[10] H. M I Z U K A M I , T. K I T A G A W A , K. M U R A K A M I , T. K A W A W A , Y. MIYASHITA
Influence de la composition et de la structure de solidification sur les
propriétés mécaniques des brames de coulée continue près de la tempé­
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Tetsu to Hagané, 1978, 64, S 149, traduction IRSID T.3607C, juin 1978

[11] H. B IAUSSER
Revue bibliographique sur la "transition ductile ­ fragile" à haute tempé­
rature des aciers C ­ Mn
Texte non publié

[12] K. SORIMACHI, J.K. B RIMACOMB E

Improvements in mathematical modelling of stresses in continuous casting
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Iron and Steel Making n° 4, 1977

[13] T.W. CLYNE, M. WOLF, W. KURZ

The effect of Melt composition on solidification cracking of steel, with
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Metallurgical Transactions Β Volume 13B , Juin 1982

[14] T. UEDA et al
High speed casting on vertical­B ending type slab­caster.
Kawasaki Seitetsu Giho 12 (1980) n° 3

[15] S. KOJIMA et al
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Kawasaki Seitetsu Giho 12 (1980) n° 3 p. 101­109

[16] J. MIYAZAKI et al
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[17] SUMITOMO METALS

Etude de la formation des criques internes par cintrage de lingots
Tetsu to Hagané Août 1982, n° 10, vol. 68, A 149­152

[18] K. NARITA, T. MORI, T. MIYASAKI KO

B E STEEL
Formation des fissures internes par cintrage de lingotins.
19ème Comité du rassemblement pour la promotion des techniques 19.9.78
 110 -

[19] H. FUJII, T. OHASHI, M. ODA

Analyse du gonflement des brames de coulée continue d'après un modèle
de fluage.
Tetsu to Hagané, 1981, 67 (8) p. 1172-1179

[20] T. INOUJE et al,

Effects of secondary cooling and roll pitch upon internal cracking during
continuous casting.
Tetsu to Hagané, 1976, 62 (9) A 119-122

[21] T. KAWAKAZU, M. ISHIGURO, S. MIYAHARA, I. SUGAWARA

Influence de la ségrégation au centre des brames coulées en continu
sur les caractéristiques mécaniques des tôles fortes.
Tetsu to hagané, 6]_, S. 446 (1975)

[22] G. BERNARD, F. MOLIEXE, F. MOUSSY

L'arrachement lamellaire dans les tôles soudées
Rapport IRSID RE. 348 (1976)

[23] V.l. ASHOL'DOV

La zone axiale dans les brames de coulée continue et la résistance des
tôles au déchirement lamellaire.
Stai, II, p. 996-998 (1971)
Traduction BISI 10020

[24] K. K U M A I et al
Study on solidification behavour, solute segregation and fluid flow in
continuously cast slab.
Tetsu to Hagané 1974 _60 n°7 p. 156-175

[25] K. ASANO, T. HIROMOTO, T. OHASHI

Tetsu to Hagané, 59, n° 4, p. 80-83 (1973)
Traduction Bruchner HB n° 9099

[26] KAWAMOTO et al
Wire Journal, Juillet 1977, p. 64-70

[27] A. GRILL, J.K. BRIMACOMBE

Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1976, 3 (2) - 76 - 79

[28] J.P. BIRAT, P. NEU, J.C. DHUVVETTER, M. JEANNEAU

Proceedings 69 Steelmaking Conference, Pittsburg Mars 1982
 Ill

[29] K. WÜNNENBERG
Strangausbauchung zwischen Stützvollen beim Stransggiessen von Brammen
Stahl und Eisen, n° 6, 1978

[30] I. KATO, Y. SUGITANI, S. KOBAVASHI et al (SUMITOMO METALS)

Phénomène de gonflement de brames de coulée continue.
Tetsu to Hagané 1979 65 (11) S.713
Traduction IRSID T 3934 C

[31] MORIDA et al (Kobe Steel)

The measurements and analyses of bulging in continuous cast slabs
R & D Kobe Steel Technical Report Vol 29 n° 3

[32] K. MIYAZAWA, K. SCHWERDTFEGER

Computation of bulging of continuously cast slabs with simple bending
theory
Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1979, n° 2

[33] T. K A W A W A , H. SATO
Macro and microstructures of continuously cast slabs.
Tetsu to Hagané, 1974, 60 (5), 486-500

[34] K. M I Y A Z A W A , K. SCHWERDT FE GER

Macrosegregation in continuously cast steel slabs.
Archiv. Eisenhüttenwesen 52 n° 11 Novembre 1981

[35] M I Z U K A M I et al
Analytical calculation of bulging of the solidification shell formed at
continuous slab casting. NKK
9 7 t h ISIJ MEETING Avril 1979 S 169

[36] R.G. BLOSSEY

A theoretical analysis 'of the bulging of strand cast slabs.
Proceeding of the continuous casting symposium
102 AIME annual meeting, Chicago, Illinois 1973

[37] K. SORIMACHI, T. EMI

Elastoplastic Stress analysis of bulging as a major cause of internal cracks
in continuously cast slabs.
Tetsu to Hagané, 63 (8), 1297-1304

[38] O.M. PUHRINGER

Strangmechanik für Brammenstrangiessanlagen
Stahl und Eisen n° 6, 1976
 112

@ . R5ID

[39] Α. PALMAERS, A. ETIENNE, J. MIGNON

Calcul des contraintes mécaniques et thermiques lors de la coulée continue
Stahl und Eisen 1979, n° 19, p. 1039

[40] A. GRILL, K. SCHWERDTFEGER

Finite­element analysis of bulging produced by creep in continuously
cast steel slabs
Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1979, n° 3, p. 131

[41] S. SAITO, Κ. SHIB UYA

Stress analysis of inner cracks of continuously cast slabs
Kawasaki Steel Corporation
99th ISIJ Avril 1980, S 191

[42] J.P. B IRAT, J.Y. LAMANT, M. LARRECQ, Z. SMARZYNSKI, J.D: WEB ER

'Comportement viscoplastique des aciers à haute température ­ Application
au gonflement des brames sur une installation de coulée continue.
Rapport IRSID ACI 8, RE 933, Janvier 82

[43] K. SORIMACHI, J.K. B RIMACOMB E

Ironmaking Steelmaking 1977, 4, 240

[44] K.A. FEKETE

Die B erechnung der Durch des Ferrostatischen Druck verursachten span­
nungen und der maximalen Durchbiedung in der Kruste breiten B rammen
Radex ­ Runschau n° 3, 1974

[45] K. KINOSHITA, G. KASAI, T. EMI

Proceedings solidification and casting (Juillet 1977), 268
Université de SHEFFIELD, TMS

[46] A. PALMAERS, Α. ETIENNE

Modèles de calcul de tension et des déformations sur des brins coulés
en continu.
CRM Rapport final ­ Convention de recherches CECA 6210­50 ­ 14.06.77

[47] S. SAKUI, T. SAKAI

Deformation behaviours of a 0,16 % carbon steel in the austenite range
Tetsu to Hagané 63, 1977, p. 285

[48] P.J. WRAY

Plastic deformation of delta ­ ferritic iron at intermediate strain rates
Metallurgical transactions 7 A, 1976, p. 1621
 113

Θ. R S I D

[49] S. OKI, K. SATO

Determination of creep rate of iron and steel at temperatures above 1100°C
to the melting point
Tetsu to Hagané 53, 1967, p. 774

[50] A. PALMAERS, A. ETIENNE

"Le gonflement des brames coulées en continu"
Document CRM AC 30/80

[51] C. ROS5ARD
Méthodes expérimentales d'essais de matériaux à chaud. Mise en forme
des matériaux et alliage. Ecole d'été de métallurgie physique Villars/Ollon
1975 Editions du CNRS 1976

[52] L.D. SOKOLOW, A.G. KIPARISOW

Tiempieraturno­skorostnyie zawisimosti plasticznostu mietalow pri razlicznoj
ziestkosti napriaziennowo sostojanija
Mietaily n° 4, 1978

[53] C. ROSSARD
Comportement mécanique et structural dans les conditions de déformation
à chaud
Rapport CESSID RFP 194, Janvier 1977

[54] Z. SMARZYNSKI, M. LARRECQ

Détermination des caractéristiques mécaniques de l'austénite à haute tempé­
rature pour des déformations lentes et de faible amplitude
Texte non publié

[55] G. B ERNARD
Détermination des caractéristiques mécaniques de l'austénite à haute tempé­
rature pour des déformations lentes et de faible amplitude
Texte non publié

[56] R. LAMB S
Communication personnelle

[57] Z. SMARZYNSKI, M. LARRECQ, J. RUER

Gonflement et fluage en coulée continue
ACI 79 RFP 279, Novembre 1979 IRSID

[58] 3.3. GAUTIER, Y. MORILLON, J. DUMONT FILLON

Etude mathématique de la coulée continue de l'acier
Journal of Iron and Steel Inst., Décembre 1970, p. 1053­1059
 114

ÇJ i R S i a ACI 82 RC

[59] H. TAGAWA et ai.

Effect of rolling practices on annihilation process of microporosity in big
ingot

[60] P. RATTE
Laminage des poutrelles
Recherche CECA n° 7210 EA/3/304 (1978) IRSID

[61] H.J. BRAUDEL-CEMEF

Communication personnelle

[62] F. MILLET - IRSID

Communication personnelle

[63] D. FROELICHER - IRSID

Communication personnelle

[64] J.L. HENSGEN - IRSID

Communication personnelle

[65] T. UEDA, M. HASHIO, T. KIMURA

New continuous slab and bloom caster at Kashima Steel Works
Scottish Association for Metals, Glasgow Juin 1980

[66] T. SOEJIMA et al.

Surface quality of continuous cast slabs at KOBE Steel's KAKOGAWA WORKS
Steelmaking Proceedings, volume 64, TORONTO 1981

[67] M.C. FLEMINGS, G.E. NEREO

Macrosegregation Part. I, II, III
Transactions of the Metallurgical Society of AIME
Volume 239, Septembre 1967
 115

FIGURE CAPTIONS

Fig. 1 Slab bulging due to a failure of hydraulic circuits

Fig. 2 Sketch of the bulging principle

Fig. 3 Autoradiography and sulfur print of the same longitudinal

section [4]

Fig. 4· Axial segregation due to bulging

Fig. 5 Stresses due to bulging

Fig. 6 Stresses in the narrow faces (transverse section)

Fig. 7 Sketch showing the different types of inner cracks due to

bulging

Fig. 8 Inner cracks in the narrow faces

Fig. 9 Influence of casting speed and cooling rate on inner cracks [4]

Fig. 10 Influence of carbon content on inner cracks [4]

Fig. 11 Initiation of inner cracks along a continuous caster [5]

Fig. 12 Influence of slab width on inner cracks [5]

Fig. 13 Relation between casting time and solidified thickness S (and

distance I between slab surface and inner cracks observed
by autoradiography [4])

Fig. 1^ Inner cracks shown on sulfur print caused by a slab stopped

in a continuous caster [5]

Fig. 15 Influence of carbon content on transition temperature and

melting temperature of different steel grades

Fig. 16 Determination of critical curve ( S ,£ ) for cracks formation

with bending tests of small ingots [17]

Fig. 17 Relation between calculated strain at the solidification front

and inner crack formation [15]

Fig. 18 Casting conditions favouring inner cracks formation [14]

Fig. 19 Influence of bulging on axial segregation [4]

Fig. 20 Relation between calculated bulging and axial segregation [14]

 116

Fig. 21 Relation between bulging measured on cold slabs and axial

segregation [25]

Fig. 22 Sketch showing the measurement device [29]

Fig. 23 Influence of roll pitch on bulging [29]

Fig. 24- Influence of surface temperature on bulging [29]

Fig. 25 Influence of solidified thickness on bulging [29]

Fig. 26 Influence of casting speed on bulging [29]

Fig. 27 Bulging profile measured between two rolls [29]

Fig. 28 Sketch showing the bulging zone used for computing the formation
of axial segregation [34]

Fig. 29 Liquid steel velocity field in the heterogeneous zone with

bulging [34·]

Fig. 30 Axial segregation profile (influence of bulging) [34]

Fig. 31 Comparison between different types of mechanical behaviour

of steel

Fig. 3 2 Calculations by finite element method [31]

