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– Generating Signals
• Basic CW signal
• Block diagram
• Applications
– Analog Modulation
• Types of analog modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications
– Digital Modulation
• Overview of IQ modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications
What is a signal generator?
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 3
Generating Continuous Wave (CW) Signals
Voltage
Voltage
Time Frequency
RF Microwave Millimeter
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 4
Basic CW Signal Generator Block Diagram
Synthesizer Section Output Section
Frac-N
ALC Output
Modulator Attenuator
f
Phase
Detector VCO
ALC
divide Driver
by X
Reference ALC
Oscillator Detector
Reference Section ALC = automatic level control
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 5
Synthesizer Components: VCO
Input Tune
Voltage
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
Tuning Gain: V / Hz
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 6
Synthesizer Components: Phase-Locked Loop
Phase Loop
Detector Amp/Filter
Error Tune
Voltage Voltage
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 7
Key CW Signal Generator Specifications
Frequency, Amplitude, and Spectral Purity
Frequency – Frequency: range, resolution,
Power
Amplitude
Uncertainty
Frequency
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 8
Spectral Purity
CW output
0.5 f0 f0 2f0
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 9
Why Spurs and Harmonics Matter
Radar/Electronic Warfare
Example
False target/threat detection
& interference
Satellite Example
In channel receiver
interference degrades
sensitivity and range
Cellular Example
Out of channel interference
pollutes neighbors receiver
sensitivity & degrades range
and data rates
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 10
Why Phase Noise Matters
Phase Noise
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 11
Main Contributors to Phase Noise
Absolute SSB Phase Noise
at 10 GHz in dBc/Hz
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
Reference
-80
Oscillator
-90
-100
Noise PLL BW
-110
-120
Phase
-130
detector
-140 noise
-150 Broadband noise VCO noise
-160 floor, thermal
-170
1 10
noise of
100
source
1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M
f(Hz)
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 12
Oscillator / Clock Substitution
Antenna
Simplified Receiver Block Diagram
ADC FPGA
MXG DDS
Ref out
Ref In
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 13
Amplifier Gain Testing
Using a power sensor
Calibration
Amplifier Attenuator
U2000B USB
Power Sensor
Pin Pout
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log
𝑃𝑖𝑛
RF Fundaments
Part 3 Page 14
Agenda RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 15
Generating Signals
Basic CW signal
Block diagram
Applications
– Analog Modulation
• Types of analog modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications
– Digital Modulation
• Overview of IQ modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications
Modulation
...where the information resides
𝐴 𝑡 sin[2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + Φ]
AM, Pulse
FM, PM
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 16
Analog Modulation
Baseband
Signal
Amplitude
(AM)
Frequency
(FM)
Phase
(PM)
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 17
Amplitude Modulation
Important Characteristics
Carrier for Amplitude Modulation
Modulation
depth %, – Modulation frequency (rate)
dB – Depth of modulation (Mod Index)
– Distortion (%)
Voltage
Time
Modulation
frequency
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 18
Frequency Modulation
– Resolution
– Distortion (%)
Time – Sensitivity (dev/volt)
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 19
Phase Modulation
V(t) = A cos[2πfct + β2πFmt]
Where β =Δθ, the peak phase deviation
Important Characteristics
for Phase Modulation
– Phase deviation (Δθ)
Voltage
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 20
Generating Signals – Analog Modulation
Pulse Modulation
Pulse Repetition
Interval (PRI) Important Characteristics
Rise time for Pulse Modulation
T – Pulse width (t)
– PRF (1/T)
–
Voltage
t 2/t
Time
Pulse Width 1/T 1/t
Where are Pulse Modulated
signals used?
– Radar
Power
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 21
Analog Signal Generator Block Diagram
Add Internal Modulation Generator
ALC Output
Modulator Attenuator
VCO
Pulse
Mod.
Freq.
