Phasors, Polarity, and Symmetrical Components out the system. The same general conditions also apply to phase-to-ground faults, except that since V, is zero, Vo and Vo are negative, In summary, the positive sequence voltage is always. highest at the generators or sources and lowest at a fault. In contrast, negative and zero sequence voltages are always highest at the fault and lowest at the “sources.” The phasor diagrams of Figure 2-20 illustrate the same phenomena, from a different viewpoint. In a three-phase fault, the voltages collapse syrimetrically, ‘except inside the generator. The three currents have ‘a large symmetrical increase and lagging shift of angle. ‘Other phase faults shown in Figure 2-20 are characterized by the relative collapse of two of the phase-to-neutral voltages, compared to the relatively 4 normal third phase-to-neutral voltage, Two of the phase currents have a large lagging increase, For a single-phase-to-ground fault, on the other hand, one phase-to-neutral voltage is collapsed relative to the other two phases. Similarly, one phase current hhas a large value and lags the line-to-ground voltage. With wye-delta transformers between the fault and measurement point, the positive sequence quantities shift 30° in one direction, and the negative sequence quantities shift 30° in the opposite direction. As a result, a phase-to-ground fault on the wye side of a bank has the appearance of a phase-to-phase fault on the delta side. Figures 2-47 and 2-48 offer a final look at sequence currents and voltages for faults, Note that the positive sequence currents and voltages, shown in the left-hand columns, have approximately the same phase relations w= [S+ att) ae a earl an ofa a we [ee fe? fad I © fadenfed® o |X A Sis va [yee [eee |e lat late | et ve [eat ee | we fat fate [P| TL oo] eof ace |e oa| tl, vw [ee fo de, ered [Nee ot fo Figure 2-47 Sequence currents for various faults. Assumes a=ha=k igure 2.48 Sequence voltages for various faults. Assomes ahah Ms Do _2T0Nasssn sans New ee New re 6 tha2 for all types of faults, At the fault are various nonsymmetrical currents and voltages, as shown in the far right-hand column, The negative and, some- times, the zero sequence quantities provide the transi- tion between the symmetrical left-hand column and nonsymmetrical right-hand column. These quantities rotate and change to produce the nonsymmetrical, or unbalanced, quantity when added to the positive sequence, These phasors can be constructed easily by remembering which fault quantity should be mini mum of maximum. In a phase e-a fault, for example, pphase-b current will be small. Thus, Is: will tend to be opposite Ini. Since phase-b voltage will be relatively uncollapsed, Vjy and Vio will tend to be in phase, After one sequence phasor is established, the others can be derived from Eq. (2-12) and Figure 2-21 6 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND. RELAYING Since ground relays operate from zero sequence quantities, all ground relay types use symmetrical components. A number of other protective relays use combinations of the sequence quantities, as summar- ized in Table 2-3, Chapter 2 A zero sequence (31p) current filter is obtained by connecting three current transformers in parallel, A. zero sequence (3V) voltage filter is provided by the \wye-grounded-broken-delta connection for a voltage transformer or an auxiliary. Positive and negative sequence current and voltage filters are described in Chapter 3, Table 2-3 Protective Relays Using Symmetrical Component Quantities for Their Operation Sequence quantities Device no Application used SON, SIN 1, Son Ground voltage Vo oN Ground directional Tp with Ip or Volo ‘overcurrent ory. 3N Ground product Bory Vo 2IN Ground distance 1s ¥o Ie, Vou Vi FV a Phase and ground pilot Kyl, +Ksl:+Koly 46 Phase unbalance voltage Vs 46 Phase unbalance current Is Blowa fuse detection Vp and not lo Bia Day _2T0Nasssn sans New ee New re 6 th3 Basic Relay Units Revised by: W. A. ELMORE 1 INTRODUCTION Protective relays for power systems are made up of one or more fault-detecting or decision units, along with any necessary logic networks and auxiliary units Because a number of these fault-detecting or decision units are used in a variety of relays, they are called basic units, Basic units fall into several categories: electromechanical units, sequence networks, solid-state units, integrated circuits, and microprocessor atchitec- ture. Combinations of units are then used to form basic logic circuits applicable to protective relays 2. ELECTROMECHANICAL UNITS types of electromechanical units are widely used: magnetic attraction, magnetic induction, D’Arsonval, and thermal units 2.1 Magnetic Attraction Units Three types of magnetic attraction units are in common use: plunger (solenoid), clapper, and polar. The plunger unit, shown in Figure 3-1, is typically used in SC, SV, and ITH relays; the clapper-type unit (Fig. 3-2) in SG, AR, ICS, IIT, and MG relays; and the polar-type unit (Fig. 3-3) in HCB, HU, and PM-type relays. 2.1.4 Plunger Units Plunger units have cylindrical coils with an external magnetic structure and a center plunger, When the “a current or voltage applied to the coil exceeds the pickup value, the plunger moves upward to operate a set of contacts. The force F which moves the plunger is proportional to the square of the current in the coil The plunger unit's operating characteristics are largely determined by the plunger shape, internal core, magnetic structure, coil design, and magnetic shunts. Plunger units are instantaneous in that no delay is purposely introduced. Typical operating times are 5 to 50 msec, with the longer times occurring neat the threshold values of pickup. The unit shown in Figure 3-1a is used as a high- dropout instantaneous overcurrent unit. The steel plunger floats in an air gap provided by a nonmag- netic ring in the center of the magnetic core, When the coil is energized, the plunger assembly moves upward, carrying a silver disk that bridges three stationary contacts (only two are shown). A helical spring absorbs the ac plunger vibrations, producing good contact action. The air gap provides a ratio of dropout to pickup of 90% or greater over a two-to: fone pickup range. The pickup range can be varied from a two-o-one to a four-to-one range by the adjusting core screw. When the pickup range is increased to four to one, the dropout ratio will decrease to approximately 45%. The more complex plunger unit shown in Figure 3-1b is used as an instantancous overcurrent or voltage unit, An adjustable flux shunt permits more precise settings over the nominal four-to-one pickup range. This unit is relatively independent of frequency, ‘operating on de, 25-Hz, or nominal 60-Hz frequency. Itis available in high- and low-dropout versions, Ms Do _2T0Nasssn sans New ee New re 6 th