Fig. 33 Different creep laws

Fig. 34· Creep tests (influence of temperature) [19]

Fig. 35 Mechanical properties used for calculations in Fig. 36 [32]

Fig. 36 Influence of mechanical behaviour laws on bulging [32]

Fig. 3 7 Comparison between measured and calculated bulging profiles [32]

Fig. 38 Relation between hardening coefficient n and viscosity coeffi-

cient m and temperature for 2 steel grades

Fig. 39 Stress-strain curves determined by low rate tensile tests

of 18M5 steel

Fig. 4 0 Representation used for mathematical modelization of bulging

Fig. 4-1 Sketch of the supporting structure of slab caster N o . 12 at

USINOR Dunkerque
 117

Fig. 42 Influence of boundary conditions on bulging profile (18M5

steel)

Fig. 4-3 Influence of steel grade on bulging profile (boundary conditions

No. 1)

Fig. 44 Influence of steel grade on bulging profile (boundary conditions

No. 3)

Fig. 4-5 Comparison between bulging profiles calculated with a visco-

plastic and a creep law [46]

Fig. 46 Comparison between results of the visco-plastic model (cinema-

tic) and other results published

Fig. 4-7 Bulging deflection profile along the slab caster No. 12 at
USINOR Dunkerque (boundary conditions No. 1)

Fig. 48 Influence of surface temperature on bulging profile along

the slab caster No. 12 at USINOR Dunkerque

Fig. 4-9 Influence of steel grade on the bulging profile between two
rolls (static model)

Fig. 50 Sketch showing the supporting structure and roll movements

of the plasticine model

Fig. 51 Position of gauges during static experiment

Fig. 52 Position of gauges during cinematic experiment

Fig. 53 Determination of the elastic deflection

Fig. 54- Stamping tests

Fig. 55 Bulging measurement during static experiment (plasticine)

Fig. 56 Bulging measurement during cinematic experiment (plasticine)

Fig. 57 Influence of roll pitch on total and visco-plastic deflection

(cinematic experiment)

Fig. 58 Influence of water height (p) and casting speed (v) on the
total and visco-plastic deflection (cinematic experiment)

Fig. 59 Influence of plate thickness (h) on the total and visco-plastic

deflection (cinematic experiment)

Fig. 60 Influence of surface temperature on the visco-plastic deflection

(cinematic experiment)
 118

IRSID

Fig. 61 Comparison between total deflections measured and calculated

with the static model
Fig. 62 Determination of the exponents of the relation
f = Κ (Τ) p a l D /v C h d
established with the cinematic model (boundary conditions No. 1)
Fig. 63 Position of bulging measurements device
Fig. 64· Sketch of the measuring and calculation method of bulging
deflection
Fig. 65 Typical measurement recording (heavy plate steel with Nb slab
thickness : 250 mm)
Fig. 66 Calculation method of bulging deflection (steady speed, heavy
plate steel, slab thickness : 250 mm)
Fig. 67 Spectral analysis of bulging deflection signal for two steel
grades (heavy plate steel, low carbon steel)
Fig. 68 Evolution of roll Nos. 76 and 78 deflection during casting
Fig. 69 Influence of slab width on maximum deflection of roll Nos. 76
and 78
Fig. 70 Influence of casting speed on bulging deflection (heavy plate
steel)
Fig. 71 Influence of casting speed on bulging deflection (low carbon
steel)
Fig. 72 Influence of a casting stop on bulging deflection
Fig. 73 Influence of the maximum eccentricity of rolls Nos. 76 and
78 on the bulging deflection amplitude
Fig. 74- Comparison between measured and calculated values with the
cinematic model (boundary conditions No. 3)
Fig. 75 Evolution of bulging deflection and slab thickness measured
just at the end of the supporting zone (v = 0.86 m/min)
Fig. 76 Cast with roll No. 78 misaligned by 4 mm towards outside
Fig. 77 IRSID chart of axial segregation
Fig. 78 Influence of electromagnetic stirring on axial segregation
Fig. 79 Influence of electromagnetic stirring on bulging deflection
Fig. 80 Relation between bulging deflection and axial segregation
 119

Fig. 81 Bulging deflection and deformation profiles, roll deflection

profile on machine No. 1

Fig. 82 Solidified thickness and temperature profiles used in the

models for 3 casting speeds

Fig. 83 Roll diameter profile corresponding to a constant deflection

along a curved continuous caster (R = 12.2 m)

Fig. 84- Roll pitch profile corresponding to a bulging deflection (-o )

and strain ( £ ) along a curved continuous caster (R = 12.2 m)

Fig. 85 Bulging deflection profile along a curved machine (R = 12.2 m)

corresponding to a constant strain (δ )

Fig. 86 Influence of casting speed on roll pitch profile corresponding

to a constant strain (& )

Fig. 87 Influence of surface temperature on bulging deflection .and

profile on machine No. 1

Fig. 88 Determination of the optimal roll diameter profile (possible

solution with non divided rolls)

Fig. 89 Determination of the optimal roll diameter profile (necessity

of a thermal or technological solution)

Fig. 90 Different components of the total strain

Fig. 91 Influence of strains other than bulging strains on the optimal

roll diameter profile
 120

Figure 1 : Exemple de brame ayant gonflé suite à une

défaillance du système hydraulique

coeur liquide
Liquid core
Shell
croûte solide gonflement
Bulging

Figure 2 : Schéma de principe du gonflement

 121

WÊÈSÉÈÈÊÈÈÈÊ

^φ^^β00Φ^00Ε^.

mim y&BaÊkii&íià*
I 50mm.
Figure 3 : Autoradiographie et empreinte B aumann d'une même
coupe longitudinale de brame (d'après [4])

I­rAl* ­: *

\*V l ¡y ■£

:.>­

Figure 4 : Exemple de ségrégation axiale de gonflement

(empreinte B aumann sur coupe longitudinale)
 ­ 122 ­

Casting direction
sens de coulée

I II1 I

Figure 5 : Répartition des contraintes dues

au gonflement

rives 0 Direction de coulée

Edges Casting direction

Narrow f a c e
petite face

Figure 6 : Contraintes induites dans les petites faces

(coupe transversale)

«/

ι"· I
­ι 1 ­ I r ' ι ι ' ï γ ν b/
j·:,'./ Í ». ; . . » ­I ι.' Μ ;ϊ
1
κ

ΊΗ
Figure 7 : Schéma décrivant les divers types de criques
dues au gonflement
 123

' :--t-, v-^^^s^rr^'^:^"-"^'- ; w i 'V*·"^--τ".*."". &2

¿ ii-- « -* · --er-' - - " . · « * · ^ - - " T t . > * ■' * - - — '■ * T~*-V- ... 1

V5·· -. ~--y.L-"~ -■'- ΛϊΓ ;·■·.-..r ';- ··■'·". "";- r-* *-κ;* S¿-

' · η *¿JL
ι— —'

Empreinte BAUMANN sur coupe t r a n s v e r s a l e

Sulohur o r i n t of c r o s s ­ s e c t i o n

Figure 8 : Criques internes au voisinage des petites faces

 124

Al-Si killed steel • With crack 9 0 1 Slab 512e : 7· '

for heavy plate
s· '■ (25011 9 0 0 - 2 100mm slab) O Without crack an | 250x1 90O­2IO0mml Tj'o- ■
j Casting speed : 0.60m/min| ¿£'
­ 1.2 7Π

Ch" o o . ^ î* * *
60
50
o'f
8 o o °' <m ? ¿ 40 _"_! (si? /.ej
ι ·°· 8>
30
y
Ό
/
/

ë 0.6 ?n
S. i0 > " 1
CO Q4
0 m rfm · / ·
5 10 15 20 25
0.4 ι 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 [C] « 10' or 'S] < 10' (%)
Casting speed (m/min.)

Figure 9 : Influence de la vitesse de coulée Figure 10 : Influence de la composition

et du taux d'arrosage secondaire sur des en carbone et en soufre de l'acier sur
criques internes (d'après [4]) le taux de criques internes ·
(d'après [4])

No. o f i n t e r n a l c r a c k s
nombre de criques internes Internai cracks
in inner radius
criques internes
'en intrados
criques internes
en extrados
I n t e r n a i cracks
p o n f i f i t i f t c i f ^ f i ^ f i n q *
17 1? 21 23 in outer radius
R o l l n o . / N° du rouleau
Figure 11 : Initiation des criques internes le long d'une machine de coulée
continue (Répartition dans l'épaisseur de brame)
(d'après [5])

I n d e x of i n t e r n a l . c r a c k s
indice de criques internes

V = 1,2 m/min S ou I (en mm)

e
A : coulée conventionnelle
B : Coulée en corn­ ^—°— ITO Low carbon Α Ι ­ S i killed steel
Size: 2 0 0 x 1 9 7 0 m m
pression A „.»*" Casting speed­ 1.05 m / mη
*
1.0 y' , ' ' ' 80 ­ Specific cooling water : 1 l 8 / / k g

• 5
0,« 60 — ­ . ie

a'' 40
_¿f?^ !

-/ y
20
:
0.5
.­*«'" !
0>^
0.5 1.0 .5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
//"(min*í Un­bending point­7
/ 0 0.3 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 12 14 16
Distance from meniscus (m)
'/

-.y·
l.OUO 1.500 2.000
Figure 13 : Relation entre le temps de coulée
et l'épaisseur solidifiée S ou la distance I e
largeur brame (mm) entre la surface de brame et les criques
Figure 12 : Influence de la largeur de la internes observées par autoradiographie
brame sur les criques internes (d'après [4])
(d'après [5])
A = Usual casting
Β = Casting under pressure

x ­ a x i s = Slab width
 125

Casting speed
Vitesse de coulée
(m/min)

Casting time
ü 10 .»U 30 W Sot 60 TU »J to ίου temps de coulée (min)
Stoppage arrêt
Figure 14a : Diagramme de vitesse pendant un essai
d'arrêt de brame

Estimated solidus line

at the time of stopping

Χ
ι|ι ΙΙ.ΤΤΤ 4' · Γ "¡¡Til
M.
Μ Ίι
I II τ—Γ

Ό O O 5Γ Q~ S Ö ® σ
= 36 =37 ? 38 = 39 \ * *° = 41 = 42 =43 =44
This mark indicates a driven roll.

t ^ ­ j ­ , | ι. ,1 11 If .y,...
V r ^ι­- ^-^- r - y - · i|l|l|i|i[|i||iy""-i"'i|i||i"·' -min ■!■■"" *.*^IÚÍ

II ,,|

"Ο σ Ό O ö &

Figure I4b : Criques internes révélées par empreinte Baumann

lors d'un essai d'arrêt de brame dans une machine
(d'après [5])
 126 ­

I5O0

1450

1400

1350

1300

%C

Figure 15 : Temperature de transition et de résistance nulle (melting)

de différents aciers en fonction de leur
teneur en carbone (d'après [9])

1) Hydraulic ram
2) Liquid steel A criques Cracks
3) Shell Δ pas de criques No c r a c k s
4) Steel mould 2
o acier 40 Kg/mm steel
5) Internal cracks
2
0 acier 50 Kg/mm steel
Ingot
lingot
2.0 0
1) / 250*300. I
V r n A
h Jt ι· ' *l70O ^ t e / S45C °
.hydraulique CN

C
1 5 V\
O \cV * o
■H « \ o
u Ε ι.ο
5) ­μ O °oS \
" ^ o
XI <9
0.5
o
4) ­
uj

. t . t . 1

lö 6 I0J IO" 10" 10'

ε vitesse de déformation (s ­ l i
R a t e of s t r a i n

Figure 16 : Détermination d'une courbe ( £ , £ ) critique d'apparition de criques

internes à l'aide d'un essai de cintrage de lingotin
(d'après [17])
 127 -

Table 3 Chemical composition of c a s t s t e e l s and c a s t i n g conditions in this experiment

Chemical composition (%) Cross Casting Amount of

Continuous casting section secondary
speed
machine of slab cooling water
C Si Mn Ρ S Al (mmX mm) (m/min) (i/kg-steel)