Control ALC
Driver
LF Generator
FM AM Pulse
Reference Source Source Source
Oscillator
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 22
Receiver Baseband Distortion
Receiver
In-channel signal
(modulated signal)
Required SG
Modulation Receiver
distortion
= Distortion % x 10-(margin(dB)/20)
Distortion
Level (dBm)
Frequency
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 23
Agenda RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 24
Generating Signals
Basic CW signal
Block diagram
Applications
Analog Modulation
Types of analog modulation
Block diagram
Applications
– Digital Modulation
• Overview of IQ modulation
• Block diagram
• Applications
Digital Modulation
Signal characteristics are modified discretely
Amplitude
(ASK)
Frequency
(FSK)
Phase
(PSK)
Both Amplitude
and Phase
(QAM)
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 25
Composite Modulation
Simultaneous Modulation of Two Modulation Types
Independent Amplitude and Integrated IQ Modulator
Phase Modulation
Q
I
Independent FM and
Pulse Modulation
Phase
0 deg Phase
0 deg
Magnitude Change Phase Change
0 deg
0 deg
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 27
Polar versus IQ Format
{
Q-Value
Phase 0 deg
I
{
I-
Value
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 28
Transmitting Digital Data: Bits vs Symbols
Binary Data bit = 0,1 Transmission Bandwidth Required
Transmitting Digital Bits (f1 = 0, f2 = 1 )
f1
f(t) = 2/ T
f2
T 010101010 Main lobe width is 2 × Sample rate
Symbol = Groups/blocks of Bits Symbol Rate = Bit rate
2 bits/symbol (00 01 10 11) # bits per symbol
3 bits/symbol (000 001 …..)
4 bits/symbol (0000 0001 ..)
Symbol 1 (00)
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 29
Digital Modulation Characteristics
Modulation Number of bits Transmission
Constellation
format per symbol bandwidth
Q
1 0
BPSK 1 I
F
01 Q 00
QPSK 2 I
11 10
F/2
Q 0000
16 QAM 4 I
F/4
– IQ Quadrature Skew
– IQ Gain Balance
Phase 0 deg flatness
I
Fb
w
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 31
IQ Modulator
IQ inputs to produce
Modulated Carrier
Q
01 00
I:
RF
90 degree Carrier
phase shifter π/2 synthesizer I
section
Q: 11 10
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 32
Vector Signal Generator Block Diagram
Adding an IQ modulator and baseband generator
I-Q Modulator Output
Synthesizer
90̊
VCO
Freq. ALC
Control Driver
Q Pattern
DAC RAM
I and
Symbol
Reference DAC Mapping
Baseband Generator
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 33
Baseband IQ Signal Generator
00 -> 1+j1
11000101101 01 -> -1+j1
01001011100 10 -> -1-j1
10101010
11 -> 1-j1
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 34
M9381A: A Closer Look
Combination of high
performance modules
create uncompromising
VSG performance in PXIe
•M9311A Digital Vector Modulator
•M9310A Source Output
•M9301A Synthesizer
•M9300A Reference
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 35
Digital Receiver Sensitivity
DUT
RF Baseband
DAC DSP
RF LO
Payload
Data
Amplitude
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 36
Receiver Selectivity
DUT
RF Baseband
RF LO
Out-of-channel interferer
Payload Data
IF Rejection Curve
Level (dBm)
Frequency
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 37
Measuring Component Distortion: ACPR
DUT
Margin (dB) 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 15
Error contribution (dB) 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.2 0.4 0.2
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 38
Measuring Component Distortion: EVM
DAC
Q Q
Magnitude Error
Q (IQ error mag)
Error
Vector
Test Magnitude
Signal I
I
Θ
Ideal (Reference) Signal
I
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 39
Agenda RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 40
Generating Signals
Basic CW signal
Block diagram
Applications
Analog Modulation
Types of analog modulation
Block diagram
Applications
Digital Modulation
Overview of IQ modulation
Block diagram
Applications
Thank You!
Additional Information
– More RF Webcasts:
www.keysight.com/find/RFDesignandTestWebcastSeries
RF Fundamentals
Part 3 Page 41