No.5 in Mizushima 0.12 0.15 0.60 0.005 220X1215 0.9-1.8 1.5-2.8

1 1 1 <0.03 •C0.02 I
No.2 in Chiba 0.19 0.25 1.20 0.030 200X1570 1.2-1.5 1.4-1.8

1.5

• With cracks
o Without cracks
Έ 10
C c

i V 0.5

1 2 3 4
Square root of solidification time (min"3)

Figure 17 : Relation entre la déformation calculée au

front de solidification et l'apparition de
criques internes (d'après [15])

•
without bulge
o
(Before modification) < with bulge

CJ
Dangerous zone
1.6
for inner crack ( S S 4 1 ) )

1.4 1
/200mm t h i c k n e s s \ "■3
\ hard c o o l i n g / "
a.
8
ï 1-2
■
2
10 c
■ » « s r ··# 4.*J ■ ·
o o
í * Ό
H 16 18 20X10-* (%) 1 » ^i> Sy,
Carbon content
06 °of
80 ΙΟΟ 120 140
Distance trom slab surface (mm)

Figure 18 : Mise en évidence des Figure 19 : Influence du gonflement sur

conditions de coulée favorisant le profil de ségrégation axiale
l'apparition de criques internes (d'après [4])
(d'après [14])
 128

o550*P R
»280.» Ρ R
3.0 t-

2.0

1.0

0.5 1.0 1.5 ΎΓ

Bulging (mm)

Figure 20 : Relation entre le gonflement calculé et

l'indice de ségrégation axiale (S.I.)
d'après [14])

/
/
/ ­ · · — · <
/
il
H ca
«
: : ·m ··
/
O) A /
■H ­c? ? + Í-
s. « /
tri ­rj
&.| / ·· · /
Q) ^ y
·· · /
••—XX-

· /
/

Ì3 ­1
Gonflement (mm)
Bulging

Figure 21 : Relation entre l'épaisseur de brame mesurée à froid et

l'indice de ségrégation axiale (d'après [25])
 129

1. B rame
2. Rouleau d'appui
3. B ras de mesure
4. Capteur de déplacement
5. Plaque refroidie par l'eau

Figure 22 : Représentation schématique du dispositif

de mesure (d'après [29])

Nuance d'acier X 60
Rayon de courbure de l'installation : 3,9 m
Largeur des brames supérieure à 1300 mm
Vitesse d'extraction : 0,85 m/min
Epaisseur de manchon solidifié : 79 mm

distance au ménisque
lu.um
K.5m

600 800 1000 1200 U00 1600

Rollenaùslond in mm
Ecartement des rouleaux (mm)

Figure 23 : Influence de l'écartement des rouleaux

sur le gonflement (d'après [29])

17 " Τ Ι !

Ξ Rollenobstond 860 mm
Ξ :o • mit Zusatzkúhlunq Espacement des rouleaux 860 mm
o oh ie Zusotzkúhlun g Strongurerte Stahlsorte
c I o , > 1300 mm Χ 60 • Avec refroidissement supplémentaire
Ol Ι „
^ c
I J o Sans refroidissement supplémentaire
H b ι
w
­O <ι
Ι · .« !* o _ ^ i ; t ; n r nm St 1 7 Courbe I : Acier X 60 brames de plus de
<t
Is.—­f 1300 mm de largeur
!0 I
■J ι I

OL.
ι Courbe 2 : Acier st 37 brames de 550 mm
550 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 de lareetr
StrongoDertlöchentemDerctur in°C

Température de surface de la brame (°C)

Figure 24 : Influence de la température de surface de la
brame sur le gonflement (d'après [29])
 130

Key to Fig. 22 to 24

Fig. 22: 1. Slab / 2. Supporting roll / 3. Measuring arm

4. Displacement sensor / 5. Water-cooled plate

Fig. 23: x-axis = Roll spacing in mm

y-axis = Bulging in mm
Legend: Steel grade X 60
Radius of curvature of machine: 3.9 m
Slab width greater than 1300 mm
Speed of withdrawal: 0.85 m/min
Shell thickness: 79 mm
Distance to meniscus: 10 m, 14.5 m

Fig. 24: x-axis = Surface temperature of slab C

y-axis = Bulging in mm

Legend: Roll spacing: 860 mm

• With supplementary cooling
o Without supplementary cooling

Curve 1: Steel X 60, slab width greater than 1300 mm

Curve 2: Steel St 37, slab width 550 mm
 - 131 -

Key to Fig. 25 to 27

Fig. 25: x-axis = Shell thickness in mm

y-axis = Bulging in mm

Legend: Steel grade: St 37

Roll spacing: 860 mm
Slab width: 550 mm
Distance to meniscus: 10 m

Fig. 26: x-axis = Casting speed m/min

y-axis = Bulging in mm

Legend: Steel grade: St 37

Roll spacing: 860 mm
Slab width: 550 mm
Distance to meniscus: 10 m

Fig. 27: x-axis = Position between two rolls, x/L

y-axis = Bulging in mm

Legend: Steel grade: X 60

Radius of curvature of machine: 3.9 m
Roll spacing L: 860 mm
Slab width: greater than 1300 mm
Withdrawal speed: 0.85 m/min
Shell thickness: 79 mm
Slab surface temperature: 'v 1030 C
 132

1 1 1
Stahlsorte St 37
Rollenabstand 860 mm Nuance d'acier St 37
Strangbreite 550 mm
E Abstand vom Gieflspiegel 10 m
Ecartement des rouleaux : 860 mm
E
c Largeur des brames : 550 mm
<υ
■w
c Distance ménisque : 10 m
υ ·**
•
c
o
O
54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70
Schalendicke in mm
Epaisseur de peau solidifiée, en mm

Figure 25 : Influence de l'épaisseur de peau solidifiée

sur. le gonflement (d'après [29])

Stahlsorte St 37
Rollenabstand 860 mm
Nuance d'acier : St 37 Strangbreite 550 mm
Abstand vom GíeDspiegel 10 m
Ecartement des rouleaux : 860 mm
Largeur des brames : 550 mm
II'
y— °*
513
Distance au ménisque : 10 m
<υ= 2
OJ

c
o
O 0
I 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7, 1.8 1,9 2.0 2.1
Gieilgescnwindigkeit in m/min

Figure 26 : Influence de la vitesse de

de coulée sur le gonflement
(d'après [29])

1 1 1 1 1—
Stahlsorte Χ 60
Anlagenradius 3.9 m
Rollenobstand L 860 mm
Nuance d'acier x 60
Strang bre ite ^ 1300 mm Rayon de courbure de l'installation : 3,9 m
Gieilgescnwindigkeit 0.85m/min
Strangschalendicke 79 mm
Espacement des rouleaux : 860 mm
Oberflachentemperatur~ 1030 °C Largeur des brames supérieure à 1300 mm
Vitesse d'extraction : 0,85 m/min
Epaisseur du manchon solidifié : 79 mm
c
Température de surface de la brame A/ 1030°C
V
Ξ
V
c
o
Ό
3.1 3.2 3.3 0.4 0.5 3.6 0.7 3.8 0.9
Loge zwischen zwei Soilen x / l
Position x/L entre deux rouleaux
Figure 27 : Déformée de gonflement mesurée en deux
rouleaux d'appui (d'après [29])
 ­ 133

Pasty zone
zone pâteuse
Solid solide J Ι ' M * Liquid
solide Solid
Roll rouleau

domaine A D o r n a i n A

domaine Β D o m a i n Β
Roll rouleau

Axe de la brame
Slab axis
Figure 28 : Représentation schématique de la zone de gonflement
pour la modélisation de la ségrégation axiale (d'après [34])

Figure 29 a figure 29 b

9« ■ 9i ■ '.Z g cm"3 9s " V . 9ι· 7,0 g cm'3

■ 2 mm
­\ . ' » 1ι ι ι ι ι
\ ■ ' » 1 l . 7,87 m
* » 1 M 11 * *­ 1 r —
x .S
H"­ — TTTTTT"'
•
• / » ' ' |— ■ * · * \ \ \ f \
2 1 10 domaine A
< ,. , * χ μ ­ ' ' ' » \ \ "^­c­^ Domain A
ai • > / / / L*
._» « ♦ ♦ t t
• · »· \\\ j \
•S I * . ν \ V \ » ­­.­­.­­.­­,­­,­­,­ ¡­­ ­
\ ' ' ' ' / / t
^ •K­K'»^'^ t

5 a 5» » x v ·»* * . t
• ' ' ' // / \ Domain
domaine B
B
•H *a) test » » % % ^ t fest \
o ­
to „ 40
• ' ' ' ι / / ι
DJ
« (D
c
\ '­­ΓΤΤΤ"·,­.^ 1
\ ' · « » ι ι ι ?r 0.02 cm s'
5« \ 1 fl '<Λ

CL 9 10 8 9
Abstand von der Srammenoberflãche x in cm
Distance x
Distance x à la surface de la brame en Cm"*" from slab sorface in cm
Çs · densité de la phase solide Density of s o l i d phase
¿I : densité de la phase liquide D e n s i t y o f l i q u i d Dhase
¿max : gonflement maximal Maximum b u l g i n g
ZB : distance des rouleaux au ménisque D i s t a n c e o f r o l l s from m e n i s c u s

Figure 29 : Circulation du métal encore liquide dans la zone

pâteuse de la région du gonflement (d'après [34])
 ­ 134 ­

Slab a x i s
axe de la axe de la.
bra/ne brame

Manganése |

mm

2 \ : gonflement maximal
"max
3
Maximum bulging

■^1

9 io a 9 10
Abstand von der Brommenoberflõcrie χ in cm ­ » ­ D i s t a n c e f r o m s l a b surface X i n cm
Distance au c e n t r e de la brame en cm

Figure 30 : Profil de ségrégation axiale (influence du gonflement (d'après [34])

Ol Elastic
élasticité élasto plasticité Elasto­plastic

> visco élasticité V i s c o ­ e l a s t i c

) visco plasticité Visco­plastic

•»E

Figure 31 : Comparaison des différents types de comportement de l'acier

A 1
Γ C
i

\
— — — ■ ­

' B Ρ
ι ι ι ι ■ ι ι l M I M I t I !
Ferro­sunc Pressure a I Eletnenl:4­Nodes Plsir. Slrain
P / 2 ­ 199.5 B r Total 2X Elements
] Ι Toi·! ?3! Nodes
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.CM 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.C
F e r r o ­ s u u r Pressure I t g / W

Figure 32 : Exemple de calculs par la méthode des éléments finis

(d'après [31])
 135

/1JMC

10

■
* IJ00C

— /­ s i

/ 1
1 ii»«.

L^^ ^
2
IIO0C
Figure 33 : Définition des différents domaines 10O0C

de fluage
Ό IO a Kl SO 60 '0 w »ιοα
I : fluage primaire ou transitoire t (>«c)
II : fluage secondaire ou stationnaire
III : fluage tertiaire Figure 34 : Essais de fluage (influence
de la température) acier calmé Al­Si
T = 1 kg/mm 2 (d'après [19])
C Mn Si Ρ S Al
0,15 0,68 0,25 0,012 0,014 0,023

Table 1 Mechanical properties of creep used ¡η calculations

Number of curve An. Temperature

in Fig. 36 (cm'kg-')"s-· O. kcal m o l - ' m a Staël range. "C Reference

1­Ì 004125 24 S 1-5 0-25 Unalloyed steel with 1 2 5 0 ­ 1 300 [46]

0'185%C
>f luage I 0 16
0037 22 5 1-5 Unalloyed stoel with 1 250­1 300 [46]
0­4%C
3, 302 92 6 4-46 1 Unalloyed steel with 1 250­1 300 [46]
i
4t \fluage II 640 81 8 3 0 1
0185%C
Unalloyed steel
0­2KC
with 1 100­1340 [43]

Ίer J 0 23 48-2 3 77 1 Ferriticiron 1 2 0 0 ­ 1 525 [48]

( i ­ F e . Fe­3S¡)
0-14X10-" 68-5 5-4 1 Unalloyed steel with 0­16%C 890­1 040 [47]

Figure 35 : Propriétés mécaniques de fluage utilisés pour les

calculs de la figure 36 (d'après [32])

40
measured by
­ Wünnenberg
—calculated
u>T42cms­'
ho ui=280kPa
z d =10m io "I I 1 1 1 T-
1 = 8 6 cm measured by Wünnenberg·
u=142cms~'
ζ
O I8 ZcplOm üj=280kPa

υ 2C
UJ

UI
Q
Σ
D
Ι io
χ
<
Ί. 04 06
Z'( = z/I)

Figure 37 : Comparaison entre profils de

O 40 80 120 leo déformées mesurés et calculés
ROLL SPACING(l),cm (d'après ]32])
Figure 36 : Influence des lois de comportement
mécanique de l'acier sur le gonflement
,(lois de. la figure .35) .
7 : loi elastcplastique ; s : loi élastique
(d'après [32])
 Figure 38 : Evolution des coef f icients d'écrouissage n et de viscosité m en
fonction de la température pour les deux aciers testés

σι

B00 10 0 0 Température (°C) 1200

Temperature °C
 137

Figure 39 : Courbes de traction lente de l'acier 18M5

4 6x10-
 - 138 -

Drawing 1 : The slab represented by a beam

(static case)
Schéma 1 : Représentation de la brame par une poutre
(cas statique)

y
II

J
Gl
H—h b.1

Drawing 2: The slab represented by a beam

(kinetic case)
Schéma 2 : Représentation de la brame par une poutre
(cas cinématique)

Figure 40 : Schémas utilisés pour la modélisation

mathématique du gonflement
Figure 41 : Schema du système de soutien de la machine de coulée continue n° 12 d'Usinor Dukerque
(Position des points de mesure)

MACHINE Of COULEE CONTINUE N? 12

OJ

Thickness measurement a t
e x i t from t h e m a c h i n e
mesure d'épaisseur de brame
en sortie de machine
EXTRADOS
Outer r a d i u s

mesures de
ΘΘΘΘΘΟ©
ι» itu, 10i ι·6 Ho I ια
gonflement
Bulging COKttT If.
measurement
 - 140

Key to Fig. 41;

Continuous casting machine no. 12

USINOR Dunkerque

Column headings (1 to r):

Roll nos.
Roll 0
Distance between: Bearers (? Traverses)
Inner radius rolls
Inner radius fulcrums
Outer radius rolls
Outer radius fulcrums
Name of the zone
 141 -

Figure Wl : I nfluence des conditions aux limites sur la

déformée de gonflement (acier 18M5)

(29)
M e a s u r e m e n t s b y Wünnenberg
I Mesures de Wünnenberg [29] 1
h
= 860 mm
= 79 mm
conditions aux limites n° 1 V = 0,85 m/min
Boundary conditions no.l
T = 1030°C
conditions aux limites n° 2
Boundary conditions no.2 ρ = 2,8 bars
conditions aux limites n° 3
Boundary conditions no.3

•
•*
••
.· ••
••
τ
••
•

•
••
•

ε
-2
''•y
' ¿I
E
c Ni \ •
•
•
I \ v-
o*-
■rH C ••
4J 11 •
υE
OJ OJ
* ·/«
OJ o
y

I
Ό ao
o«
•H oj
tn.c
Η υ
3-aj l·-
«IT
-10

-M,
20 40 60 Θ0 100

Position -τ entre deux rouleaux (%)

P o s i t i o n x / 1 b e t w e e n two r o l l s (%)
 - 142 -

Figure 43 : Influence du type d'acier sur la déformée

de gonflement
(conditions aux limites n° 1)

I Mesures de Wünnenberg [29]

. acier 18M 5
Measurements by Wünnenberg
Steel 18M5
(29)

acier 18M 5Nb Steel 18M5 Nb

>>
>X
S
-2 ~ \ y

\
il
II
1j
C
\
1
\
\
\ ti
c
o
OJ \ \ 1
•H
+-·
c \ \ / /
+J
O
OJ \ \ / /
E
OJ
\ N / /

I
rH

ω co / /
Ό Só \ / /
Cn OJ \ / /
J
L \ / /
3 -OJ
\ \ /
CQ —
' /
\ \ /
y
-10

-14
20 40 60 80 100
Position y entre deux rouleaux (%)
P o s i t i o n x / 1 between2> arioils (%)
 143

Figure W : Influence du type d'acier sur la déformée de gonflement

(conditions aux limites n° 3)

M e a s u r e m e n t s by Wünnenberg

I Mesures de Wünnenberg

.acier 18M 5 s t e e l 1 8M 5
1 = 860 mm
1 = 79 mm
V = 0,85 m/min
T= 1030°C
, _ a c i e r 18M 5Nb S t e e l 18M 5 Nb ρ = 2,8 bars

/ y"
/ / \ \
li \
c 11 \
It \\
h
■H

C
h \\
o
ω
•H
Ο oj
+J
s h
·-* c
Ή o
OJ OC
Ό
OJ
Di'0
C OJ
'ri.-c
tn υ
r-l-4)
m u. -1
ρ; '
il
\\ II
\\ il
\ \ il
il
\ 11
V s • /
\ V -*

20 40 60 80 100

Position γ entre deux rouleaux (%)

P o s i t i o n x / 1 b e t w e e n two r o l l s (%)
 144

Figure 45 : Comparaison des déformées de gonflement calculées par une loi

de comportement viscoplastique et une loi de fluage [46]

1)

2)
I Mesures de Wünnenberg

acier 18M5 loi viscoplastique

3) loi de fluage acier 1 figure 35 [46]

conditions de Calcul identiques à celles de la figure 44
sauf h ­ 83 mm

/ /
•• / /
•f
-2 i
: i 11
S '
E
E

w
c c -4 % / /
■ri,
OJ
G
O «--
■H c
+J
U
OJ : /
E
m
01
_0J
4-1
C -6
·. \
( ï .· /
••
\ 1
OJ
o
Ό
00 •• • /
OJ *
• /
Di
C T: ••
•H • /
Oi \ •
rH υ
Ρ -OJ
-8
• ι
\
*. \

•
10
...···
···

12
20 40 60 80 100
Position ­r­ entre deux rouleaux (mm)

Position x/1 between two rolls (mm)

1) Measurements by Wünnenberg
2) Steel 18M5 viscoplastic law
3) Steel creep law 1 (Fig.35)
calculated as for Fig.44 except that
h = 83 mm
 145 ­

Figure 46 : Comparaison des résultats obtenus avec le modèle

viscoplastique cinématique avec d'autres résultats
de la littérature

h= 89 mm
V = 0,85 m/min
T= 1030°C
Ρ= 2,8 bars

012.7
_J

Mesures de WünnenbíiJ^ [29] ι

W ü n n e n b e r g ' s meas" " e m e n t s
(29)

courbe 1 fig 36 [46]

■curve 1

courbe 6 fig 36 [48]

Ι
(
curve 6
υ

ι
c . courbe 5 fig 36 [47]
•H 3 - curve 5
c
o
•H O V ­ modèle IRSID
­P viscoplastique

l
υ
0) IRSID v i s c o ­
p l a s t i c model
­S S»
OJ
D> Ό
Ç OJ
'il-G
D> (J
Ή -OJ

mE / /

1 / /

1/
Α­
/

y
V
oL 20 ¿0
ÍÍ'
¿Mi
60 30 100 120
0 140

Ecartement des rouleaux en cm

R o l l s p a c i n g i n cm
 Figure 47 : Profil de flèche de gonflement sur la machine n° 12
d'USINOR Dunkerque dans le cas des 2 aciers étudiés
(modèle cinématique)

0 160 170 1 βο 280 320 400 480

-τ-
220 24 8 259 325 36/.
-Γ-
4 45 + 540
0 : diamètre des rouleaux de soutien = diameter of supporting rolls
1 : ecartement des rouleaux = roll spacing

Steel
«___ acier 18M5 (14)
S
a a e r 18M5Nb(15) en
T = 1000°C
I E
π
c
1** X
I* "*» x
■Η
0J
C ,-.
o
δι / ι \ \ χ \
s *■ \
■Η
ί­ v
Il
-Ρ
υ ο
11
rH c \ χ
HH o s χ
UJ
TI
DO
Ν χ
m
11
Ό ^***-- ƒ ' ν χ
c *— —J / Ν Χ
•H
0J
r / Ν Χ
ΓΡ o Ν ^
r H -OJ Ν.
3 / / Ν.
C3 Lu Ν.
y—->. ƒ 1

10 15 20
Longueur métallurgique en m
"'"tallurgical length in m
 147

Figure 48 : Influence de la température de surface de la brame

sur le profil de gonflement le long de la
machine 12 d'USINOR Dunkerque
(modèle cinématique)

Λ 160 170 180 280 320 400 480

«» ( «» I • » I ■«
220 24β 259 325 364 US 540

. PÍo^chiu­diT * losj­c)
. Profil froid,(Τ décir
C o l d p r o f i l e <680°<
(Τ s t r a i g h t e n i n g )
ai OJ
680 °C
Η zi
ω o
Ό ω
01
-π
■Η υ
tn .c
)
¿0,5

10 15

Longueur métallurgique en m
Metallurgical length in m
 Figure 49 : Influence du type d'acier sur le profil de gonflement
entre deux rouleaux (cas statique)

Steel
__ acier 18M5 (14)
Steel
_. acier 18M5 Nb (15)
.. Mesures de Wünnenberg [29]
Wünnenberg's measurements

20
iE
•H C .fc.
co

ss
υ t
(DÛ
Η Ή
αϊ o
DTJ
c
•Η ^
-*-
r^OlO
3'JH * Ν»
COU-
"ν
Ni
y
y
y ·Ν«ν *< \

/ y
r..'f
^¿¿* ^ ^

0,5 Position ­ρ entre deux rouleaux

Position Ί between two rolls
 - 149

capteur
capteur
transversal longitudinal

M
O
ω
d
QJ
co
ω
to
u
Q)
>
to
O
10 SH r H
C to 0 ω
Q) αϊ CO tn
co -P C to
ro
rH
0) Q)
UI
>
ft <JJ
0)
rH
Ï7
rd
C
•H
C υ to
­Íá 0
•H
•rH U
­Ρ ω ÍH
Di Q) >
f) ■Ρ to r H OJ
C IS Fi ra rrj r H ­ P
O O d) ■Ρ rH o rd
PI A « co M S
ft Rgure 50 : Schéma de principe du système de soutien de la plasticine
Ή CM m ·<* m trj.r~ et du réglage des rouleaux de la maquette

y/ 72 y

Figure 51 : Position des capteurs de déplacement en cours d'essais

(essais statiques)

Travel of vessel
défilement du bac

Figure 52 : Position des capteurs de déplacement en cours d'essais

(essais dnématiques)
 Figure 53 : Evolution de la flèche lors d'un essai statique de mise en charge suivi d'une décharge
Fledie totale maximale rapide (mise en évidence de la flèche élastique)
entre rouleaux ((im)
Max. t o t a l d e f l e c t i o n
b e t w e e n r o l l s (μπι) L

Hauteur d'eau = 100 mm Hauteur d'eau = 0 mm

200
H e i g h t of w a t e r H e i g h t of w a t e r

100 -

Creep of Plasticine under its

own w e i g h t
Fluage de la plasticine sous son poids propre
r*
t (s)
—Γ"
100 500 2000 Temps de mise en charge
Time u n d e r load
 Figure 54 : Evolution de la courbe contrainte - déformation de la plasticine avec
3 -1
la température, pour une vitesse de déformation ί. = 10 s
(essais de bipoinçonnement)

Stress
contrainteö (kg/cm 2 )
1

20°C, E = 100 kg/cm 2

30°C, E = 78 kg/cm 2 Un

1
40°C, E = 36. kg/cm 2

50°C, E = 25 kg/cm 2

0,05 0,1 —Deformation

τ­ : £­ * ·
Strain
 Figure 55 : Exemple d'enregistrement lors d'un essai statique
60 mm T° eau H 2 0 = 19°C
10 mm T° ambiante = 19°C
106 mm ambient

Profil initial O r i g i n a l p r o f i l
de la plaque o f t h e plate

t = 0
flèche instantanée
Instantaneous deflection

t = 1'

υπ
ro

t r 2'

0,1 mm
Figure 56 : Exemple d'enregistrement lors des essais cinématiques
(Influence de la hauteur d'eau dans le bac)
Plate thickness épaisseur de plaque : 10 mm
R a t e of t r a v e l vitesse de défilement = 0,6 m/mn
V ( d i r e c t i o n of t r a v e l of t h e v e s s e l ) H e i g h t of w a t e r hauteur d'eau = 80 mm
V (sens de defilement du bac)

h = 20 mm

h = 40 mm

(_n

h = 60 mm

h = 80 mm

h = 100 mm

^verticale passant par

l'ajedes rouleaux
Verticals through
the axes of the rolls
 154

Figure 57 : Evolution de la flèche totale et de la flèche viscoplastique,

mesurée sur la maquette dans le cas cinématique en fonction
de l'écartement des rouleaux (1) (échelles logarithmiques)
B u l g i n g d e f l e c t i o n (μιη)
Flèche de gonflement (μπη)

j 1
1200

1Ω00

800

b - 6,5
600

^
400
y

300 y'
v'
1

b* - 6,3

200
y

150
y y m
y
y y
100
S i ! .0
10) 10
V 1 m/min Ecartement des rouleaux (mm)
10,5 cm R o l l s p a c i n g i n mm
P
h 13,5 mm
T 20°C
 - 155 -

Figure 58 : Evolution de la flèche totale et de la flèche viscoplastique

en fonction de la hauteur d'eau (p) et de la vitesse (V)
(échelles logarithmiques)
(Mesures faites sur maquette dans le cas cinématique)
B u l g i n g d e f l e c t i o n (μιη)
Flèche de gonflement (μπι)
2000 r

1000

500

a function of
speed

Height of water ρ

V (m /mn)
 156

Figure 59 : Evolution de la flèche totale et viscoplastique en fonction

de l'épaisseur de plaque h (échelles logarithmiques)
(cas cinématique)
Bulging d e f l e c t i o n
Flèche de gonflement (mm)

Viscoplastic flèche
deflection I viscoplastique
0,04

& Ν
0,02
\
\

0,01
10 15 4
~20
épaisseur de plaque (mm)
Plate thickness
 Figure 60 : I nfluence de la temperature de surface externe de plaque Ts
sur le logarithme de la flèche viscoplastique mesurée

* : f2 vp
* ! 1/2 [fivp + f2vp]

αϊ

Τ : °K
ρ : mm
1 : mm
h : mm
f = 2.67.10"\exp (0,0617.T) a l i a l i with t : s
V
P hd avec a = 2,1
b = 6,07
c = 0,23
d = 2,38

In
fvp t
 158

Figure 61 : Comparaison entre les flèches totales mesurées et les flèches calculées
par modèle statique dans les mêmes conditions (cas statique)

Bulging d e f l e c t i o n
Flèche de gonflement (mm)
0.7
Mesures M e a s u r e m e n t s

Calculs avec la loi de Cal£uJ_.ated u s i n g law^«*

comportement de la
plasticine A

l.h = 10 mm P = 110 mm
2.h = 10 mm P = 70 mm
3.h = 10 mm P = 40 mm
4.h = 25 mm P = 125 mm
1 = 1 1 1 mm T = 20°C

0,1

4 Creep time
temps de fluage
t (s)
900 1830 2700 3600
 159 -

l'­
Figure 62 : Coefficients de régression de la formule f = K

obtenue à partir des flèches calculées par le modèle mathématique

cinématique dans les mêmes conditions que les mesures
correspondant aux figures 57.à 59

1.0 1.2
.^ A Log h (mm)
­1 ­0.9 _^ χ Log p (mm)
—I

■1£ !£. ^. 0 Log V (mm)

2.05 Log 1 (mm)

flèche de gonflement
viscoplastique mesurée (mm)
Measured viscoplastic
bulging deflection (mm)
 Casting d i r e c t i o n
direction de coulée

CTS
O

Figure 63 : Plan d'implantation des capteurs de mesure de gonflement

 161

Figure 64 : Schéma de principe de la mesure et du dépouillement

de la flèche de gonflement

No load p o s i t i o n of r o l l s

Imaginary a r c , r a d i u s 12 m O position des rouleaux

à vide
arc fictif de rayon 12 m
Casting ,'"">, . position des rouleaux
v y
direction - en charge
sens de Position of rolls'under
coulée load

Inner r a d i u s
Intrados

Extrados
Outer r a d i u s
 Figure 65 : Exemple d'enregistrement brut, de la vitesse d ' e x t r a c t i o n ,
des positions de rouleaux et de la brame
(Acier pour tôles fortes avec Nb - épaisseur brame : 250 mm)
P o s i t i o n of r o l l s and s l a b
Position rouleaux et brame (mm)

Ό c
0) o
<D -
ft υ
to ra

rd
OJ
rî 1.­
rd Χ}
y en 0_ σι
rC M
+J
•H .. .8
S >

.6­

.4 ­

.2 ­

­Γ­ •nr
ΙΟ 15
Temps écoulé à partir du passage de la brame
au droit du capteur de brame (5)
Time elapsed from passage of the slab to
the vertical from the slab sensor (s)
 1/4 turn of Position of the outer sur­
rol 1 face of the slab relative to
h sum of the positions of a fixed position
1/4 tour de
rolls 76 & 78 rouleau position de la surface externe de la
4 brame par rapport a une position fixe

+2

c
T3E Fleche de B ulging
gonflement d e f l e c t i o n
to OJ
rd­CJ
1.5
ω !=,
ε LO cn
OJ
C cc
oc
'1 J.0
■p o
•H­
to­
ri ^

. .5

1 .
,_0

Figure 66 : Méthode de dépouillement de la flèche de gonflement

(exemple d'un regime permanent) (Acier pour tôles fortes ­
épaisseur brame = 250 mm)
 Filtered signal
Filtered signal
Steel for heavy plate
Extra­soft s t e e l for sheet
SIGNAL FILTRE
Acier pour tôles fortes SIGNAL FILTRE
V = 0,86 m/rm Acier extra­doux pour tôles fhes
V = 1.0 m/rm Γ κ

lïnrs ( t) T i m e
» «. · » ■ ■ · · ■ . . , , „ ¿r^ir^i1 ί.'j^ 1 ¡¿.-χ.·;¿·ίί·^.·a^a,·-«ya.- ;ί , • m m IM t u χ. X4 ut
m»·.; (*)Time
· ■ < · «a < · aa i a η a i ra·'m¡TíuV ÜT '
Figue 67a : Profil du signal de flèche de gonflement filtré a 0,028 Hz Figure 67c : Profil du signal de flèche de gonflement fUtré à 0,028 Hz en

Spectrum
Spectrum
SPECTRE
S t e e l f o r heavy p l a t e Extra­soft steel
Aciers pour tôles fortes SPECTRE
v
_ Λ = 0rS6 m/mn Aciers extra­doux
V = 1,0 m/mn
s,

ι Hj(«­iaoo) ¿3^ \ *
■ I II l.lli.ri H¿(*4ooo)
i­'l' ■ · ■ I 'I ■ ■ I · ■ M. ι h . . . , , | i | . M I . I ||,,,..|. , ren^çEs,,,,
ι I idi ι Ιι·' 'I ­1"' m u l l í . . . i . n . u i l i l . i l l , i.illi ι ,,,, FREQUENCES
­ Frequencies ­ ­ » _,
ngçreJTb : Spectre de fréc.jenœ di signa, de flèche de gentanent non filtré F ^ e 67d : Spectre de fréquence du sigral de fieche de gonflement non f i l t r é " ^ " " "

Figure 67
Fia. 67 a/c: Profile of bulging deflection signal filtered at 0.028 Hz
Fig. 67 b/d: Unfiltered frequency spectrum of bulging deflection signal
 - 165 -

Key to Fig. 68

1 Roll deflection

2 Cooling and contraction of the roll

3 Unloading of roll and removal of heat stresses after passage of

the slab

4 Signal emitted during steady state casting (rolls under load)

5 Position of roller sensors before the slab arrives

6 R 78 (Idler roll)

7 R 76 (Driven roll)

8 Withdrawal stopped
 1
Flèche rouleau (nm)

Décharge du rouleau et
suppression des contraintes Position des capteurs du
themniques après le passage signal délivré en régime permanent de rouleau avant l'arrivée
Refroidissement et contraction du rouleau de la brame coulée (rouleaux en charge) de la brame

en

arrêt d'extraction

Figure 68 : Evolution de la flèche des rouleaux 76 et 78 pendant la coulée

u e i i e c t i o n o r r o l l s (mm;
Flèche des rouleaux (mm)

en

­. ,„ . ,. . ■ . , ί·- . - ■ J , -,, Largeur brame (mm ) S l a b w i d t h (mm]

Figure 69 : Influence de la largeur de la brame sur la fleche maximale des rouleaux 76 et 7»
 168

Bulging d e f l e c t i o n
Fleche de gonflement (mm)
ι i
■ ■

■■ ^y
20 .
■ ^y
ιI
m •
m

1.5 Tiickness
• Epaisseur
• 210 mm •
•
• 250 rrm ■
• 300 mm 4
• ­
ΙΛ S* •
m •
• «

OJ ,

ο,. (V o,7 0,r~ 0,9 U

»J
Vitesse d'extraction (m/,..
W i t h d r a w a l s p e e d (m/min)
Figure 70 : Influence de la vitesse d'extraction sur la flèche de gonflement
(Aciers pour tôles fortes)

B u l g i n g d e f l e c t i o n (mm)
Flèche de gonflement (mm)
i ι ιι r
2.0 ■
■^••^
■
• y*^ ι ' 1"
• ··
•
^*y**^ *1
1.5
y*· m
m
• ^ * * •·

1.0 t
• • Thicknesi
• Epaisseur
■ 250 mm
• 210rrm
0.5

0 ,5 Ö,¿ ί),7 r,0 0, 8

Vitesse d'extraction (m/mn)
09 r,
W i t h d r a w a l s p e e d (m/min)
Figure 71 : Influence de la vitesse d'extraction sur la fleche de gonflement
(Aciers extra­doux pour tôles fines)
 169

f ( i n mm) f(tnmm)

Ρ (in m) Pt (*"ƒ*)
1 ι^

i-3
Al

At.

AS

A}>
H

o.

-1

temps (s)
Time

Figure 72 : Influence d'un arrêt de coulée sur la flèche

de gonflement
A m p l i t u d e of b u l g i n g d e f l e c t i o n
Amplitude de la flèche de gonflement (mm)
2.0
ι L

250 mm
O

1.5 ·
•
•
•
• ­*

o
% •
1.0
oo
o ­J
o
Steels for sheet
O Aciers pour tôles fines
Aciers pour tôles fortes
1 avec Nb
O. )
S t e e l s w i t h Nb," i u i heavy
plate

0
I
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Faux rond du rouleau 76 ou 78
(qui a l'amplitude maximum) (mm)
Influence du plus grand faux­rond des rouleaux 76 ou 78 Eccentricity of roll 76 or 78
Figure 73
sur l'amplitude de la flèche de gonflement (whichever has maximum amplitude
(mm)
 171

Mild steel for sheet

Acier doux pour tôles fines ­ V = 1,2 m/mn
Coulée n° 1
Bulging d e f l e c t i o n Cast no.l
Flèche de gonflement (mm)

1.5 Λ Ál
Withdrawal
speed
liai i f f I iëimMàhi r\ UM

Vitesse
1.0 ■ -V—? ii
d'extraction (m/]rnr

Jl
1.2
0.5­

1.0 ­

0.8 ­

0.6 ­

0.4 ­

3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

S t e e l w i t h Nb, f o r h e a v y p l a t e
Acier pour tôles fortes avec Nb ­ V = 0,86 m/mn
Coulée n° 2
Bulging d e f l e c t i o n Cast no.2
Flèche de gonflement (mm)

2.0.
1
! \
1.5 ■■ I 1
ï 1 Λ I 11
J !
.Λ ¡Λ Ί
1 ί ί1
\f Ν
1.0
/
»ι II η f ï ι ij I j ij ; !j M fl il (j ;
0.5 ■·

4000 ol
4500 E
5000 5500 6000

Figure 74 : Comparaison entre valeurs de flèches mesurées et calculées

par le modèle viscoplastique de gonflement (condition aux limites n° 3)
B u l g i n g d e f l e c t i o n (mm
Fleche de gonflement (mm'

2.0

4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500

S l a b t h i c k n e s s a t e x i t from t h e m a c h i n e Time Temps (s)
Epaisseur brame en sortie machine (mm)

214-

213

Figure 75 : Evolution de la flèche de gonflement et de l'épaisseur (sortie machine) pendant une coulée
à régime permanent V = 0,86 m/mn (acier pour tôles fortes avec Nb)
 décharge du rouleau 78

Profondeui du puits
(m)

- 15

14
13.75

12
^J

- 11

Flèche des
3
rouleaux et de la
brame (mm)

A000
Temps (s)
10
Figure 76 : Détection du passage du puits liquide au niveau du rouleau 78
désaligné de + 4 mm vers l'extrados
 174 -

Key to Fig.76 :

1 Evolution of liquid core

2 Roll 78 without load

3 Roll 78 (f_) 4 mm out of alignment

4 Depth of liquid core (m)

5 Curve of zero bulging deflection

6 Roll 76 (fx)

7 Usable and positive bulging deflections (blackened portions)

8 Evolution of the slab profile

9 Deflection of the rolls and of the slab (mm)

10 Time (s)
 - 175

Figure 77 : Charte I RSI D de ségrégations axiales

Appearance of segregation

FXiss οε εεβΡεαΑΓίοΝ TYPE

Zone blanche (ségrégation négative) 1

Zone de couleur semblable â l'ensemble de la brame 2

----.---.--*-„- 5

10

1 = White zone (negative segregation)

2 = Zone of colour similar to that of the slab as a whole

 Index of c e n t r e s e g r e g a t i o n
Indice de ségrégation axiale

at i t a t e d

^J
σ

4 --

ΔΤ surchauffe en répartiteur (°C)

Figure 78 : I nfluence du Brassage électromagnétique sur la ségrégation axiale Superheat in tundish
Bulging d e f l e c t i o n
Flèche de gonflement (mm

1.0 1.1
Vitesse d'extraction (m/mn)
Figure 79 : Influence du brassage électromagnétique sur la flèche de gonflement w i t h d r a w a l s p e e d (m/min)
 178
Slab thickness
Epaisseur de brame
210 mm

Mauvais Moyen Bon

Bad Medium Good

Slab thickness
Epaisseur de brame
250 mm

ίζ.5 0.5 < f < 1.0

(15 cas) (15 c a s e s ) (7 c a s e s ) (7 cas)
SO SO

60 60

40 40

20 20

Mauvais Moven Bon Mauvais en Bon

Bad Medium Good Bad Me um Good

Figure 80 : Relation entre la flèche de gonflement Surchauffe > 30°

calculée et la ségrégation axiale 15° < surchauffe N< 30°
Surchauffe v< 15°
Super h e a t
 179 -

Figure 81 : Profils des flèches et déftxmaticns de gonflement et

des flèches de rouleau sur la machine n*^ 1
(V = 1,3 m/min et V = 1,6 m/min) et T = 1000°C

►o V = 1,6 m/min
Bulging s t r a i n Roll spacing
déforrnaticn de ■· V = 13 m/min Ecarterrent
gonflement £ Q 6
(9Ö ^¿8S

10 15 , 20
Distance t o meniscus (m) distance au ménisque en m

1,6 m/min
] fleche de gonflernent
1,3 m/min / B u l g i n g d e f l e c t i o n
Deflections Ecartement R o l l
fleches (rrm)
s rouleaux s p a c i n g
'°0 (mm)

15 . 20
distance au ménisque en m
Distance to meniscus (m)
 - 180

Figure 82 : Profils d'épaisseur solidifiée et de température

pour les calculs utilisés dans 3 cas de vitesses

épaisseur solide = s o l i d thickness

température = t e m p e r a t u r e Surface temperature
Température de surface (°C)
800 900 1000 1100
7~
/

/
v
3,5 - ^ ^ \

!
\ \ V = 1,0 m/min
V = 1,3 m/min )

10
I
1/2 épaisseur de
—-"" brame
h thickness
of s l a b
;'

15

V = 1,6 m/mi\ \ N

S t r a i g h t e n Lng \ \

20

L _
50 100 110 150
épaisseur solide en mm
S o l i d t h i c k n e s s i n mm
 181 ­

Figure 83 : Profils de diamètres de rouleaux possédant une flèche

constante le long d'une machine de coulée continue
courbe de rayon 12,2 m
Length between
Curve Slab width bearings
largeur brame 1Q distance entre paliersLo
Courbe ^jjrn^ (ίΏΠΐ) —mmm
1600 2150
• —
X —m Χ
· 2000 2800
0 —» o 1600 2800
■--•β 1600 2150(rgv4f rø (solid
rolls)

§ ε
~ε
CO £
*(DH <Ûi
Φ g

S*
'0 iß
H Jg
H
ε
o m
«a

Distance au ménisque en m
Distance to meniscus (m)
 182

Figure 84 : Profils d'écartements de rouleaux induisant une flèche ( % )

ou une déformation ( £ ) de gonflement constante le long d'une
machine de coulée continue de rayon 12,2 m

V = 1,6 m/min
T = 1000°C

1,5 mm
0,5%
1 mm

0,3%
0,5 mm

£ = 0,03 %

15 20
Distance au ménisque en m
Distance to meniscus (m)
 F^jre 85 : Profil de flèche de gonflement le long d'une machine de coulée
continue (R = 12,2 m) induisant une déformation de gonflement (£) constante

V = 1,6 m/min
c t = 1000°C = cíe
■H

Ό E
ε
O b
υ ^
tu c
ι«
0)
■α
1 4
C' DO
c CO
■Η
Oi
.Η
U_
e =i %

^ ^ _ _ _ £ = 0,5 %

b = 0,3 %

£ = 0,03 %

10 15 20
Distance au ménisque en m
Distance to meniscus in m
 184 -

Figure 86 : Influence de la vitesse de coulée sur le profil d'écartement

de rouleaux induisant une déformaticn de gonflement (£ ) constante

600

Distance au ménisque en m
Distance to meniscus in m
 185

Fçure 87 : Influence de la température de surface sur la flèche

et la déformée de gonflement de la machine n° 1

­ ­ ­ ­ T = ÎOOCPC
Bulging deflection(δ) in mm τ = 900°C
or s t r a i n (ε) i n % 0 flèche de gonflement = B u l g i n g d e f l e c t i o n
Flèche de gonglement (ò ) en mm déformation de gonflement £ = B u l g i n g s t r a i n
#
α ι iHéformaticri ( £ ) en %
1.0

0,8

0.6

0.4

0.2

15 20
Distance au ménisque en m
Distance t o meniscus i n m
 186

Figure 88 : Définition du profil optimal de diamètres de rouleaux

(exemple de solutions posssibles avec des rouleaux
monoblocs non divisés)

L = 2150 mm
o
1 0 = 1600 mm
V = 1,6 m/min
T = 1000°C
machine courbe de rayon 12,2 m
Bow r a d i u s 1 2 . 2 m

c
■H

H
ω
-p
0)

■r-i

O
Κ

Distance au ménisque en m
Distance to meniscus i n m
 187

Figure 89 : Définition du profil optimal de diamètre des rouleaux

(Exemple montrant la nécessité d'adopter une solution
thermique ou technologique anti-gonflement)

x χ T = 900°C, E = 0 , 5 %
f
o r = 1 mm, L 0 = 2800 mm, 1 0 = 1600 mm

T = 1000°C, £= 0,5 %

machine courbe de rayon 12,2 m

Bow r a d i u s 1 2 . 2 m

500

Ξ
Ξ
Γ.
Ξ υ
h χ
Ί
C Λ
■H D
u η
0 1-
4J 71
0 Î1
- "Ο
■H υ
Ό 1­
—*
­5)
H
ε
0
2
Κ Q

10 15 20
Distance au ménisque en m
Distance t o meniscus in m
 Figure 90 : Composantes de la déformation totale au front de solidification \£ T )
(évolution le long de la machine n° 1)

Total s t r a i n
, # déformation totale By . —— · déformation de gonflement ί = Bulging s t r a i n

.o déformation de désalignement £., déformation £. due à la différence de flèches = S t r a i n ε-; due 1

Misalignment strain i
0.6 de deux ' rouleaux adjacents
6? d i f f e r e n c e in d e f l e c t i o n of two a d j a c e n t r o l l s
*­*■
r
e» ο;
C
•H
ui
.—' r
o
ω *->
ra
C
■Η
F
ι-
(ϋ ϋ
Η
-CD
-Ρ Q
0.4
oo
03

0,2

Distance au ménisque en m
Distance t o meniscus i n m
 Figure 91 : I nfluence des déformations distinctes du gonflement dues à la géométrie de la machine
sur le profil optimal de diamètres de rouleaux

500

400

co

Δ Δ décintrage en un point + &d = 0,1 % = S t r a i g h t e | i n g a t one p o i n t

i n g a t one p o i n t

a t four points
a t two p o i n t s
 - 190 -

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Determination of the mechanical characteristics of austenite at

high temperature when subject to slow, small amplitude strains.

Appendix 2: The static model.

Appendix 3: The kinetic model.

Appendix 4: Programming flowchart of the kinetic model.

Appendix 5: Dimensional analysis of the formula giving the deformation of

the shell of the slab during the continuous casting of steel.

Appendix 6: The influence of casting speed on bulging in the case of an

industrial machine.

Appendix 7: Definition of the conditions of similarity for the physical

model of bulging.

Appendix 8: Trials using compression by two punches.

Appendix 9: Determination of the laws of mechanical behaviour of plasticine,

 - 191 -

APPENDIX 1

D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e mechanical characteristics o f austenite at h i g h tempera-

ture w h e n subject to slow, small amplitude s t r a i n s .

In order to study t h e mechanical behaviour o f steel a t h i g h temperature,

w h e n subject to stresses close to those to w h i c h t h e slab is subjected in
a continuous casting m a c h i n e , an apparatus h a s b e e n devised to apply a tension
slowly.

T h i s w a s a creep test machine that w e m o d i f i e d so that t h e load applied to

the test p i e c e is generated b y a w e i g h t movable along t h e lever a r m o f the
machine.

The test p i e c e (a cylinder 6 m m in diameter and 50 m m long) is placed inside

a furnace w i t h a platinum winding that can reach a temperature of 1300 C .
A r g o n is circulated through t h e furnace to p r e v e n t oxidation o f t h e test-piece,

T h e strain is measured b y means of an Invar p a r a l l e l o g r a m , bearing o n t h e

test-piece through alumina r o d s . A n inductive p i c k - u p w i t h a sensitivity
of a few microns is used to detect m o v e m e n t .

On this m a c h i n e , tensions m a y b e induced, either at constant rate o f loading,

or at a reasonable rate o f constant strain.

The tests a r e usually limited to 4 % elongation of the test-piece a n d t h e

— fi — 1 — 5 — 1
reasonable rates of strain attained a r e i n the range 8·10 s and 8*10 " s

The test-pieces are given the following h e a t treatment b e f o r e tension is

applied:
- Heated to 1300 °C
- Held at 1300 C for 5 minutes
- Allowed to cool naturally in the furnace to the test temperature.
 192

We limited the range of test temperatures to 800 C to 1200 C, which means

that during the tests, the grades of steel for heavy plate always have an
austenitic structure.

We carried out a statistical analysis of the various curves obtained during

the tests. We showed that for slow strains of small amplitude, at high tem­
perature the steels for heavy plate display viscoplastic behaviour that can
be represented by an equation of the form:

= Aexp(B /T) e f ( T ) é g (T)

where
σ = the stress
ε = the strain
έ = the rate of strain
Τ = temperature.
 193 -

APPENDIX 2

The static model

1. Case of a beam at uniform temperature

In the case of the static model with a beam at uniform temperature, the
following assumptions have been made:

1) for the calculations, C(χ), ε, and έ are assumed to be positive

2) C and C are assumed to be independent of y

3) Τ enters only into the expression of the law σ = f(ε,έ,Τ)

4) o(y) + o(-y) = 0

5) when t = 0, C(χ) = O yχ

6) Π t u(0) = u/(l/2) = 0

In this case, the neutral axis is confounded with the mean axis, there­
fore y = 0
o

The relationship then becomes:

ε = -Cy (Al)

The deflecting moment, in the case of a restrained beam is given by

the equation :

M(x) = M + (pl2/8) - (px2/2) (A2)

where M represents the restraining moment and is obtained by resolving,

by successive approximations, the equation:

1/2
C(x) dx = 0 (A3)
/o

which indicates that the mean axis of the slab is tangent horizontally
to the upper generatrix of the second roll (assumption 6)
 - 194 -

by replacing ε by its value as a function of C and of y in the relation­

ship

(A4)

, η -m n+m+1 , , _.
AC C y dy (A5)

with the assumption set out above.

By putting

r = m/(m + η) (A6)

s = l/(m + η) (A7)

Κ = (2/h)(t/r)r ((2m + 2n + 4)/Xh 2 ) S (A8)

relation (A5) becomes

Cncm = (m+n+l)M(x)/(2A(h/2)m+n+1)

and on integration takes the form:

C(x) = K[M(X)]S (A9)

When C(χ) and Μ(χ) are any signs, one writes the relationship:

C(x) = sign (M)«K|M|S (AIO)

From relation (AIO) the slab deflection f(χ) can be calculated by two
successive integrations :

u(x) = / C(z) dz (All)

 - 195 -

f(χ) = / u(z) dz (A12)

In this case, the maximum deflection representing the maximum bulging

of the slab is equal to f(0) because the deformation is symmetrical
between the two supports.

2) Case of the beam with a temperature gradient

In the case of the static model in which the beam has a heat gradient
in its thickness, the following assumptions are used:

1) We will suppose that, when M is kept constant, σ is constant over

time at all points in the section of the beam.

2) We will suppose the beam to b e divided into ρ slices of thickness

h/p, the temperature of each slice being supposed to b e uniform.

3) ε and έ are supposed to b e positive, to simplify writing the calcu­

lations .

4) Between 1300 C and 1500 C it is assumed that:

σ = σ (Τ = 1300°C)((1500 - T)/200)

The relation between curvature and strain is expressed by the relation­

ship:

ε = -C(y - y o ) (A13)

If t is the time during which the strain acts, the law of behaviour
of the steel, σ = λε έ may b e written:

/ // % % -, / -,^ (m+n)/m 1/m ,-1/m , „ „,

(m/(m + n)) d/dt ε = α λ (A14)

By integration, supposing that t = 0, = 0

σ = L(t) ε"1"1"" (A15)

 - 196 -

with

L(t) = À(m/(m+n))t~m (A16)

If ε and έ are any signs, this relation becomes:

σ = sign ε L(t) ^ | m + n (A17)

or
σ = sign Cc(y - yQ) 1 L(t) |c(y - yQ) Γ + η (A18)

One then looks for the relation between moment and curvature after
time t. For this, for several values of the curvature C, one suc­
cessively resolves the following equations:
+h/2
σ dy = 0 (A19)
/-h/2

M(x) = / -ay dy (28)

with
Γ n
σ = ση (Τ) = sign Cc(y - y )]L(t)|c(y - y ) Γ for T < 1300 °
1 o o

L o = σ (1300°C) ((1500 - Τ)/200) for 1300°C < Τ < 1500 °C

Relation (Al9) is resolved in y (position of the neutral axis) by

dichotomy. The value of y is then inserted in equation (28), which
allows the determination of M(x) corresponding to C(x).

One sees that with the couples (M(x), C(x)) obtained, the relationship
moment-curvature may be put, as in the isothermal case, into the form:

C(x) = kCM(x)] S with k = constant (A20)

 - 197 -

The restraining moment M is then obtained by resolution, using a method

of dichotomy of the equation:

C(x) dx = 0 (A3)

which indicates that the tangent to the deformation is zero, perpen-

dicular to the second roll. One then derives the deformation of the
mean axis by double integration of C(x), the maximum deflection being
f(0), in the middle of the beam:

(All)

f(x) = u(z) dz (A12)

 - 198 -

APPENDIX 3

The kinetic model

We will suppose that:

1) C and C are independent of y

2) the coefficients n and m are constants (the remainder of the

calculation requires us to make this simplifying assumption)

3) the initial conditions are

f (o) = 0 (Bl)

df(o)/dx = 0 (B2)

1) Calculation of the neutral axis

The rate of variation of the curvature is expressed by the relation:

C = dc/dx«V where V is the rate of travel (B3)

The linear strain ε at the intersection of co-ordinates (x,y) is

expressed as a function of y and of the curvature of the mean axis c
by the relation

ε = -C (y - yo) (B4)

The moment of deflection, under a uniformly distributed load, ρ is

expressed by:

M(x) = M + F χ - px2/2 (B5)

o o

where M and F respectively represent the restraining moment and

the separating force in χ = o, and are the unknown parameters that

it is necessary to determine if the deflection of the beam is to be

calculated.
 199 -

The neutral axis, as in the static case, is determined for several

curvatures in such a way as to verify:

(B6)

The neutral axis yo therefore being determined, the origin of the

reference point on the neutral axis is chosen, and in accordance with
diagram 2 in Fig. 70, the deflecting moment M(x) is expressed by:

M(x) = / -ay dy (B7)

2) Calculation of the curvature C(χ)

The stress-strain relationship is:

int.im-1 . , ,„. . ,..i ι η ι ι m

α = λ(Τ)|ε| |έ| έ = λ(Τ) sign(ε)|ε| |ε| (Β8)

The deflection moment becomes:

(B9)

On replacing ε and έ by their values as functions of o and of y, one

has:

M(x) = |c| n |c| m - 1 C I (BIO)

with
/ A ( T ) | y | n + m + 1 dy (Bli:
 200

By expressing C as a function of dC/dx one obtains :

n 1 1_
m m
|cl dc/dx = (l/(V x I ) ) | M ( X ) Γ M(X) (B12)
ii c I I

This equation is integrated over two domains

integration between χ and χ gives :

a) if C(x) > 0 for χ < χ <χ

2-+ 1 £-+ 1 ì /X2

m m
Cc(x2)] -Cc( Xl )] = i/(v icm) / M(x)|M(x)|m

b) if C(χ) < 0 for χ < χ < χ

S- + 1 2- + 1 ì /Χ2
Cc(x2)]m - Cc(x1)]m = - 1/(V Icm) / M(x)|M(x)|m dx (B14)

In the general case, to resolve equation (B12) the three parameters C(ο),
M , and F (respectively the curvature in χ = o, the restraining moment,
and the separating force) must be known. They are determined so as to
verify three boundary conditions of the problem that we must impose in such
a way as to best describe the actual phenomenon.

With three equations characterising three boundary conditions, C(o), Μ ,

and F may be determined by a triple dichotomy method.
 ­ 201

Key to APPENDIX 4

Programming flowchart of the kinetic model

General case: 3 unknowns C(o), Mo, and f'(o), symmetrical conditions

over rolls no. 3

Key to boxes:

1) Data input, initial conditions, dichotomy delimiters

2) Calculation of the neutral axis

3) Calculation of the moment­curvature relationship

4) Read­out of the dichotomy delimiters, or choice of new delimiters

5) Read­out of the boundary conditions

6) Read­out of f'(o)
A

7) Read­out of C (o)

8) Calculation of C (L) ­ C (o) for MoA

C 2 (L) ­ C 2 (o) for MoB

9) Calculation of f ! (o) ­ f' (1) for C(o)

f2(o) ­ f2(l) for C (o)

10) Calculation of f,(o) ­ f,(1) for f'(o)

1 1 A
f2(o) ­ f2(l) for f¿(o)

11) Calculation of f(χ) by double integration of C(x) with Mo, C(o), f'(o)
 ­ 202

ANNEXE ♦ : Organigramme du modele cinématique

'S/ IRSIItas général : 3 inconnues C(o), Mo, f ' ( o ) conditions symétriques sur les rouleaux n° 3)

Introduction données
1) conditions initiales, bornes de dichotomie

2) Calcul de la fibre neutre

3) Calcul de la relation
moment ­ courbure

lecture des bornes de dichotomie

4)
ou choix de nouvelles bornes

5) lecture des conditions aux limites

- i —
6) lecture de Γ Λ (o)
ί
lecture de C A (o) (*-
7) E
calcul de
C 1(L) - C 1 (o) pour MoA Mo + Mo
Mo ft = A B
8) C 2 (L) - C 2(0) pour MoB
2
I OUI
T
No [C^D - C1(o)][C20) - C2(o)] < 0 ves' C-i(L) - Cl(o) < 1λ
ι oui

L
calcul de
9) P., (o) - f ' , (l) pour C (o)
f' 2 (o) - f ' 2 (l) pour C (o)
C A (o) =cA(o)+CB(o)

[ f y o M y o ] [f' 2 (o)-r 2 (i)] < 0 f ^ C o ì - f ! , Cl) < έ2

No Yes

C(o) = C A ( o )

calcul de
f-| (o) - ι - , ί Ι ) pour f'A(o) fAfn^f'A(0)-rf'B(0)
10)
f 2 ( o ) - f 2 ( l ) pour f' B (o)

[f ( o ) - f ( I ) ] [f ( o ) - f ( l ) ] < 0 fn ( o ) - f 1 ( l ) < É3
1 1 2 2
No Yes

f'(o) =f'A(o)

calcul de f ( x ) par double

11) intégration de C(x)
avec Mo, C(o), f'(o)

&
End
 - 203 -

APPENDIX 5

Dimensional analysis of the formula giving the deformation of the shell of

the slab during the continuous casting of steel

The introduction, into the equations defining the dynamic viscoplastic model,
of dimensionless reduced variables allows, by selection of symmetrical
boundary conditions over two consecutive rolls, a formula to be obtained
that gives the maximum bulging deflection as a function of roll spacing,
ferrostatic pressure, and speed of passage of the slab. We detail here the
determination of the regression coefficients of equation (33) with ρ = pH,
where ρ = the ferrostatic pressure and Η = the metallurgical height.

To do this, we start from the general expression for the curvature C(χ) (see
Appendix 3, formula (B14)).

1 χ 1 m
m ι im
C(χ) = sgnj I sgn M|M| dx sgn MΙMI dx m+n

with ε = -Cy, Oy aligned in the direction from the external face to the
internal face of the shell of the slab.

1) m and n are assumed to be independent of T, and λ(Τ) to be proportional

to the distance Δ to the internal face (at Τ = 1500 C ) . This assumption
is acceptable as long as the temperature Τ of the external face is higher
than 800 C. λ is put equal to λ(T ). By introducing a reduced abscissa
x' = x/1 and a deflecting moment M' = 2M/pl2 one obtains

.1 1
sgn M|M|m = l(pl2/2)m 0(x')

where the function 0(x') is dimensionless, from which

 ­ 204

­ïï­(l+2/m) ­ i ­
.m+n m+n
c(x) = ± - £ —
m
m+n 1
m+n
v
cz
On the other hand

l c = (Xx/h) / Csh ­ y)|y ­ y o | m + n + 1 dy

I is thus the product of λ h by a dimensionless function J of the

variable m+n.

Double integration of C leads to the maximum deflection f.

A dimensionless function Κ of variables m and η is introduced:

f = K(i a p b )/(v C A L d h e ) (1)

with
m (1 + 2) + 2
a = m+n m

b = l/(m + η)

c = m/(m + η)

d = l/(m + η)

e = (m + η + 2)/(m + η)

For example, with m = η = 0.2, one obtains

­ „ M 7 . 5 2.5. 0.5 2.5 6 ì

f = K(l ρ )/(ν λ h / (2)
 - 205 -

APPENDIX 6

The influence of casting speed on bulging in the case of an industrial

machine.

On an industrial continuous casting machine, the bulging deflection increases

with the casting speed. In fact, when the casting speed increases, the sur- '
face temperature increases but the solidified thickness (the shell) decreases.
A rapid calculation allows this phenomenon to be made evident.

The solidified thickness h can usually be related to the casting speed v,

for a given metallurgical length L, by the following approximate formula:

h = k/(L/v)

where k is a coefficient characterising the secondary cooling.

In the case of steel 18 M 5, on replacing h by its value in the formula of

Table 5, one then obtains a law of variation of the bulging deflection as a
function of the casting speed that takes the form:

f - (K(T)/k 5 - 26 ) { (H 2 - 25 l 6 - 10 )/L 2 - 63 }v 2 · 06

We therefore see that at a given position in the machine (H and L constants),

at fixed surface temperature (T) and roll spacing (1), the bulging deflection
increases with the square of the casting speed.
 - 206 -

APPENDIX 7

Definition of the conditions of similarity for the physical model of bulging

Note: The dimensions measured on the mock-up are distinguished by marks

It I It
from those characterising the real case.

We want to know the various similarity ratios K between two quantities Q

in the case of steel and of plasticine, at two homologous points χ and x'
and two homologous instants t and t'.

One therefore has the relationship

Q ( x \ t') = K Q(x, t)
ri

Let K = x'/x and K = t'/t

χ t

1) Case of perfect similarity

a) Equation of dynamic equilibrium

This equation must be satisfied by steel and by plasticine

difa + p(F - γ) = 0 (1)

difa' + p'(F' - γ') = 0 (2)

where
F = force of density
γ = acceleration
ρ = density

One then defines several similarity ratios

K
Κα = ο-'/σ Kp = F'/F K p = p'/P Κ γ = γ'/γ = V t ~
 207 -

Eqn. (2) becomes

-2
(Ko/K ) difa + Κρ·ρ(Κ «F - Κ κ γ) = 0 (3)
χ F χ t

By identification of (3) with (1), in the general case

(Kp κ κ )/κσ = (κ + 2 κ - 2
κρ)/κσ = 1 (4)
F Χ Χ t
which reduces to

κ/ = KX/KF (5)

The two materials being in the same gravity field, one has

Kp = 1 (5a)

Therefore

Kt = /Κχ (6)

Continue the calculation without considering that the two ratios

defined in (4) are equal to 1.

b) Equation of material behaviour

If the temperature gradient in the thickness of the plate is not

taken into account, one has:

n .m
σ = α ε ε for steel

η' m'
α' = σ' ε' έ' for plasticine (8)

The following similarity ratios are defined:

Κ ε = ε'/ε Κσ,
1 = σ',/σ,
1 1 Κη = η'/η Κm = m'/m

Κ. = έ'/έ = Κ ·Κ " 1
ε ε t
 208

One therefore has :

Κ ·η Κ *m Κ ·η Κ *m
η m η m
Κ ·σ = Κ ·σΊ Κ κ. ε έ (9)
α σ1 1 ε ε
In the case where K = 1, one puts :

Κ. = Κ ~
ε t

In order to verify (9) it is necessary to verify:

K = Κ ·Κ ~ m (10)
ε α t

η = η' (11)

m = m' (12)

c) Calculation of different similarity ratios

These ratios depend on the grade of steel that one wishes to simulate
and on the position in the machine. We will make the calculations for
the case of steel 18 M 5 at 1000 °C.

Geometric ratio:

K = 0 mock-up roll / 0 machine roll - 100/D

with D in mm.

Stress similarity ratio:

The law of behaviour of steel 18 M 5 at 1000 C reads:

_0 _. 0.24 .0.21
α = 38.01 ε ε
with
σ in N/mm2
ε in %
ε. in
. % s -ι
 - 209

It transforms to:

_, p 0.24 .0.21
α = 027.5 ε ε
with
α in kg/mm2
ε dimensionless
. . -1
ε in s

For plasticine is used the law determined at IRSID, for temperature

Τ = 20 °C:

- Ί„ 0.281 . 0.107
α = 0.12 ε ε
νρ νρ
with
α in kg/mm2

ε dimensionless
νρ
-1
ε m s
νρ

Having established the two laws of behaviour in the same system of

units, one therefore obtains:

Κσ1 = (0.12/27.5) (4.4·10~3)

Time scale

1/2
One has seen that Κ = Κ
t χ

Scale of heights of liquid cores

One has
Ρ = P1 g h (13)

In addition, with

ρ = density of liquid

h = height of liquid

ρ = pressure on the wall

 210 -

3
Κσ = 4.4-10

Kp = 1/7 = 0.14

and m = 0.15 = mean of the coefficients for steel and plasticine

and assuming that the ratio of similarity of pressures is equal to
that of stresses, one has:

^ = 0.031 Κ χ -°·° 75

If Κ = 0.227 = 100/440, then:

Κ = /κ = 0.476
t χ

Κα = Κσ ·Κ " m = 4.9·10~3

κ = Κσ/Κρ = 0. 0350

wich requires a 420 mm height of water in order to simulate the ferro­

static pressure of 12 m of steel.

This height of water can be envisaged, if the sides of the vessel are
given rigid supports to prevent their collapse. But we have not taken
into account the equality to 1 of the two ratios of the relationship (4).
Therefore this result does not characterise a rigorous similarity.

d) Case where the two ratios defined in (4) are equal to 1

The equality Κ = /κ continues. But (Kp Κ Κ )/Κσ = 1 requires relation­

ships (10) and (5a) to be taken into consideration:

κ = (Κσ κ ~m)/Kp = (κσ κ " m / 2 )/Kp

Χ J_ L· J. Χ

whence

Κχ= (Κσ^Κρ)2/^
 - 211

The geometric scale K is therefore determined if one knows the material

χ
used for the simulation and the material that is to be simulated. In
short, Κσ , Kp and m are determined.

Under the same conditions as before (simulations of steel 18 M 5 at 1000 C

by plasticine at 20 C, for which the laws are described in c ) , above),
then with m = 0.15 one has:

K = (κ σ ι /Κρ) 2 / ( 2 + ΐ η ) = 0.0207

Κ = /Κ = 0.143
t χ
Ι^ =(Κσ1·Κχ~Πΐ/2)/Κρ1 = 0.0421

Κ = 0.0421 signifies that simulation of the ferrostatic pressure of 12 m

of steel is achieved with a 505 mm height of water.

But the geometric scale Κ = 0.0207 requires the diameter of a machine

roll to be 540 mm. This condition cannot be met, taking into account
the very small values of bulging that we wish to measure.

In addition, the time scale is fixed, which leaves us no freedom to simu­

late different zones of the continuous casting machine.

The first case considered would represent a rigorous simulation of the

bulging problem by modifying the stress ratio Κ so that the ratios intro­
duced in eqn. (4) become equal to 1.

In this case, (K Kp)/K = 13.7

By taking Κσ = Κσ·13.7, one has a rigorous simulation, but this condition

makes Κ = 0.479 or about 5750 mm of water. This cannot be done.
 - 212 -

2) Case of partial simulation

In order to be able to compare the measurements made on the mock-up with

the values calculated by means of the mathematical model, we have ignored
the mass forces on the mock-up.

The influence of the intrinsic weight of the plasticine has only been con­
sidered when making an analysis of the results of the tests.

This assumption requires equation (1) to revert to difa = 0. The only

other relationship imposed is equation (1C) which connects the stress
similarity ratio to that of time:

-m
Κα = Κα, ·Κ if one assumes Κ = 1 .
I t ε

We then chose to preserve the strains (K = 1) and the times K, = 1) that

ε t
allow determination of the pressure similarity ratio Kp = Κσ

The test parameters are in fact completely defined if, in addition, the
geometric scale is fixed.
 - 213 -

APPENDIX 8

Trials using compression by two punches

In order to calculate viscoplastic deformation, Young's modulus for plasi-

cine must be known and we have been able to determine this by tests of
compression between two punches.

1) Principle

The test consists of crushing a slab of plasticine between two punches.

These must be sufficiently large to enable the phenomena of expansion to
be neglected and planar deformation be assumed.

The equation giving the compressive force F has been established by the
slip lines method, giving:

F = (2//3)σ 'Q 'S

o F
where
α = yield stress

Q = coefficient of dual punching, tabulated

F
S = surface pressure

Theory has shown the similarities between dual punching and rolling and
established the equivalence of these two methods of inducing strain.

Generalised strain ε is expressed by:

ε = (2//3) ln(h /h)

o
with
h = initial thickness of the slab
o
h = instantaneous thickness of the slab

The rate of strain έ is given by:

 214 -

έ = (2//3) «V «l/h
o
where
V = rate of descent of the punches
o

2) Execution

The plasticine rolling mill at IRSID has been used as a press. We

removed the cylinders and then replaced them by small beams to ensure
good parallelism of the two pressing faces and avoid the rotational play
between the cylinders that was present even though the cylinders had been
jammed.

For each test, the position of the punches and the force, as a function of
time, are recorded by a microcomputer and output to a chart recorder. The
accuracy of the measurements is of the order of 1 kg for the force and of
a micron for the punch positions, but taking into account of other uncer­
tainties introduced by the analysis.

The tests were made at constant strain ε, that is, with constant ratio
V /h, the velocity V being defined by the d.c. voltage feeding the d.c
motor that controls the descent of the support of the upper cylinder.

It has been decided to define Young's modulus as the gradient at the origin
of the curve (α,ε) obtained during these tests.

3) Results

The curves (α,ε) of sample Β of plasticine, at four different tempera­

tures (20, 30, 40, and 50 C") are shown in Fig. 54, for a rate of strain
-3 -1
ε - 10 s (reference 63).

From these curves, we derive Young's modulus, which decreases linearly as a

function of temperature. The values found are the following:
 - 215 -

Table 14: Influence of temperature on Young's modulus of plasticine

o
Temperature C 20 30 40 50

E (kg/cm2 ) 100 78 36 25 τη"3 "I

f o r ε = 10 s
E (kg/cm2 ) 78 49 10 9
for έ = I O - 1 s " 1

It is apparent that Young's modulus is the lower, the higher the rate of
strain.

Even taking the experimental conditions used into account, the error in the
determination of these values is still substantial.

For sample A of plasticine, similar compression tests have been carried out
at a temperature of 20 C.

(63)
The following values have been obtained:

Table 15: Influence of the rate of strain on Young's modulus

of p l a s t i c i n e A
-5 -4
ε (s ) 2.510 5
510 io" 4 2.510

E (kg/cm 2 ) 44 60 45 52

These results show that Young's modulus of plasticine at 20 C is between

2 2
50 kg/cm and 100 kg/cm , depending on the sample of plasticine used for
our tests.
 216 -

APPENDIX 9

Determination of the laws of mechanical behaviour of plasticine

A law of viscoplastic behaviour of the type σ = λε έ for plasticine at

ambient temperature is a valid approximation only in the case of simulation
of phenomena that involve great strains (rolling, extrusion, etc.).

But no law of behaviour of plasticine has been proposed in the literature

for small strains and low rates of strain.

In order to take the elastic behaviour of plasticine into account, we have

chosen to determine a law of behaviour of plasticine taking into account
only viscoplastic strain ε of the type:

σ = λ (Τ) ε η έ m (37)
νρ νρ

Establishment of this viscoplastic law required the previous determination

of Young's modulus of elasticity of plasticine (Appendix 8).

We derived a law of viscoplastic behaviour for two lots of plasticine ' '
from relaxation tests that allow the coverage, by the minimum number of
tests, of a substantial range of rates of strain.

a) Principle

At a given temperature, a constant strain ε is applied to a sample and

the evolution of the stress α as a function of time is recorded. The
viscoplastic strain and the rate of viscoplastic strain are then deter­
mined using the following relationships:

ε = ε - σ/Ε (38)
vp

έ = ε - σ/Ε (39)
νρ
 217

b) Results

For plasticine B, the tests have been made using strains ε and tempera­
tures Τ such that:

0.008 < ε < 0.044

297 °K < Τ < 322.4 °K

The four variables (σ, ε, έ, Τ) were made the subject of a linear regression
calculation, using a computer, to verify the law of the type

,_/m. n .m
σ = A exp(Β/Τ) ε ε

in which Α, Β, η, and m are constants independent of temperature. The

same operation was carried out on the total strains (ε) from which we sub­
tracted the elastic component (σ/Ε) in order to obtain the viscoplastic
strain (ε ).
vp

The viscoplastic behaviour of plasticine Β is governed by the relationship:

σ = 1.12-10-5 exp(4066/T) ε ° · 2 8 1 έ ° · 1 0 7 (40)

vp vp
ith
σ in kg/cm2

Τ in Kelvin
-1
έ in s
vp
ε is dimensionless
vp

The correlation coefficient is 0.960

At a temperature of 20 C, this law reads:

^ 0.281 . 0.107 , 4,
σ = n0.12 ε ε 41
vp vp
 218

The law of viscoplastic behaviour of plasticine A has likewise been obtained

by a computer programmed to determine the regression coefficients of the
measured values, and for Τ = 20 C the law reads:

_ , 0.32 . 0.20 ,„„,

α = 0.380 ε ε (42)
vp vp

with
α in kg/mm2 (sic)

ε dimensionless
vp
-1
ε m s
vp
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